General Physics Lab Report

Study of magnetic hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials

November 14, 2023

NAME: Dhanush Rudraraju: 23134002

1. Introduction

The study of magnetic hysteresis in ferromagnetic materials is a crucial exploration in the

realm of materials science and physics. Ferromagnetic materials exhibit unique and fascinating
magnetic properties, characterized by the alignment of magnetic dipoles and the formation of
magnetic domains. Understanding the hysteresis phenomenon in these materials is essential
for a wide range of technological applications, from magnetic data storage devices to electric
transformers.
Magnetic hysteresis refers to the lagging behavior of a material’s magnetization in response
to changes in an external magnetic field. This phenomenon is particularly pronounced in ferro-
magnetic materials, where the alignment of magnetic domains plays a pivotal role. Investigating
magnetic hysteresis involves the careful examination of the relationship between the material’s
magnetization and the applied magnetic field, often resulting in the characteristic hysteresis
loop.
This experiment aims to delve into the intricacies of magnetic hysteresis in ferromagnetic
materials, employing various techniques and measurements to analyze the dynamic behavior
of magnetic domains. By subjecting the material to varying magnetic fields and observing the
resulting changes in magnetization, researchers can gain insights into the energy dissipation,
domain wall movement, and coercivity of the material.

2. Methods

Diamagnetism:

Diamagnetism is a phenomenon characterized by a very weak magnetic effect observed in

solids that lack permanent magnetic moments. This behavior is attributed to alterations in
the atomic orbital states caused by an externally applied magnetic field. While present in all
materials, diamagnetism is often overshadowed by more dominant effects like para- or ferro-
magnetism. In diamagnetic materials, the magnetization vector (M) exhibits a linear variation
1
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with the applied magnetic field vector (H), but in the opposite direction, resulting in a nega-
tive susceptibility (ξ ¡ 0). Notably, diamagnetism is temperature independent, distinguishing
it from other magnetic phenomena.

Paramagnetism:

Paramagnetism, like diamagnetism, is a relatively weak magnetic effect. However, in contrast

to diamagnetism, the magnetic moment associated with paramagnetism aligns itself along the
direction of the applied magnetic field. Certain atoms and ions, such as oxygen, air, and iron
salts, possess a permanent magnetic moment when unexposed to an external magnetic field. In
the absence of such a field, these magnetic moments are randomly oriented, leading to a lack
of macroscopic magnetization.
Upon the application of an external magnetic field, a non-zero macroscopic magnetic moment
(µ) emerges as all the magnetic moments align themselves along the direction of the applied
field. Initially, the magnetization M exhibits a linear relationship with the applied magnetic field
vector (H), reaching a saturation point at a value denoted as Ms, which represents the saturation
magnetization. At this saturation condition, the magnetic dipoles within the material are
completely aligned along the applied field direction.
However, once the external magnetic field is removed, thermal agitation within the mate-
rial is sufficient to disorient the atomic magnetic moments. Paramagnetic materials, therefore,
display a small, positive magnetic susceptibility (ξ) and are characterized by temperature de-
pendence.

Ferromagnetism:

Ferromagnetism is characterized by the presence of permanent magnetic dipoles within a

material, where the magnetic moments of adjacent atoms are aligned in a specific direction,
even in the absence of an external magnetic field. This phenomenon is referred to as spontaneous
magnetization. In a ferromagnetic material, numerous small regions known as domains exist,
each with its own spontaneous magnetization value of varying magnitude.
When an external magnetic field H is applied, these domains align themselves in the direction
of H, resulting in the development of a strong macroscopic magnetization M. The magnetic
susceptibility (ξ) for a ferromagnetic material is notably large and positive. One distinctive
feature of ferromagnetism is its temperature dependence, and it is observed to exist below a
specific temperature known as the Curie temperature (TC).
Examples of ferromagnetic materials include iron, cobalt, and nickel. These materials exhibit
the remarkable property of maintaining spontaneous magnetization and a strong response to
external magnetic fields, making them essential components in various applications, including
magnetic storage devices.
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Hysteresis:

The hysteresis loop, illustrated in Figure 1, depicts the relationship between magnetization
(M) or magnetic induction (B) and the applied magnetic field (H). This loop is a distinctive
characteristic of any ferromagnetic material. In the diagram, the dotted line reveals that as the
applied field increases, the magnetization within the domains grows along the so-called easy
direction of magnetization, eventually reaching a saturation value at BS. At this saturation
point, all the domains align themselves in the direction of the applied magnetic field.

Figure 1. Hysteresis Curve

Upon decreasing the applied field, the magnetic induction (B) does not follow the same path
and retains a non-zero value known as remanent induction (Br). This remanent induction can
be reduced to zero by subjecting the material to a reverse magnetic field, termed the coercive
magnetic field or coercivity (HC). The coercivity is the strength of the reverse magnetic field
needed to eliminate the remanent induction.
A similar variation is observed when the reverse field is varied, resulting in a closed loop in
the hysteresis diagram. This loop illustrates the hysteresis phenomenon, where the magnetic
response of the material lags behind the changes in the applied magnetic field. The hysteresis
loop is crucial in understanding the behavior of ferromagnetic materials in practical applica-
tions, particularly in the design of magnetic devices and systems.

Degaussing:
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Degaussing refers to the process of reducing or eliminating the remnant magnetic field present
in a ferromagnetic material, typically caused by hysteresis. Various methods are employed in
degaussing, and these aim to release the domain walls from their pinned state within the
material. The objective is to allow the domain boundaries to move back to a lower energy
configuration.
Some common methods of degaussing include annealing, hammering, and the application
of a rapidly oscillating magnetic field, as depicted in Figure 2. In annealing, the material is
subjected to controlled heating and cooling processes, promoting the reconfiguration of domain
boundaries to minimize the residual magnetization. Hammering involves physically tapping or
striking the material, disrupting the alignment of magnetic domains and reducing the overall
magnetization. The application of a rapidly oscillating magnetic field serves to shake the domain
walls loose from their pinned positions, facilitating the return to a lower energy state.
These degaussing methods are essential in various applications, such as in magnetic recording
devices and systems, where minimizing or eliminating residual magnetization is crucial for
accurate and reliable performance.

Figure 2. B(G) vs H(A/m) Degaussing curve[1]

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Figure 3. Set Up and circuit:(from left to right)

Coil to produce magnetic field H.
Reversing switch
Gauss meter
Power supply to provide current to the coil.

3. Results

After connecting the circuits as shown in the figure-2, current through the coil is increased
by 0.1A till 2A and then decreased to 0 and same in the negative direction by reversing the
switch and the magnetic induction B(Gauss) is measured for each current value as shown in
the table-1. The observations were taken till one complete cycle is completed. Afterwhich the
magnetic field through the coil is calculated using H = nI where n is the number of turns per
unit lenght of coil.
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B vs H graph is plotted as shown in the figure-4.

Figure 4. Plot b/w Magnetic Induction B(Gauss) and magnetic field H(A/m)

For Degaussing the current through the coil is taken to the maximum(2A) and then dropped
suddenly to 0 and same in the negative direction then by reducing the maximum current to
1.7A the same was done and this continued till the current 0 and observed that the remanent
magnetic field is 0.2G as shown in the table-2.
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4. Discussion

After measuring the magnetic field at each value of current throughout the cycle as discussed
in the previous section we can observe that the plot b/w B vs H as shown in the figure-4 is as
expected as in the figure-1. We can observe the remanent magnetic field in the figure-4 even
when the magnetic field applied is 0. And while deguassing after 10-12 cycles of rapidly varying
the magnetic field we can observe the remanent magnetic field is almost 0(0.2G). There is a
slight deviation in figure-4 compared to the expected one, this might be due small remanent field
present in the material before starting the experiment even after demagnetizing the material.
5. Precautions

1.Wear appropriate personal protective equipment, including safety glasses and gloves, to
protect against any potential hazards during the experiment.
2.Ensure that all electrical equipment used in the experiment is in good condition and properly
grounded to prevent electrical hazards.
3.Be cautious with power sources and avoid overloading circuits. Follow proper electrical safety
procedures.
4.Be aware of the strength of the magnetic field generated during the experiment. Keep sensi-
tive electronic devices and credit cards away from strong magnetic fields.
5.Use appropriate shielding to contain the magnetic field and prevent interference with nearby
equipment.
6.Calibrate all measuring instruments, such as gaussmeters and oscilloscopes, before the exper-
iment to ensure accurate and reliable data.
7.Set up the experiment in a controlled environment to minimize external influences on the
magnetic measurements. Keep the experimental area clean and organized.

6. References

[1]. Example anhysteretic curve Figure-4 from ”https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1556890”.

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Table 1. Obervations Hysteresis Loop of a ferromagnetic material

S.no Current I(A) H(A/m) B(Gauss) B(Tesla) S.no Current I(A) H(A/m) B(Gauss) B(Tesla)
0 0 0 0 0 52 -1.21 -3129.31 -3700 -0.37
1 0.1 258.621 210 0.021 53 -1.306 -3377.586 -3890 -0.389
2 0.198 512.069 500 0.05 54 -1.395 -3607.759 -4050 -0.405
3 0.3 775.862 706 0.0706 55 -1.435 -3711.207 -4120 -0.412
4 0.4 1034.483 1091 0.1091 56 -1.5 -3879.31 -4230 -0.423
5 0.501 1295.69 1462 0.1462 57 -1.604 -4148.276 -4400 -0.44
6 0.598 1546.552 1912 0.1912 58 -1.699 -4393.966 -4540 -0.454
7 0.7 1810.345 2180 0.218 59 -1.804 -4665.517 -4690 -0.469
8 0.8 2068.966 2400 0.24 60 -1.918 -4960.345 -4840 -0.484
9 0.898 2322.414 2770 0.277 61 -1.995 -5159.483 -4940 -0.494
10 0.999 2583.621 2970 0.297 62 -1.888 -4882.759 -4860 -0.486
11 1.099 2842.241 3110 0.311 63 -1.802 -4660.345 -4790 -0.479
12 1.205 3116.379 3330 0.333 64 -1.701 -4399.138 -4710 -0.471
13 1.305 3375 3520 0.352 65 -1.596 -4127.586 -4610 -0.461
14 1.402 3625.862 3730 0.373 66 -1.506 -3894.828 -4520 -0.452
15 1.497 3871.552 3860 0.386 67 -1.401 -3623.276 -4400 -0.44
16 1.608 4158.621 4070 0.407 68 -1.298 -3356.897 -4280 -0.428
17 1.698 4391.379 4220 0.422 69 -1.181 -3054.31 -4140 -0.414
18 1.797 4647.414 4310 0.431 70 -1.1 -2844.828 -4030 -0.403
19 1.897 4906.034 4470 0.447 71 -0.995 -2573.276 -3870 -0.387
20 1.997 5164.655 4620 0.462 72 -0.9 -2327.586 -3720 -0.372
21 1.902 4918.966 4550 0.455 73 -0.804 -2079.31 -3540 -0.354
22 1.797 4647.414 4460 0.446 74 -0.698 -1805.172 -3340 -0.334
23 1.698 4391.379 4370 0.437 75 -0.602 -1556.897 -3130 -0.313
24 1.6 4137.931 4280 0.428 76 -0.488 -1262.069 -2860 -0.286
25 1.505 3892.241 4190 0.419 77 -0.4 -1034.483 -2610 -0.261
26 1.399 3618.103 4070 0.407 78 -0.306 -791.379 -2310 -0.231
27 1.3 3362.069 3960 0.396 79 -0.207 -535.345 -1949 -0.1949
28 1.196 3093.103 3820 0.382 80 -0.095 -245.69 -1437 -0.1437
29 1.104 2855.172 3690 0.369 81 0 0 -956 -0.0956
30 0.999 2583.621 3540 0.354 82 0.117 302.586 -290 -0.029
31 0.898 2322.414 3370 0.337 83 0.2 517.241 87 0.0087
32 0.797 2061.207 3190 0.319 84 0.297 768.103 462 0.0462
33 0.701 1812.931 3010 0.301 85 0.398 1029.31 926 0.0926
34 0.6 1551.724 2790 0.279 86 0.495 1280.172 1349 0.1349
35 0.499 1290.517 2550 0.255 87 0.602 1556.897 1763 0.1763
36 0.397 1026.724 2270 0.227 88 0.705 1823.276 2120 0.212
37 0.303 783.621 1970 0.197 89 0.806 2084.483 2440 0.244
38 0.203 525 1580 0.158 90 0.912 2358.621 2730 0.273
39 0.096 248.276 1110 0.111 91 1.014 2622.414 2990 0.299
40 0 0 634 0.0634 92 1.1 2844.828 3190 0.319
41 -0.102 -263.793 -226 -0.0226 93 1.221 3157.759 3430 0.343
42 -0.194 -501.724 -362 -0.0362 94 1.297 3354.31 3580 0.358
43 -0.296 -765.517 -869 -0.0869 95 1.402 3625.862 3770 0.377
44 -0.404 -1044.828 -1234 -0.1234 96 1.507 3897.414 3940 0.394
45 -0.512 -1324.138 -1709 -0.1709 97 1.617 4181.897 4110 0.411
46 -0.602 -1556.897 -2030 -0.203 98 1.697 4388.793 4230 0.423
47 -0.704 -1820.69 -2390 -0.239 99 1.801 4657.759 4370 0.437
48 -0.797 -2061.207 -2690 -0.269 100 1.91 4939.655 4520 0.452
49 -0.904 -2337.931 -2990 -0.299 101 1.992 5151.724 4630 0.463
50 -0.998 -2581.034 -3230 -0.323
51 -1.104 -2855.172 -3500 -0.35
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Table 2. Observations for Degaussing

Current I(A) H(A/m) B(Gauss) Br( at I = 0)
1.992 5151.724137931034 4630 642
-1.807 -4673.2758 -4710 -948
1.632 4220.6896 4140 627
-1.405 -3633.6206 -4100 -916
1.204 3113.7931 3420 581
-1.013 -2619.8275 -3340 -856
0.897 2319.8275 2750 518
-0.795 -2056.03448 -2780 -792
0.704 1820.6896 2215 446
-0.612 -1582.7586 -2230 -700
0.521 1347.4137 1631 338
-0.496 -1282.7586 -1843 -625
0.399 1031.8965 1196 267
-0.302 -781.03448 -1086 -414
0.317 819.8275 855 152
-0.22 -568.9655 -733 -296
0.098 253.4482 125 -0.02
0 0 -0.02 -0.02