Applied Physics (R-20)

UNIT-2

Part B : Magnetics

Syllabus:
Introduction to Magnetics-Magnetic dipole moment-Magnetization-Magnetic susceptibility and
permeability- Origin of permanent magnetic moment -Classification of Magnetic materials-Weiss theory
of ferromagnetism (qualitative)-Hysteresis-soft and hard magnetic materials-Ferrites-Magnetic device
applications (transformer core and hard disc).

Magnetic dipoles:
All magnetic phenomenon are due to electric charges in motion. At atomic scale, tiny currents due
to electrons orbiting around the nuclei and the electrons spinning about their axes are treated as
magnetic dipoles. These dipoles cancel each other because of random orientation of atoms. But
when magnetic field is applied these dipoles either orient in the field direction or opposite to the
field direction magnetizing the material. This is called magnetic polarization or magnetization.
Magnetic dipole moment:
The torque applied on a current loop in magnetic field is

𝜏 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Or ̅ × 𝐵̅ where m =I A is called magnetic dipole moment.

𝜏=𝑚
Units: A-m2
̅ ):
Magnetic Flux density (𝑩
The number of magnetic flux lines passing normally through unit area is called flux density B.
∅
̅=
𝑩 𝑨

Units: weber/m2
̅) :
Magnetizing field (𝑯
The magnetic field that magnetizes a material is called magnetizing field. Its units are A/m
̅ ):
Magnetization vector (𝑴
The magnetic dipole moment per unit volume is called magnetization vector.
̅
𝑚
̅=
𝑀 Units: A/ m
𝑉

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

Magnetic Susceptibility:

It is defined as magnetization produced in the material per unit applied magnetic field.

M
=
H
It is the measure of ease with which the material can be magnetized.

Magnetic Permeability:
It is defined as ratio of magnetic induction B to the magnetizing field H.

B
=
H
It is a measure of the degree of which the field lines permeate the material.

Paramagnetic materials:

In Paramagnetic materials, atoms possess permanent magnetic dipole moment but these dipoles do not
interact among themselves. When external magnetic field is applied, these permanent dipoles align parallel
to the field and feebly magnetized. Paramagnetic susceptibility is positive and greatly depends on
temperature. Relative permeability is slightly greater than one.

Eg. Alkali metals, Transition metals, Rare earths.

Diamagnetic materials:

These materials are feebly magnetized opposite to field direction when placed in external magnetic field.
Permanent dipoles are absent. Diamagnetism is found in the substances whose atoms have even number of
electrons which form pairs. Magnetic moment of one electron is cancelled by the other due to opposite spin.
So the net magnetic moment of an atom of diamagnetic substance is zero. The Magnetic susceptibility is
small and negative. Susceptibility is independent of applied field strength and temperature. Relative
permeability is less than one.

Eg. Cu, Zn, Bi, Ag, Au, H2O etc. Superconducting materials are diamagnetic in nature.

Ferromagnetic materials:

Ferromagnetic materials are strongly magnetized in the field direction when subjected to external
magnetic field. It consists of a number of regions or domains which are spontaneously magnetized due to
special form of interaction called exchange coupling. When external field is applied the volume of domains
that are favourably oriented with respect to magnetizing field increases at the cost of those unfavourably
oriented.

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

Relative permeability is much greater than unity.They have high susceptibility value which is independent
of magnetizing field. Beyond Curie temperature Tc they turn into paramagnetic.

Eg. Fe, Co, Ni, AlNiCo

Hysteresis loop:

These materials exhibit hysteresis loop. When a ferromagnetic material is subjected to

increasing or decreasing magnetic fields, the magnetic field induction B varies as a function of H
along a closed loop called hysteresis loop. The curve begins at O. As H increases the field B
increases slowly, then more rapidly and finally attaining saturation value and becoming
independent of H. The maximum value of B is saturation flux density Bs and the corresponding
magnetization is the saturation magnetization Ms. If H is now decreased, B also decreases but
following the path AC instead of original path AO. Thus B lags behind H. When H becomes zero
B does not become zero but has a value equal to OC(Br).This magnetic flux density remaining in
the materials is called residual magnetism. It indicates that the material remains magnetized even
in absence of external field H. The power of retaining magnetism is called retentivity or remanance
3

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

of the material. If H is now increased in reverse direction B decreases along the path CD. B
becomes zero when H attains a value equal to OD. To reduce magnetic induction within the
material to zero a field of magnitude Hc must be applied opposite to original magnetizing field.
Hc is called coercivity. On reversing the variation of field H, the curve follows the path EFGA.
The closed curve ACDEFGA is called hysteresis loop.

Differences between para, dia and ferromagnetic materials.

S.No Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic

1 Strongly attracted Feeble attraction towards Feeble repulsion from the

towards magnetic field. magnetic field. magnetic field.

2 Field lines are More number of field lines Less number of field lines
concentrated in the pass through the material than pass through the material
material. outside. than outside.

3 Set along the direction Tend to align along the Tend to align perpendicular
of the magnetic field. magnetic field direction. to the magnetic field
direction.

4 Susceptibility, χ is large Susceptibility, χ is less than 1 Susceptibility, χ is small

and positive. but positive. but negative.

5 Relative permeability, µr Relative permeability, µr is Relative permeability, µr

is greater than unity. slightly greater than unity. is less than unity.

6 Susceptibility, χ Obey’s Curie law, χ = 1/T Susceptibility, χ is

decreases with independent of
temperature. temperature.

7 Have definite Curie No Curie point. No Curie point.

point above which they
become paramagnetic.

8 Exhibit phenomenon of Hysteresis is not exhibited. Hysteresis is not exhibited.

Hysteresis.

9 Possess retentivity. No retentivity. No retentivity.

10 Ex: Iron, cobalt, nickle Ex: Platinum, Chromium, Ex: Bismuth, mercury,
Aluminium etc. silver, copper, water etc.

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

Ferrites (Ferrimagnetic materials)

In these materials the net magnetization of magnetic sublattices is not zero since antiparallel moments are
of different magnitudes. Above a particular temperature called curie temperature Tc thermal energy
randomizes the individual magnetic moments and the material becomes paramagnetic.

Ferrites consist chiefly of ferric oxide Fe2O3 , combined with one or more oxides of divalent metals . They
are represented by the general formula MFe2O4 (or) MOFe2O3 in which M represents any metallic elements
such as Fe2+, Co2+, Mn2+, Zn2+, Cd2+, Mg2+ etc.

Eg. Fe2+Fe2O4 (Magnetite), Zn2+Fe2O4 (Zinc Ferrite), Ni2+Fe2O4 (Nickel Ferrite)

Composite ferrites which are solid solutions of one simple ferrite in another shows best magnetic properties.
Ferrites exhibit hysteresis loop. They are polycrystalline samples and the coercivity , retentivity and
permeability depend on grain size.

Ferrites have high resistivity ranging from 102 to 1010 Ohm-m

Applications :

1) As the eddy current losses is much less severe in ferrites they can be used in transformer cores for
frequencies upto microwaves.
2) They are used in radio receivers.
3) They are used in digital data storage devices.
Soft magnetic materials:
Magnetic materials, which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are known as soft magnetic
materials. They are characterized by thin hysteresis loop. A soft magnetic material should have a
high initial permeability and a low coercivity. In view of these properties, the material reaches its
saturation magnetization with a relatively low applied field, and exhibits low hysteresis energy
losses. This becomes an important consideration when the material is used in alternating current
applications, since the area of hysteresis loop represents the energy lost as heat during a cycle. The
smaller the area, the lower are the power losses and the greater the possibility of using the material
at higher frequencies.

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

Hard Magnetic Materials :

Hard magnetic materials are those, which have a high resistance to demagnetization. A
high remanence, high permeability, a high coercive field and a large hysteresis loop characterize
the hard magnetic materials. The hard magnetic materials are magnetized in a magnetic field strong
enough to orient the magnetic moments of their domains in the direction of the applied field. Part
of the energy of the applied field is converted into potential energy, which is stored in the
permanent magnet produced. A permanent magnet in the fully magnetized condition is thus in a
relatively high-energy state as compared to a demagnetized state. The power or external energy of
a hard magnetic material is directly related to the size of its hysteresis loop. The magnetic potential
energy of a hard material is measured by its maximum energy product (BH)max.

Magnetic Device Applications:

1. Transformer core

The core makes up the bulk of a transformer. A magnetic core is a piece of magnetic
material with a high permeability used to confine and guide magnetic fields in electrical
devices. It is usually made of ferromagnetic metal such as iron, or ferrimagnetic
compounds such as ferrites. The high permeability, relative to the surrounding air, causes
the magnetic field lines to be concentrated in the core material. The presence of the core
can increase the magnetic field of a coil by a factor of several thousand over what it would
be without the core. A range of cores exist, such as steel laminated, solid, toroidal, pot and
planar cores.

CSE-2(20-21)
 Applied Physics (R-20)

Steel Laminated core Toroidal core Pot Core Planar core

Steel laminated cores have high level of permeability and are used for transmitting voltage at the
audio frequency level. Solid cores, particularly the powdered iron cores used in circuits, have high
magnetic permeability as well as electrical resistance. For high frequencies such as beyond the
VHF (very high frequency) band, powdered iron is replaced by ferrites. A range of materials are
available for use in toroidal cores, including steel, coiled permalloys, powdered iron, or ferrites.
Pot shaped core has a shielding effect which reduces electromagnetic interference. A planar core
consists of two flat pieces of magnetic material, one above and one below the coil. It is typically
used with a flat coil that is part of a printed circuit board.

2. Hard disks:

A magnetic disk is a flat circular plate called platter which has a surface coated with
magnetic iron oxide particles. A hard disk is one or more platters and their associated read write
heads. The platters rotate at a speed of 3600 rpm. Information is recorded in the form of bands.
Each band of information is called track. The tracks are divided into sectors. The tracks and sectors
are created when the hard disk is first formatted before use. The drive spins the disk and a thin
layer of air rotates along with the disk. The head riding on this cushion of air writes or reads the
tracks. The storage capacity can be increased by mounting several disks on common drive unit.
Hard disks of size 80 to 250GB have become common in personal computers.

CSE-2(20-21)