In Phonology

In phonology, neutralization refers to a process where phonemic distinctions
between sounds are lost in specific linguistic environments, typically resulting in

the merger or neutralization of phonemes. This phenomenon occurs when two
phonemes that are distinct in certain contexts become indistinguishable in other
contexts. It was proposed by Prague School linguistics. Neutralization is a common
phonological process and can be observed in various languages.For an
example:there are two phonemes, /p/ and /b/, which are distinct in most
environments. However, in a specific linguistic context, let's say at the end of a
word, these two phonemes become neutralized, and speakers pronounce both
instances as [p]. In this case, the neutralization process eliminates the phonemic
contrast between /p/ and /b/ in word-final positions.
Types of neutralization
Complete neutralization in English phonology refers to a phenomenon where two

distinct phonemes become indistinguishable in a specific phonetic context. Here
are a couple of examples:
Flapping in American English:
/t/ and /d/ are normally distinct phonemes in English. However, in American
English, when /t/ or /d/ occur between vowels and after a stressed syllable, they
can undergo complete neutralization. Examples:
"butter" /ˈbʌtər/: The 't' in "butter" is pronounced as a tap [ɾ] (similar to a quick 'd'
sound) due to flapping.
Partial neutralization
Partial neutralization in English phonology refers to situations where a phonemic

contrast is maintained in some environments but neutralized or reduced in others.
Here are a few examples:
Flapping of /t/ and /d:/
In American English, the contrast between /t/ and /d/ is neutralized in certain
environments. For example, in words like "butter" or "water," the /t/ sound is often
pronounced as a tap [ɾ] rather than a clear /t/ or /d/. The neutralization occurs in
intervocalic positions, but the contrast is maintained in other environments.
Overlapping and neutralization

In English phonology, the term "overlapping" refers to a phenomenon where two
distinct sounds exhibit similar or identical phonetic features, particularly in specific
linguistic contexts. This can result in the sounds sounding alike or even merging in
certain environments, although they remain distinct in other linguistic contexts.
Overlapping is often a consequence of phonetic assimilation, where the
pronunciation of one sound is influenced by the characteristics of a neighboring
sound, making the transition between them more seamless during speech
production. This concept underscores the dynamic nature of spoken language,
where the pronunciation of sounds can vary based on their surrounding linguistic
environment. In casual speech, the /t/ sound in words like "butter" may overlap
with a glottal stop, making it sound like "budder."
Assimilation and neutralization
Assimilation is a phonological process in which a sound becomes more similar to a

neighboring sound in terms of one or more phonetic features. This can happen
within a word or between words in connected speech. There are different types of
assimilation, and here are a few examples:
Place of Articulation Assimilation:
Example: In the phrase "handbag," the [n] sound in "hand" is pronounced with a
velar articulation before the velar [b] sound in "bag," resulting in nasal
assimilation.
Voicing Assimilation:
Example: In the word "dogs," the final [z] sound is assimilated to the voiceless [s]
sound due to the voiceless [s] sound following it. The [z] becomes voiceless and
sounds like [s.]
Nasal Assimilation:
Example: In the phrase "incredible person," the [n] sound in "in" becomes [ŋ]
before the velar [k] sound in "credible" due to nasal assimilation. Regressive
(Right-to-Left) and Progressive (Left-to-Right) Assimilation:
Regressive Example: In the word "impossible," the [m] sound assimilates to the [p]
sound that follows it, both being bilabial.
Progressive Example: In the word "bedtime," the [d] sound assimilates to the [t]
sound that follows it, both being alveolar.
Consonant Cluster Assimilation:
Example: In the word "sixth," the [ks] cluster assimilates in place of articulation,
with the [k] becoming postalveolar due to the following [θ] sound.
Assimilation is a common phenomenon in connected speech, contributing to the

smooth and efficient flow of spoken language. It helps to simplify pronunciation
and make speech more natural and fluent. Keep in mind that assimilation can vary
across dialects and individual speech patterns.
Opposition
Phonological opposition, also known as phonemic contrast or phonological

contrast, refers to the distinction between two sounds in a particular language that
can result in different meanings. In English, there are numerous examples of
phonological oppositions. Here are some common ones:
Voicing:
/b/ as in "bat" vs. /p/ as in "pat"
/d/ as in "dog" vs. /t/ as in "top"
/g/ as in "go" vs. /k/ as in "cat"
In each pair, one sound is voiced (vocal cords vibrate) while the other is voiceless
(vocal cords do not vibrate).
Types of Opposition
Bilateral Opposition:
Bilateral opposition involves a contrast between two sounds or phonemes. This can
occur in various phonological features such as voicing, place of articulation,
manner of articulation, etc.
Example - Place of Articulation:
/d/ as in "dog" vs. /t/ as in "top"
The only difference here is the place of articulation, creating a bilateral opposition
in terms of place.
Multilateral Opposition:
Multilateral opposition involves a contrast between more than two sounds or
phonemes. This occurs when there are multiple phonemes exhibiting variations in
a particular phonological feature.
Example - Manner of Articulation:
/p/ as in "pat," /t/ as in "top," and /k/ as in "cat"
Here, there is a multilateral opposition based on manner of articulation, as the

sounds vary in terms of being stops.
In English, both bilateral and multilateral oppositions play a crucial role in

distinguishing between different words. They contribute to the phonemic inventory
of the language and are essential for conveying meaning. The study of these
oppositions falls within the domain of phonology, which examines the systematic
organization of sounds in a language.
Proportional vs. isolated: When we talk about sounds like /f/ and /v/ in English,
their relationship is proportional because there are other similar pairs in the
language, like /s/ and /z/. On the other hand, the contrast between sounds like /v/
and /l/ is isolated. This means there are no other sounds in English that are
compared in the same way, such as the difference between a voiced labio-dental
fricative and a voiced lateral sound. For example, the English // sound is "clear" at
the beginning and "dark" at the end, as in the word "ball".
(C) Privative, gradual, and equipollent: In a privative opposition, there's a clear

binary difference between two sounds, where one has a certain feature and the
other lacks it. An example is the /p/ vs. /b/ contrast in English, like in "work" and
"worked." Gradual opposition involves recognizing degrees of difference along a
scale, like the four front vowels /i/, /e/, //, and /‫و‬/ in some languages. Equipollent
opposition, according to Trubetskoy, sees members as logically equal without a
gradual or binary distinction. For instance, the difference between /p/ and /k/ can't
be explained as a single continuum, and /p/ isn't simply 'non-velar' while /k/ isn't
just 'non-bilabial,' as seen in words like "am" and "is" (Larss, 1984).
Archiphoneme
Many language experts in the Prague school believed that comparing the sound /p/
in French to the sound /p/ in English didn't make sense. They thought that
phonemes need to be understood in relation to each other. If there's a situation
where only one sound is possible, it's not a true phoneme. For example, before the
sound /t/ in English, the only nasal sound possible is /n/, not /n/ or /m/. There are
no words like */Kimt/ or */pant/. So, we can't be sure if the sound is /n/, /m/, or
something else, only that it's nasal. The Prague school linguists came up with the
idea of an archiphoneme, a sound that doesn't have all its details.
Archiphoneme and Trubetzkoy's idea of neutralization:
Neutralization forms are crucial in Prague School phonology. N.A. Trubetzkoy

developed this idea further by saying that a segment can appear in different
positions. However, in certain positions, only one sound can appear, and in other
positions, either sound can appear. In a position of neutralization, Trubetzkoy
suggested that it's not exactly either phoneme that occurs, but something he called
an Archiphoneme. An archiphoneme represents the common features of two or
more phonemes and appears in neutralization positions.
There are different ways to deal with neutralization, and one way is to use the
concept of archiphoneme, as suggested by Prague School phonologists. An
archiphoneme is a unit expressing the common features of two or more phonemes
involved in neutralization. It is represented by capital letters. For example, the
difference between /t/ and /d/ is neutralized in word-final position in German.
Using the archiphoneme concept, the final sounds of words like "Rad" and "Rat"
would be transcribed with the symbol /T/ in the final position. This symbol
represents an alveolar plosive archiphoneme that is unspecified for voicing.

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In Phonology

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In phonology, neutralization refers to a process where phonemic distinctions

between sounds are lost in specific linguistic environments, typically resulting in

Complete neutralization in English phonology refers to a phenomenon where two

Flapping in American English:

Partial neutralization in English phonology refers to situations where a phonemic

Flapping of /t/ and /d:/

Overlapping and neutralization

Assimilation and neutralization

Assimilation is a phonological process in which a sound becomes more similar to a

Place of Articulation Assimilation:

Assimilation is a common phenomenon in connected speech, contributing to the

Phonological opposition, also known as phonemic contrast or phonological

/b/ as in "bat" vs. /p/ as in "pat"

/d/ as in "dog" vs. /t/ as in "top"

/g/ as in "go" vs. /k/ as in "cat"

Example - Place of Articulation:

/d/ as in "dog" vs. /t/ as in "top"

Example - Manner of Articulation:

/p/ as in "pat," /t/ as in "top," and /k/ as in "cat"

Here, there is a multilateral opposition based on manner of articulation, as the

In English, both bilateral and multilateral oppositions play a crucial role in

(C) Privative, gradual, and equipollent: In a privative opposition, there's a clear

Archiphoneme and Trubetzkoy's idea of neutralization:

Neutralization forms are crucial in Prague School phonology. N.A. Trubetzkoy

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