PHYSICS

Class 9th KPK

Chapter # 8
Thermal Properites of Matter

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Chapter # 8

Chapter # 08
Thermal Properties of matter
Comprehensive Questions

Q1: Explain the term internal energy and temperature. Use kinetic theory to distinguish
between heat, internal energy and temperature.
Ans: Internal Energy:
Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies associated with the motion
of the atoms of the substance.
Explanation:
When we touch a hot body, internal energy flows in the form of heat into our body, so it
appears to be hot. On the other hand, when we touch a cold object internal energy flows as heat
from our body into the cold object, so it appears to be cold.
Temperature:
The measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body with respect to some standard
is called temperature.
Or
The temperature can also be defined as: “The average kinetic energy of molecules of a
body.”
Explanation:
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. The kinetic energy
may be in the form of translational, vibrational and rotational kinetic energy. As atoms or
molecules of the material are in constant motion, at high temperature the kinetic energy of
molecules is more and at lower temperatures, it is less. Temperature also affects the physical states
(shape, size) of material. For example, water at low temperature is ice (a solid), at a high
temperature it is water (a liquid) and still at higher temperature it is steam (a gas).

Distinguishing Temperature, Heat & Internal Energy:

Using the kinetic theory, we make a clear distinction between temperature, heat and
internal energy. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual molecules.
Internal energy refers to the total energy of all the molecules within the object. Thus two equal
mass hot ingots of iron may have the same temperature, but two of them have twice as much
internal energy as one does. Heat, finally, refers to a transfer of energy from one object to another
because of a difference in temperature.

Q2: How do we measure temperature? Explain liquid in glass thermometer.

Ans: Measurement of temperature:
Temperature could be measured in a simple way by using our hand to sense the hotness or
coldness of an object. However, the range of temperatures that our hand can bear is very small and
our hand is not precise enough to measure temperature correctly. The branch of physics which
deals with the measurements of temperature is called thermometry. For scientific work, we need
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Chapter # 8

some reliable device or instrument to measure temperature accurately. Such an instrument is called
thermometer.
Liquid in glass thermometer:
The liquid in glass thermometer utilizes the variation in volume of a liquid in temperature.
Construction or working:
The fluid is contained in a sealed glass bulb, and its expansion is measured using a
scale etched in the stem of the thermometer. The thermometer utilizes the variation of length of
liquid with temperature. In this type the liquid in a glass bulb expands up a capillary tube when
the bulb is heated. The liquid must be easily seen and must expand (or contract) rapidly and by a
large amount over a wide range of temperature. The tube has a constriction just beyond the bulb.
When the thermometer is removed, the liquid in the bulb cools and contracts breaking the liquid
(mercury) thread at the constriction. The liquid beyond the constriction stays in the tube and shows
the temperature. It must not stick to the inside of the tube. Liquids commonly used include mercury
and alcohol.

Q3: What are various temperature scales. Derive mathematical expressions to convert
between various scales of temperature.
Ans: Temperature Scales:
The scale which is made for the measurement of temperature is called temperature
scale or thermometric scale. The scale comprises of two reference points, called fixed points. There
are freezing point (ice point) and boiling point (steam point). The interval between these point is
divided arbitrarily into equal divisions. There are three scales of temperature which are the
following.
1. Centigrade or Celsius scale.
2. Fahrenheit scale.
3. Kelvin or absolute scale.
1. Centigrade or Celsius scale:
i. This scale was introduced by a Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius.
ii. It is denoted by ‘oC’.
iii. Its ice point is marked as 0oC.
iv. Its steam point is marked as 100oC.
v. The interval between ice point and steam point is divided into 100 equal parts (divisions).
vi. Each part is called degree centigrade.

2. Fahrenheit Scale:
i. This scale was introduced by German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.
ii. It is denoted by oF.
iii. Its ice point is marked as 32oF.
iv. Its steam point is marked as 212oF.
v. The interval between ice point and steam point is divided into 180 equal parts (divisions).
vi. Each part (division) is called degree Fahrenheit.
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Chapter # 8

3. Kelvin or absolute scale:

i. This scale was introduced by William Thomson, (Lord Kelvin). He named this scale as
absolute scale.
ii. It is denoted by K.
iii. Its ice point is marked as 273 K.
iv. Its steam point is marked as 373 K.
v. The interval between ice point and steam point is divided into 100 equal parts.
vi. The lowest temperature at which the molecular movement of matter ceases is called Kelvin
zero or absolute zero. Its magnitude on the Celsius scale is -273 oC or (0K).
vii. Kelvin is the S.I unit of temperature.

Relationship Between Different Scales of temperature

A Temperature measured on one scale sometimes, needs conversion to another scale. A
general relation for the conversion of temperature from one scale to the other is
𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝 𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 − 𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
=
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏/𝑤 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑏/𝑤𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

A. Conversion between centigrade and Fahrenheit scale:

Using the general relation, we have
T℃ −0 𝑇℉ −32
=
100 180
T℃ 𝑇℉ −32
=
100 180
T℃ −32
T℃ = 100 x [ ]
180
100
T℃ = 180 (𝑇℉ – 32)
10
T℃ = 18 (𝑇℉ – 32 )
𝟓
𝐓℃ = 𝟗 (𝑻℉ – 32 )
Or
5
T℃ = 9 (𝑇℉ – 32 )
9
T℃ = 𝑇℉ – 32
5
9
T℃ + 32 =𝑇℉
5
𝟗
Or 𝐓℉ = 𝟓 𝐓℃ + 32

B. Conversion between centigrade and Kelvin scale:

Using the general relation, we have
T℃ −0 𝑇𝐾 −273
=
100 100
T℃ 𝑇𝐾 −273
=
100 100
𝐓℃ = TK – 273
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Chapter # 8

Or
T℃ = TK – 273
T℃ + 273 = TK
TK = 𝐓℃ + 273

Q4: What is meant by linear thermal expansion and volume thermal expansion of solids?
Ans: Linear Thermal Expansion of Solids:
Definition:
The increase in length of a substance due to rise in temperature is called linear thermal
expansion.
Mathematical Derivation:
Consider a metal rod having an original length “lo”
at temperature “To”. After heating metal rod to temperature
“T”, the rod expands to its new length “lT”. This means for
the change in temperature ΔT (where ΔT = T – To) there is
corresponding change in length Δl (where Δl = lT – lo).

The change in length Δl of almost all solids is

directly proportional to the change in temperature ΔT as long as is not too large. This means by
changing temperature the length also changes, more the change in temperature more is the change
in length and vice versa.
Δl ∝ ΔT………(i)
The change in length Δl is also directly proportional to original length lo of the object.
i.e. Δ l ∝ lo …..(ii)
Combining eq (i) and eq (ii), we get
Δl ∝ lo ΔT
Changing proportionality into equality.
Δl = 𝜶 lo Δ T …..(iii)
Were “𝛼” the proportionality constant is called the coef ficient of linear thermal expansion for the
particular material.
Since Δl = lT - lo , we can write eq(iii) as
lT – lo = 𝛼 lo ΔT
lT = lo + 𝛼 lo ΔT
Taking lo common
lT = lo (1+ 𝜶 ΔT)
If the temperature change ΔT = T – To is negative, then Δl = lT – lo is also negative; the length
shortens as the temperature decreases.
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion:
From eq(iii), we can define coefficient of linear thermal expansion “𝛼” of a substance as
the increase in length per unit length of the solid per Kelvin “K” rise in temperature
𝚫𝐥
𝜶=𝒍
𝒐 𝚫𝐓
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Chapter # 8

In simple words, 𝛼 is numerically the increase in 1m long wire for 1 degree rise of temperature.
The value of 𝛼 depends upon the nature of material and is different for different materials.
Unit:
The coefficient of linear thermal expansion has units of oC-1 and in SI as K-1.

Volume (cubical) Thermal Expansion of Solids:

Definition:
The increase in volume of a substance due to rise in temperature is called volume thermal
expansion.
Explanation:
Consider a metal block having an original volume “Vo” at
temperature “To”. After heating metal block to temperature “T”, the
block expands to its new volume “VT”. This means for the change
in temperature ΔT (where ΔT = T – To), there is corresponding
change in volume ΔV (where ΔV = VT – Vo).
The increase in volume of a metal block on heating is
directly proportional to original volume of the metal block and rise
in temperature. Mathematically,
ΔV∝ΔT …..(i)
and ΔV ∝ Vo …..(ii)
combining eq(i) & eq(ii), we get
ΔV ∝ Vo ΔT
Changing proportionality in equality
ΔV = γ Vo ΔT …….(iii)
Where “γ” is the proportionally constant is called the coefficient of volume thermal expansion for
the particular material.
Since ΔV = VT – Vo we can write eq(iii) as
VT – Vo = γ Vo ΔT
VT = Vo + γ VoΔT
Taking Vo common
VT = Vo (1 + γ Δ T) …..(iv)
Eq (iv) represents the final volume of the object after expansion.

Coefficient of volume thermal expansion:

From eq(iii), we can define coefficient of volume thermal expansion (γ) of a substance as
the change in volume per unit volume per Kelvin change in temperature.
𝚫𝐕
γ=𝑽
𝒐 𝚫𝐓
The volume of γ depends upon the nature of material and is different for different materials.
Unit:
The coefficient of volume thermal expansion has unit of oC-1 and in SI as K-1.
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Chapter # 8

This is general rule for solids that they expand to the same extent in three directions. It can
be proved that all the coefficient of volume thermal expansion of solids γ is about three times the
coefficient of linear thermal expansion ‘α’ of solids i.e.
γ=3α
so, eq 3 becomes
ΔV = 3 α Vo ΔT

Q5: What is thermal expansion of liquid? Why we have real and apparent thermal expansion
in liquids. Illustrate with the help of an experiment.
Ans: Thermal Expansion of Liquids:
The increase in the volume of a liquid due to the thermal effect of heating is called thermal
expansion of liquids. Since heat affects both the liquid and the container the real expansion of a
liquid cannot be detected directly. In case of liquids, we have two kinds of thermal expansion.
1. Real expansion
2. Apparent expansion
1. Real expansion of liquid:
A real increase in the volume of a liquid that take place due to increase of temperature is called
real expansion ( VR ) of liquid. This expansion is independent of the expansion of the container.

2. Apparent expansion of liquid:

An apparent increase in the column of a liquid that takes place due to increase of temperature is
called apparent expansion (VA ) of liquid. When a liquid is taken in a container and heated, both
the liquid and the container expand at same time. The difference of these expansions is called
apparent expansion. If VR is the expansion in the volume of the liquid (called real expansion) and
VC is the expansion in the volume of container on heating, then the apparent expansion VA is given
by as;
VA = VR – VC
Experiment:
Let a vessel has water up to level A. If heat is applied, the vessel
will first expand which will produce an illusion that the water has fallen. This is due to the
expansion of the vessel and is given by the levels i.e. AB. On further heating the heat energy will
start reaching the liquid. The liquid will then start expanding rapidly, according to its nature
exceeding its previous level to reach up to level C. So the measurement of BC gives the true (real)
expansion of the liquid only. An observer presents at the start and at the end will see the whole
process as just the expansion of the liquid from A to C. So AC measures the apparent expansion
of the liquid. Mathematically,

BC = AC + AB
Real expansion of liquid = Apparent expansion of liquid + Vessel Expansion.
Since there are two different types of expansion of liquids their coefficients of expansion
should also be defined differently.
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Chapter # 8

Coefficient of real expansion “γR”:

It is defined as the apparent increase in volume of liquid per unit original volume per unit
degree rise in temperature.
𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝛄𝐑 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒙 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
Its unit is per degree rise in temperature i.e. oC-1 or K-1
Coefficient of apparent expansion “γA”:
It is defined as the apparent increase in volume of liquid per unit original volume per unit
degree rise in temperature.
𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝛄𝐑 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒙 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆
Its unit is per degree rise in temperature i.e. oC-1 or K-1.

Q6: Define heat capacity and specific heat capacity of a substance. Explain the importance
of high specific heat capacity of water.
Ans: Heat Capacity (Thermal Capacity):
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance of mass (m) by 1 OC
or 1 K is called the heat capacity (cm) of that substance.
Mathematically:
If ΔQ is the change in heat and ΔT is the change in temperature, then
𝚫𝐐
cm = 𝚫𝐓
The value of “cm” depends upon.
1. The nature of the material of the substance.
2. The mass of the material of the substance.
3. The rise in temperature.
Unit:
The S.I unit of heat capacity is joule per Kelvin which is expressed as JK-1.
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Chapter # 8

Specific heat capacity (specific heat):

The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass (1.0 kg) of the substance
o
by 1 C or 1K is called specific heat capacity of that substance.
Mathematically:
𝑐𝑚 ΔQ
C= ∴ cm = ΔT
𝑚
Putting value of cm
𝚫𝐐
C = 𝒎𝚫𝐓
Unit:
The S.I unit of specific heat capacity or specific heat is joule per kilogram per Kelvin which
is expressed as JKg-1 K-1.
Importance of the high specific heat capacity of water:
The specific heat capacity of water is equal to 4190 JKg-1 K-1. It has some important implications.

1. Moderate climate of sea shore:

The specific heat of sand is about 800 JKg-1K-1. A certain mass of water needs five times
more heat than the same mass of solid for its temperature to rise by 1oC or 1 K. Hence, the land
gets heated much more easily than water. Also it cools down much easily hence a large difference
in temperature is formed that gives rise to land breeze and sea breeze. It keeps the climate of the
coastal areas moderate moon soon in Pakistan is also due to the difference in temperature between
the land and the surrounding sea.

2. As a coolant:
Water is used as an effective coolant. By allowing water to flow in radiator pipes of the
vehicles, heat energy from such part is removed. Thus, water extracts much heat without much
rise in temperature.

Q7: What is meant by the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization of a substance?
Ans: Latent Heat of Fusion:
The amount of heat energy is required to convert a given mass of a substance from the solid
state to the liquid state (melt) without any rise in temperature is called its latent heat of fusion.
Liquids release the same amount of heat when they solidify (freeze).
Specific latent heat of fusion:
The amount of heat energy required to convert unit mass (1 kg) of solid at its melting point
of liquid (or liquid into solid) without any change in temperature is called its specific latent heat
of fusion of the solid.
Explanation:
If “ΔQ” is the amount of heat energy needed to melt mass “m” of a solid to liquid (or freeze
liquid to solid), then mathematically.
ΔQ = mLf
Where Lf is the latent heat of fusion of substance and is given as
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Chapter # 8

𝚫𝐐
Lf = 𝒎
Unit:
The S.I unit of specific latent heat of fusion is joule per kilogram which is expressed as
-1
JKg . Different substances have different specific latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of vaporization:
The amount of heat energy required to convert a given mass of a substance from liquid
state to the gaseous state (boil) without any rise in temperature is called its latent heat of
vaporization. Gases release the same amount of heat when they liquify (condense).

Specific latent heat of vaporization:

The amount of heat energy required to convert unit mass (1 Kg) of the liquid at it boiling
point to gas, (or gas into liquid) without any change in temperature is called its specific latent heat
of vaporization of the solid.

Explanation:
If “ΔQ” is the amount of heat energy needed to vaporize mass “m” of a liquid to gas (or
condense gas to liquid), then mathematically.
ΔQ = m Lv
Where Lv is the latent heat of vaporization such that
𝚫𝐐
Lv = 𝒎
Unit:
The S.I unit of specific heat of vaporization is joule per kilogram which is expressed as
-1
JKg . Different substances have different specific latent heat of vaporization.

Q8: What is meant by evaporation? On what factors the evaporation of liquid depends.
Explain how cooling is produced by evaporation. Differentiate between boiling and
evaporation.
Ans: Evaporation of liquid:
The process by which a liquid slowly changes into its vapors at any temperature (below its
boiling point) without the aid of any external source of heat is called evaporation of liquids.

Explanation:
Liquid starts to boil if they are heated to their boiling temperatures. The liquid starts to
transform into vapors’ but the change of liquids into vapors goes on even when the temperature is
below the boiling point. For example, a spread wet cloth on being exposed to the air becomes dry
in a short time due to evaporation of water. Water left in open dish also disappears due to
evaporation. We know that the molecules of a liquid move with wide of range of instantaneous
velocities and they have different kinetic energies ranging from minimum to a very high value.
Some of the molecules having sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction leave
the surface of the liquid and escape out in the form of vapors. We call this escaping of high energy
molecules as evaporation.
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Chapter # 8

Factors on which evaporation of liquid depends:

Evaporation of liquids depends on the following factors.
1. Nature of liquid:
Liquid with low boiling points evaporates more rapidly than those with higher boiling
points. For example, the rate of evaporation of alcohol is higher than that of water.
2. Temperature of liquid:
Due to higher temperature, molecules of liquid at the surface will have more kinetic energy
and chances of escaping will increase and evaporation will be fast. This can be seen while ironing
clothes. Under a hot iron wet clothes dry out quickly as the water evaporates quickly.
3. Temperature of surrounding:
The higher the temperature of the surrounding, the higher is the rate of evaporation. It is
for this reason that wet clothes dry rapidly in summer than in winter.
4. Presence of water vapor in Air:
The more the amount of water vapor present in air, the less is the rate of evaporation. It is
for this reason that wet clothes dry slowly in rainy season as a lot of water vapor are present in the
air.
5. Area of the exposed surface of liquid:
Increased surface area gives the molecules a greater chance of escaping. Wet roads dry out
quickly because the rain water is spread over large area.
6. Movement of Air:
The more rapid the flow of air the higher is the rate of evaporation. It is for this reason that
wet clothes dry more rapid on a windy day compared on a calm day.
7. Dryness of Air:
Drier the air, the more rapid is the evaporation. Presence of water vapor reduces the rate of
evaporation. Desert room coolers are more effective in cooling by evaporation in the dry month of
June than it is in the humid month of August.
8. Air Pressure on the surface of the liquid:
The lower the pressure on the surface of the liquid, higher is the rate of evaporation.

Evaporation causes cooling:

A liquid needs latent heat for its evaporation. If the liquid is not being heated by an external
source, the heat required for evaporation of liquid must come from the liquid itself. Since the
molecule is taking heat with it as its leaving, this has a cooling effect on the surface left behind.
For example, spirit spilled on your palm quickly evaporates. As a result, your palm feels cold. You
can feel the chilling effect of the evaporation of water if you sit under a fan and wearing wet
clothes. Perspiration in a human body helps to cool the body and to maintain a stable body
temperature. The kinetic theory explains the cooling caused by evaporation. During evaporation,
more energetic molecules escape from the liquid surface. Molecules that remain in the liquid have
lower kinetic energy. A liquid with molecules of less kinetic energy has a lower temperature. Thus
evaporation produces cooling.
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Chapter # 8

Evaporation Vs Boiling:
Vaporization of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid phase to
vapor. There are two types of vaporization: evaporation and boiling.
Evaporation:
Evaporation is a phase change from the liquid phase to vapor that occurs at temperatures
below the boiling temperature at a given pressure. Evaporation usually occurs on the surface.
Boiling:
Boiling is a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase that occurs at or above the
boiling temperature as opposed to evaporation, occurs below the surface.

Some Important Questions

Q9: Define and explain heat?
Ans: Heat:
Heat is a form of energy transferred from a hotter body to a colder body.
OR
The form of energy which is transferred from one body to another body due to the difference in
temperature is called heat.
Explanation:
When two objects with different temperature are placed in thermal contact, the temperature of the
warmer object decreases with the temperature of the cooler object increases. With time they reach
a common equilibrium temperature somewhere in between their initial temperatures. During this
process we say that energy is transferred from the warmer object to the cooler one. For example,
water in a kettle can be heated by placing it on flame. The water gradually becomes warmer and
eventually starts boiling. Something must have transferred from the hot flame to the cold water.
This something which flows from hotter body to the colder body till the temperature of two bodies
becomes equal is called heat. In general temperature of any object can be raised by placing it in
thermal contact with another hotter object.

Q10: Define and explain thermometric property?

Ans: Thermometric Property:
The particular property of a substance that increases and decreases uniformly with temperature
and can be used for the measurement of temperature is called thermometric property.
Explanation:
In order to construct a thermometer, we make use of a certain physical property of matter that
increases or decreases uniformly with rise and fall in temperature. This particular property of
substance is called thermometric property. The commonly used thermometric property is the
thermal expansion of materials. This property makes use of the fact that matter (solid, liquid or
gas) expands on heating and contracts on cooling. Thus, the degree of expansion or contraction of
matter can be calibrated on suitable scale to record temperature. For example, mercury and alcohol
are the substances which contain this property and therefore used in thermometer for the
measurement of temperature.
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Chapter # 8

Q11: Define and explain thermal expansion?

Ans: Thermal Expansion:
The increase in size of a substance on heating is called thermal expansion.
Explanation:
Most substances expand when heated and contract when cooled. However, the amount of
expansions or contraction varies depending on the material, the change in temperature and the
original size of the substance. Thermal expansion is different for different states e.g. solid, liquid
or gas of the same substance. It is experienced that gases expand more than liquids and liquids
expand more than solids.

Thermal expansion of solids:

A solid substance can undergo three types of expansion:
1. Expansion in length is known as linear thermal expansion. When a metal rod is heated it will
expand in length, so it will be linear thermal expansion.
2. Expansion in area is known as superficial thermal expansion. When a metal sheet is heated, it
will expand in length and breadth, so it will be superficial thermal expansion.
3. Expansion in volume is called volume or cubical thermal expansion. When a metal block is
heated, it will expand its length, Breadth and height. So, it will be volume or cubical thermal
expansion.

Q12: Discuss practical applications of thermal expansion?

Ans: Following are a few applications of thermal expansion of solids.
i. Railway lines:
When railway tracks are laid, the engineers leave a small gap between two rails. If two railway
tracks are laid together without any gap between them they will push against each other when they
expand with the rise of temperature. This may cause them to bend or tracks may also break free
from one another. Such a situation result in the derailment of the trains causing major accidents
and loss of lives. So, the railway engineers always leave a small gap between two rails to
compensate for the expansion of the rails during the not summer and contraction during cold
winter.
ii. Opening a tight jar lid:
When the lid of a glass jar is too tight to open, holding the lid under hot water for a short time will
often make it easier to open. The top expand before the heat reaches the bottle but even if not,
metals generally expand more than glass for the same temperature change.

iii. Transmission lines:

Transmission lines in the summer sag more as compared to winter.

iv. Shrink-fitting of axles into gear wheels:

The axles have been shrunk by cooling in liquid nitrogen at-196oC until the gear wheels can
be slipped on to them. On regaining normal temperature, the axles expand to give a very tight fit.
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Chapter # 8

v. Expand fitting iron ring to a cart wheel:

An iron ring can be tightly fixed into the wooden wheel of a Tonga. At room temperature, the
diameter of the iron ring is slightly less than the diameter of the wooden wheel. The ring expands
on heating and can be placed around the wooden wheel. When the ring comes to room temperature,
it contracts and produces a tight fit.

vi. Expansion joints:

Most large bridges include expansion joints, which look rather like two metal combs facing
one another, their teeth interlocking. When heat causes the bridge to expand during the sunlight
hours of a hot day, the two sides of the expansion joint move toward one another; then as the bridge
cool down after dark they being gradually to retract. Thus, the bridge has a built-in safety zone;
otherwise, it would have no room for expansion or contraction in response to temperature changes.

vii. Bimetallic strip:

A Bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The
strip consists of two strips of different rates as they are heated. When their temperature increases,
the unequal amounts of expansion cause the bimetallic strip to bend. For example, if equal length
of two different metals such as copper and iron are riveted together so that they cannot move
separately, they form a bimetallic strip. When heated, copper expands more than iron and to allow
the strip bends with copper on the outside. Bimetal strips have many uses, like fire alarm and
thermostat.

Q13: Explain the anomalous expansion of water?

Ans: Anomalous expansion of water:
Liquids expand on heating except water between 0oC and 4oC. Water is unusual in its
expansion characteristics. When water at 0oC is heated, its volume decreases up to 4oC and from
4oC, its volume increases with the increase of temperature. This peculiar behavior of water is called
anomalous expansion of water. Due to the formation of more number of hydrogen bonds, water
has anomalous expansion. As the temperature increases from 0oC to 4oC, the density increases and
as the temperature further increases, the density decreases. Hence water has maximum density at
4oC. This is why ice floats on water we can see this when we put ice cubes in water to cool it or
icebergs floating in ocean.

Q14: Explain latent heat and phase change?

Ans: Latent Heat:
The heat required to change the physical state of a substance (solid into a liquid or vapour,
or a liquid into a vapour) but does not change its temperature is called latent heat of that substance.
Explanation:
A substance usually undergoes a change in temperature with transfer of energy (heat). In
some cases, however the transfer of energy doesn’t result in a change in temperature. This can
occur when the physical characteristics of the substance change from one from to another,
commonly referred to as a phase change. Some common phase changes are solid to (melting),
 14
Chapter # 8

liquid to gas (boiling), liquid to solid (freezing) and gas to liquid (condensation). Energy used to
cause a phase change does not cause a temperature change. When ice melts at 0oC it becomes
water at 0oC, when water boils at 100oC, it becomes steam at 100oC. The same is true in reverse,
when water at 0oC freezes it becomes ice at 0oC, when steam at 100oC condenses it becomes water
at 100oC.

Q15: Explain experiment for ice-water phase change and temperature-time graph on heating
ice?
Ans: Experiment for ice-water phase change:
Take a beaker and place it over a stand. Put small pieces of ice in the beaker and suspend
a thermometer in the beaker to measure the temperature. Place a burner under the beaker. The ice
will start melting. The temperature of the mixture containing ice and water will not increase above
0oC until all the ice melts. Note the time which the ice takes to melt completely in to water at 0oC.
Continue heating the water at 0oC in the beaker. It temperature will start to increase. Note the time
which the water in the beaker takes to reach its boiling point at 100 oC.

Explanation of temperature-time graph on heating ice:

From the graph we can see
that at curve “AB” even we were
providing heat to the ice water
mixture but the temperature remained
constant at 0 oC. At point B, all the ice
has melted to form water. Now, on
heating beyond point “B”, the
temperature of water started rising as
shown by the slope line “BC” in the
graph. Since the heat absorbed during
the change of state of a substance
does not raise its temperature, it is
called latent heat or hidden heat. The graph also shows when water is boiling and changing into
 15
Chapter # 8

steam, the temperature remains constant at 100oC through heat is being given continuously to
water. This heat which is going into water but not increasing its temperature is the energy required
to convert the water from the liquid state to the vapour state. Since this heat does not show its
presence by producing a rise in temperature, it is called latent heat of vaporization of water.

Q16: Discuss the applications of cooling by evaporation:

Ans: Applications of cooling by evaporation:
i. Cooling by Fans:
We use fans in the hot season because the moving air increases the rate of evaporation or
perspiration from our bodies. Hence we get a cooling sensation. As discussed earlier, perspiration
helps in cooling the body and regulating its temperature.
ii. Fever Control:
Wet towel is applied on the forehead of a person running high fever. It is because, as the water
evaporates, it takes heat from the head. Thus the temperature of the head remains within the safe
limits and the patient does not suffer any brain damage.
iii. Refrigerator:
The cooling effect is many refrigerators is produced by the evaporation of a volatile liquids
called Freon. The liquid Freon evaporates in the pipes of freezer compartment. As the Freon
evaporates, it draws the necessary latent heat from the food inside the refrigerators.

Q17: What is refrigerator? Discuss its principle, construction and working?

Ans: Refrigerator:
It is a device which produces cooling effect and thus the food items kept inside it remains
in safe conditions.
Working principle:
The working principle of refrigerator is evaporation and compression.
Construction:
There are six parts of a refrigerator.
a. Heat exchanging pipes:
These coils are present on the inside and the outside of the fridge, they carry the refrigerant from
one part of the fridge to another.
b. Refrigerant:
This is the substance which evaporates in the fridge causing freezing temperatures.
c. Expansion Values:
The expansion value which is made up of a thin copper coil reduces the pressure on the liquid
refrigerant.
d. Compressor:
A compressor is a metal object which compresses the refrigerant thus raising the pressure and in
turn the temperature of the gas.
e. Condenser:
A condenser condenses, that is, it converts the refrigerant into liquid from, reducing its
temperature.
 16
Chapter # 8

f. Evaporator:
An evaporator absorbs the heat in the refrigerator with assistance of the evaporating liquid
refrigerant.
Working:
Refrigerator has a pipe that is partly inside a refrigerator and partly outside it, and sealed
so it is a continuous loop. The pipe is filled with a refrigerant. Inside the refrigerator, we make the
pipe gradually get wider, so the refrigerant expands and cools as it flowed through it. Outside the
refrigerator, we have a pump (compressor) to compress the gas and release its heat. As the gas
flow round and round the loop, expanding when it is inside the refrigerator and compressing when
it is outside, it constantly picks up heat from the inside and carry it to the outside.

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
Q1: Ordinary electric fan increases the kinetic energy of the air molecules caused by the fan
blades pushing them means the air temperature increase slightly rather than cool the air?
Why use it.
Ans. For cooling, we usually use electric fans. But the electric fan does not actually cool the air
inside the room. It increases the kinetic energy of air molecules due to which the temperature of
molecules increases. Such high speed molecules touch our body and evaporate water molecules
from our body. The evaporated water molecules absorb heat of vaporization from our body and as
a result we feel cool.

Q2: Why are small gap left behind the girders mounted in walls?
Ans: Small gaps are left behind the girders mounted in walls because to allow for the expansion
of the girders during summer usually one end of the iron structure is fixed and the other end is
allowed to expend in summer into the left out gap. If there is no gap left, then the expansion will
cause the girders to buckle.

Q3: Why you should not put a closed glass jar into a campfire. What could happen if you
tossed an empty glass jar, with the lid on tight, into a fire?
Ans: When we put a closed glass jar into a campfire, the inside of the glass jar is not empty. It is
filled with air. As the fire heats the air inside, its temperature rises and as a result the pressure
inside the jar increases. Due to high internal pressure the jar may explode and turn into pieces.
Also if we tossed an empty glass jar into a fire, then due to high internal pressure in jar may cause
it crack. So we should not throw a close glass jar into a campfire.

Q4: Explain why it is advisable to add water to an overheated automobile engine only slowly,
and only with the engine running.
Ans: It is advisable to add water to an overheated automobile engine slowly and only with the
engine running it is because if we add water quickly to an overheated engine, water will come into
contact with the hot metal part of the engine. Some area of metal part will cool down very rapidly,
 17
Chapter # 8

while other part will not. Some part of the water will quickly turn to steam and will rapidly expand
which can result a cracked engine block or radiator.

Q5: Explain why burns caused by steam at 100 oC on the skin are often more severe than
burns caused by water at 100 oC.
Ans: When the temperature of water rises at 100oC, water is converted to steam. At this point the
temperature remains constant. Although heat is being given to water. Heat equal to latent heat of
vaporization i.e. 2.26 x 106 J Kg-1 K-1 is added to steam. The steam while leaving the container
carries this extra amount of heat which produces more severe burns as compared to water at 100oC.

Q6: Explain why cities like Karachi situated by the ocean tend to have less extreme
temperatures than inland cities at the same latitude.
Ans: Coastal areas like Karachi have moderate temperature than inland areas because of the high
specific heat capacity of water of the sea. During the day, the sun shines equally on land and sea.
The land heats up more quickly than the sea because of high specific heat of water. The hot air
over the land rises and the cold air from the sea blows to replace it. Thus there is a sea breeze
during the day. At night the reverse occurs, the land cools more quickly than the sea because the
sea water has absorbed a huge quantity if heat throughout the day. So the hot air over the sea rises
and cool air from the land blows to replace it. Thus, there is a land breeze during the night. So the
temperature of coastal area like Karachi remains at moderate level i.e. not too hot in summer and
not too cold in winter than inland cities at the same latitude.

Q7: An iron rim which is fixed around a wooden wheel is heated before its fixture. Explain
why?
Ans: An iron rim which is fixed around a wooden wheel is heated before its fixture because at
room temperature the diameter of the iron rim is made slightly less than the diameter of wooden
wheel. The rim expands on heating and can be placed around wooden wheel. When the rim comes
to room temperature, it contracts and produces tight fit.

Q8: Why is ice at 0oC a better coolant of soft drink than water at 0 oC?
Ans: The ice when absorb heat, it melts. During melting the temperature of ice remains constant
at 0℃. When the ice is put in the soft drink, it absorbs heat from the drink. So, its temperature falls
and become cool. But in case of water at 0oC when it absorbs heat its temperature rises. Therefore,
ice is the better coolant than water at 0oC.

Q9: Why we feel cool after perspiration?

Ans: We feel cool after perspiration because for evaporation there is need of heat energy. When
the sweat drops evaporate from our body it absorbs heat from our body and as a result we feel cool
due to decrease in temperature of our body.
 18
Chapter # 8

ASSIGNMENTS
8.1: Temperature of an object is 250 K, Find its temperature in centigrade.
Data:
Tk = 250 K
Find:
T oC = ?

Solution:
As we know that
T℃ = TK – 273
Putting values
TC = 250 - 273
TC = -23oC

8.2: The length of a bar of certain metal is 60 cm. When the bar is heated from 8 oC to 100
oC, its length becomes 60.127 cm. Calculate the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of the

metal.
Data:
Initial length of bar = lo = 60cm
60
= 100m
= 0.6 m
Final length of bar = lT = 60.127 cm
60.127 𝑚
=
100
= 0.60127 m
Change in length = Δl = lL - lo
= (0.60127 – 0.60) m
= 0.00127 m
Initial temperature = To = 8 oC
Final temperature = T = 100 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T – To
= 100 oC – 8 oC
= 92 oC
Find:
Co-efficient of linear thermal expansion = α = ?
Solution:
We know that
𝚫𝐥
α=𝒍
𝒐 𝚫𝐓
0.00127
Putting values α = 0.6 𝑥 92
0.00127
= 55.2
 19
Chapter # 8

α = 0.000023
α = 2.3 x 10-5 oC-1
Or
Data:
Initial length of bar = lo = 60 cm
Final length of bar = lT = 60.127 cm
Change in length = Δl = lT - lo
= (60.127 – 60) cm
= 0.127 cm
Initial temperature = To = 8 oC
Final Temperature = T = 100 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T - To
= 100 oC – 8 oC
= 92 oC
Find:
Co-efficient of linear thermal expansion = α = ?

Solution:
𝚫𝐥
We know that α=𝒍
𝒐 𝚫𝐓
0.127
Putting value α = 60 𝑥 92
0.127
α= 5520
α = 0.000023
α = 2.3 x 10-5 oC-1

8.3: A 200 cm3 piece of lead (𝛄= 87 x 10-6 K-1) is at 10 oC. If it is heated to a temperature of
40 oC, find the change in volume of the lead.
Data:
Initial volume = Vo = 200 cm3
Initial temperature = To = 10 oC
Final temperature = T = 40 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T - To
=40 oC -10 oC
= 30 oC
= 30 K
Coefficient of volume thermal expansion = 𝛄 = 87 x 10-6 K -1
Find:
Change in volume = ΔV = ?
Solution:
We know that
ΔV = 𝜸Vo ΔT
 20
Chapter # 8

Putting value
ΔV = 87 x 10 -6 x 200 x 30
ΔV = 522000 x 10-6
= 0.522 x 106 x 10-6
= 0.522 x 10 6-6
= 0.522 x 10o
ΔV = 0.522 cm3

8.4: If petrol at 0oC occupies 250 liters. What is its volume at 50oC? For petrol take 𝛄 = 9.6 x
10-4 K-1.
Data:
Initial volume = Vo = 250 liters
Initial temperature = To = 0 oC
Final Temperature = T = 50 oC
Change in temperature= ΔT = T - To
= 50 oC - 0oC
= 50 oC
= 50 K
Coefficient of volume thermal expansion = 𝛄 = 9.6 x 10-4 K-1
Find:
Final volume = VT = ?
Solution:
As we know that
VT = Vo (1+ 𝛄 ΔT)
Putting values
VT = 250 ( 1 + 9.6 x 10-4 x 50)
= 250 (1 + 480 x 10-4)
= 250 (1 + 0.0480) liters
= 250 (1.0480) liters
VT = 262 liters

8.5: If 117.60 J of heat is required to raise the temperature of 10g of silver through 50 oC.
Calculate the specific heat of sliver.
Data:
Heat required = ΔQ = 117.60 J
Mass = m = 10g
10
= 1000kg (1 Kg = 1000g)
= 0.01 Kg
Rise in temperature = ΔT = 50oC
Find:
Specific heat of silver = c = ?
 21
Chapter # 8

Solution:
We know that
𝚫𝐐
c = 𝑴𝚫𝐓
Putting values
117.6
c = 0.01 x 50 JKg-1 K-1
117.60
= JKg-1 K-1
0.5
c = 235.2 J Kg-1 K-1

8.6 Find the amount of heat for evaporating 2.8 kg of water at 45oC? (Latent heat of
vaporization of water Lv = 2.3 x 106 J/Kg and specific heat of water c = 4190 J Kg-1 K-1.)
Data:
Mass of water = m = 2.8 Kg
Latent heat of vaporization for water = Lv = 2.3 x 106 J Kg-1
Specific heat of water = C = 4190 J Kg-1 K-1
Initial temperature = To= 45 oC
Final temperature = T = 100 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T - To
= 100- 45= 55 oC
Find:
Heat required = ΔQ = ?
Solution:
Heat required by water at 45 oC to attain the temperature of 100 oC
ΔQ1 = c m ΔT
Putting the value
ΔQ1 = 4190 x 2.8 x 55
= 645260 J
ΔQ1 = 0.65 x 106 J
Now we will find heat required for vaporization of water at 100 oC
ΔQ2 = mLv
Putting values
= 2.8 x 2.3 x 106
ΔQ2 = 6.44 x 106 J
Amount of heat required for evaporation of water at 45 oC
ΔQ = ΔQ1 + ΔQ2
= 0.65 x 106 J + 6.44 x 106 J
= (0.65 + 6.44) x 106 J
ΔQ = 7.09 x 106 J
ΔQ = 7.1 x 106 J
 22
Chapter # 8

NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
1. Perform the temperature conversions
a). Temperature difference in the body. The surface temperature of the body is normally about
o
7 C lower than the internal temperature. Express this temperature difference in kelvins and in
Fahrenheit degrees.
b). Blood storage. Blood stored at 4.0oC lasts safely for about 3 weeks, whereas blood stored
at -160 oC lasts for 5 years. Express both temperatures on the Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales.
a). Data:
Temperature in oC = T1℃ = 37 oC
Temperature in oC = T2℃ = 37 – 7
= 30 oC
Find:
Temperature difference in kelvin = (ΔT)K = ?
Temperature difference in Fahrenheit = (ΔT)F = ?
Solution:
To find (ΔT)K, we first convert T1℃ and T2℃ in Kelvin.
So,
T1C = 37 oC
We know that
T1k = T1℃ + 273
Putting values
T1k = 37 + 273
T1k = 310 K.
And T2℃ = 30 oC
We know that T2k = T2℃ + 273
Putting value
= 30 + 273
T2k = 303 K
Now (ΔT)k = T1k – T2k
Putting value
= (310 – 303) K
(ΔT)k = 7 K
To find (ΔT)F we first convert t1C and T2C in Fahrenheit.
So,
T1c = 37 oC
9
We know that T1F = 5 T1C + 32
9
Putting value = 5 (37) + 32
333
= + 32
5
= 66.6 + 32
T1F = 98.6 oF
 23
Chapter # 8

And T2C = 30 oC
We know that
9
T2F = 5 T2c + 32
Putting value
9
T2F = 5 (306) + 32
1
= 9 x 6 + 32
= 54 + 32
T2F = 86 oF
Now (ΔT)F = T1F – T2F
= 98.6 oF – 86 oF
(ΔT)F = 12.6 oF
(ΔT)F = 13 oF
b). Data:
(i) Temperature in oC = T1C = 4 oC
(ii) Temperature in oC = T2C = - 160 oC
Required:
(i) T1k = ?
T1F = ?
(ii) T2k = ?
T2F = ?
Solution:
(i) Temperature in oC = T1c = 4 oC
Now to convert T1C in T1k and T1F
For T1C = 4oC
We know that T1k = T1c + 273
Putting value = 4 + 273
T1k = 277 K
For T1C = 4 oC We have
We know that
9
T1F = 5 T1C + 32
Putting value of T1C
9
T1F = 5 (4+ 32)

36
= + 32
5
T1F = 7.2 + 32
T1F = 39.2 oF

(ii) Temperature in oC = T2C = -160 oC

We have to convert T2C in T2k and T2F
FoT2C = -160 oC
 24
Chapter # 8

We know that T2k = T2C + 273

Putting value
= -160 + 273
T2k = 113 K
For T2C = -160 oC
9
We know that T2F = 5 T2c + 32
9
= 5 (-16032) + 32
= 9 (-32) + 32
T2F = - 288 + 32
T2F = - 256 oF

2. Consider a meter – stick composed of platinum (the coefficient of linear expansion for
platinum is 𝛂 = 8.8 x 10-6 K-1). By what amount does the length of this meter – stick change
if the temperature increases by 1.0 K?
Data:
Length of meter - stick = Lo = 1m
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion = α = 8.8 x 10-6 K-1
Change in temperature = ΔT = 1.0 K
Find:
Change in length = ΔL = ?
Solution:
We know that
ΔL = α lo ΔT
Putting values
ΔL = 8.8 x 10-6 x 1 x 1.0
ΔL = 8.8 x 10-6 m

3. A railway line made of iron is 1200 km long and is laid at 25 oC. By how much will it
contract in winter when the temperature falls to 15 oC? By how much will it expand when
the temperature rises to 40 oC in summer? (the coefficient of linear expansion for iron is 𝛂 =
12 x 10-6 K-1).
Data:
Length of railway line = Lo = 1200 km
= 1200 x 1000 m (1km = 1000 m)
=1200000 m
o
Initial temperature = T = 25 C
Temperature in winter = Tw = 15 oC
Temperature difference = ΔT = 25° – 15°
= 10 oC
Temperature in summer = Ts = 40 oC
Temperature difference = ΔT = 40 – 25
 25
Chapter # 8

= 15 oC
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion = α = 12 x 10-6 K-1
Find:
Length in winter = Lw = ?
Length in summer = Ls = ?
Solution:
In winter
Lw = Lo (1 + α Δ T)
Putting values
Lw = 1200000 (1 + 12 x 10-6 x 10)
= 1200000 (1 + 120 x 10-6)
Lw = 1200000 (1 + 0.000120)
= 1200000 (1.00012) m
Lw = 1200144 m
So, ΔL = Lw - Lo
= 1200144 – 1200000
ΔL = 144 m
In summer:
Ls = Lo (1+ α ΔT)
Putting values
Ls = 1200000 (1 + 12 x 10-6 x 15)
= 1200000 (1 + 180 x 10-6)
= 1200000 (1.000180)
Ls = 1200000 (1.00018) m
Ls = 1200216 m
So, ΔL = Ls - Lo
= 1200216 – 1200000
ΔL = 216 m

4. The volume of a brass ball is 800 cm3at 20 oC. Find out the new volume of the ball if
the temperature is raised to 52 oC. The coefficient of volumetric expansion of brass is 57 x
10-6 K-1.
Data:
Initial Volume of brass =Vo = 800 cm3
Initial temperature = To = 20 oC
Final temperature = T = 52 oC
Coefficient of volumetric expansion of brass= r = 57 x 10-6 K-1
Temperature difference = ΔT = T - To
= 52 oC – 20 oC
= 32 oC
Find:
Final volume of brass = VT = ?
 26
Chapter # 8

Solution:
Using formula
VT = Vo (1 + γΔT)
Putting value
V = 800 (1 + 57 x 10-6 x 32)
=800 (1 + 1824 x 10-6)
= 800 (1 + 0.001824)
= 800 (1.00 1824) cm3
V = 801.459 cm3
Or
V = 801.5 cm3

5. What is the specific heat of a metal substance of 135 KJ of heat is needed to raise 4.1
Kg of the metal from 18.0 oC to 37.2 oC?
Data:
Heat supplied = ΔQ = 135 KJ
= 135 x 103 J
= 135000 J
Initial temperature = To = 18 oC
Final temperature = T = 37.2 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T - To
= 37.2 oC – 18 oC
ΔT = 19o 2 oC
Or
ΔT = 19.2 K
Mass of metal = m = 4.1 Kg
Find:
Specific heat of metal = c = ?
Solution:
We know that
𝚫𝐐
c = 𝒎𝚫𝐓
Putting values
135000
c = 4.1 x 19.2
135000
= 78.72
c = 1714.93 J Kg-1 K-1
Or
c = 1715 J Kg-1 K-1
 27
Chapter # 8

6. How much heat is needed to melt 23.50 Kg of silver that is initially at 25 oC? (Specific
heat of silver is C = 230 J Kg-1 K-1. Latent heat of fusion for silver is LF = 8.82 K 104)
Data:
Mass of silver = m = 23.50 Kg
Specific heat of silver = c = 230 J Kg-1 K-1
Latent heat of fusion for silver = LF = 8.82 x 104 J Kg-1
Initial temperature = To = 25 oC
Final temperature or melting point of silver = T = 961 oC
Change in temperature = ΔT = T - To
= 961 oC -25 oC
ΔT = 936 oC
Or
ΔT = 936 K
Find:
Heat required = ΔQ = ?
Solution:
Heat required to raise the temperature of silver from 25 oC to 961 oC
ΔQ1 = mcΔT
Putting values
ΔQ1 = 23.50 x 230 x 936 J
= 5059080 J
ΔQ1 = 5.059080 x 106 J
Heat required to melt silver
ΔQ2 = mLF
Putting values
ΔQ2 = 23.50 x 8.82 x 104 J
ΔQ2 = 207.27 x 104 J
= 2.0727 x 102 x 104 J
= 2.0727 x 102+4 J
ΔQ2 = 2.0727 x 106 J
Heat required to melt silver at 25 oC
ΔQ = ΔQ1 + ΔQ2
=5.059080 x 106 + 2.0727 x 106
= (5.059080 + 2.0727) x 106 J
ΔQ = 7.13178 x 106 J
ΔQ = 7.1 x 106 J