EMAC: circuited and the rotor is rotating at synchronous

speed while the field winding is energized.

Synchronous generator, a DC current is applied
to the rotor winding, which produces a rotor In AC theory, resistance and reactance always
magnetic field. The rotor of the generator is then bare the same relation with respect to each other
turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating as do the sides of a right triangle. If this is done
magnetic field within the machine. This rotating for the values of RA and XS in an AC Generator,
magnetic field induces a three-phase set of the value of impedance is called the synchronous
voltages within the stator windings of the impedance
generator.
Three simple tests necessary to obtain the data
Field windings- applies to the windings that for the calculation of voltage regulation of a
produce the main magnetic field in a machine, and certain AC generator:
the term.
1. The Armature Resistance Test
Armature winding- applies to the windings 2. The Open-circuit Test
where the main voltage is induced. 3. The Short-circuit Test
Synchronous machines- the field windings are Exciter- It is the process of creating and
on the rotor, so the terms “rotor windings” and strengthening the magnetic field of the alternator
“field windings” are used interchangeably. by providing the necessary direct current to the
field winding of the alternator. The direct current
The rotor of synchronous generator is essentially
is supplied to the rotor by a separate dc source.
a large electromagnet. The magnetic poles on the
rotor can be of either salient or non-salient Functions of Excitation system
construction. The term salient means
a. Supply direct current to the field winding
“protruding” or “sticking out,” and a salient pole
for creating magnetic field
‘is a magnetic pole that sticks out from the surface
b. Control voltage and reactive power
of the rotor.
c. Perform protective function
Slip-rings - metal rings completely encircling the
Types of excitation system
shaft of a machine but insulated from it.
1. DC Excitation System
Brushless exciter is a small dc generator with its
2. AC Excitation System
field circuit mounted on the stator and its armature
 Rotor Excitation System
circuit mounted on the rotor shaft.
 Brushless Excitation System
Phasors are used to describe the relationships 3. Static Excitation System
between ac voltages. Phasor is a means by which
sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents can be DC Excitation System- The DC excitation
specified in terms of a rotating radius and an system has two small dc generators called exciters
angle, they are behaving like vectors. – the main exciter and a pilot exciter. The exciter
output is adjusted by an automatic voltage
Phasor diagram gives relationship between regulator (AVR) for controlling the output
various electrical quantities like voltage and terminal voltage of the alternator. The current
current. transformer input to the AVR ensures limiting of
the alternator current during a fault.
Three types of phasor diagram condition
according to the load characteristics. When the field breaker is open, the field
discharge resistor is connected across the field
1. Unity power factor (resistive load)
winding so as to dissipate the stored energy in the
2. Lagging power factor (inductive load)
field winding which is highly inductive.
3. Leading power factor (capacitive load)
AC Excitation System- The AC excitation
The no-load or open-circuit voltage is generated
system consists of an alternator and thyristor
in the armature windings of asynchronous
rectifier bridge directly connected to the main
machine when the armature terminals are open-
alternator shaft. The main exciter may either be 1. The armature resistance
self-excited or separately excited. 2. The armature reactance
3. The effect of armature reaction
Two categories:
An alternator has a rotating magnet (rotor) which
A. Rotating Thyristor Excitation System
causes the magnetic lines of force to rotate with it.
The rotating portion is being enclosed by the These lines of force are cut by the stationary
dashed line. This system consists an AC exciter, (stator) windings in the alternator frame, as the
stationary field and a rotating armature. The rotor turns with the magnet rotating the N and S
output of the exciter is rectified by a full wave poles to keep changing positions.
thyristor bridge rectifier circuit and is supplied to
When S is up and N is down, current flows in
the main alternator field winding.
one direction, but when N is up and S is down,
B. Brushless Excitation System current flows in the opposite direction. This is
called alternating current as it changes direction
The rotating portion being enclosed by a dashed twice for each complete revolution. If the rotor
line rectangle. The brushless excitation system speed were increased to 60 revolutions per second,
consists an alternator, rectifier, main exciter and a it would produce 60-cycle alternating current.
permanent magnet generator alternator. The main
and the pilot exciter are driven by the main shaft. Four common types of prime movers are used
The main exciter has a stationary field and a to drive the synchronous generator
rotating armature directly connected, through the
1. Steam Turbine
silicon rectifiers to the field of the main
2. Combustion Turbine
alternators.
3. Hydro Turbine
The voltage regulation of an alternator is 4. Diesel Engine
defined as the change in its terminal voltage when
Steam turbine consists of a rotor resting on
full load is removed, keeping field excitation and
bearings and enclosed in a cylindrical casing. The
speed constant, divided by the rated terminal
rotor is turned by steam impinging against
voltage.
attached vanes or blades (see figure 2) on which it
Factors that determined the behavior of the exerts a force in the tangential direction. Thus a
terminal voltage are: steam turbine could be viewed as a complex series
of windmill-like arrangements, all assembled on
 The magnitude of the load the same shaft.
 The actual overall power factor of the
combined load Combustion Turbine (Gas Turbine)- The gas
turbine is the engine at the heart of the power
Proven facts about the behavior of the load: plant that produces electric current.A gas turbine
 The greater the load, the greater will be the is a combustion engine that can convert natural
fall or rise of the terminal voltage gas or other liquid fuels to mechanical energy.
 The lower the lagging power factor, the This energy then drives a generator that produces
greater will be the voltage drop electrical energy.
 The lower the leading power factor, the HOW THE GAS GENERATOR PRODUCES
greater will be the voltage rise. ELECTRICITY:
Three factors that are responsible for the  The gas turbine compresses air and mixes
change in voltage as the load is applied: it with fuel that is then burned at extremely
1. The resistance drop in the armature circuit high temperatures, creating a hot gas.
2. The change in flux  Hot gas spins turbine blades.
3. The reactance voltage drop.  The hot air-and-fuel mixture moves
through blades in the turbine, causing them
Terminal voltage of an alternator is affected by to spin quickly.
three factors:  Spinning blades turn the drive shaft.
  The fast-spinning turbine blades rotate the The process of putting and taking off an alternator
turbine drive shaft. on the line without service interruption is called
 Turbine rotation powers the generator. ‘synchronizing”
 The spinning turbine is connected to the
rod in a generator that turns a large magnet
surrounded by coils of copper wire. AC generator (alternator) Efficiency
 Generator magnet causes electrons to The efficiency of an alternator is calculated in the
move and creates electricity. same manner as the efficiency of DC generators.
 The fast-revolving generator magnet To calculate its efficiency, it is first important to
creates a powerful magnetic field that lines determine the various losses in the machine. With
up the electrons around the copper coils the alternator operating underload, these losses
and causes them to move. include:
 The movement of these electrons through a
wire is electricity 1. Rotational Loss

Hydro Turbine- Hydro turbines are devices used a. Friction and windage loss
in hydroelectric generation plants that transfer the b. Brush friction at the field collector ring
energy from moving water to a rotating shaft to c. Ventilation to cool the machine
generate electricity. These turbines rotate or spin d. Hysteresis and eddy current loss in the
as a response to water being introduced to their stator
blades. These turbines are essential in the area of 2. Electrical losses
hydropower - the process of generating power
from water. 1. Field winding
2. Armature winding
Diesel generators are very useful machines that 3. Brush contacts
produce electricity by burning diesel fuel. These
machines use a combination of an electric 3. Losses in the exciter used for field excitation
generator and a diesel engine to generate 4. Stray-load loss
electricity. Diesel generators convert some of the
chemical energy, contained by the diesel fuel, to Power Generation Systems- Power generation
mechanical energy through combustion. This system are simply the combination of a potential
mechanical energy then rotates a crank to produce or stored energy converter providing kinetic
electricity. Electric charges are induced in the wire energy, which, in turn, creates electric power for
by moving it through a magnetic field. In an use in motors, lighting, heating, and other
electric generator application, two polarized conveniences of modern life.
magnets usually produce the magnetic field. A
The generating System- Electric generator, also
wire is then wound around the crankshaft of the
called dynamo, any machine that converts
diesel generator many times, which is placed
mechanical energy to electricity for transmission
between the magnets and in the magnetic field.
and distribution over power lines to domestic,
When the diesel engine rotates the crankshaft, the
commercial, and industrial customers. Generators
wires are then moved throughout the magnetic
as discuss previously produce the electrical power
field, which can induce electric charges in the
required for automobiles, aircraft, ships, and
circuit.
trains.
Operation of alternators in parallel
Substation.- The function of a substation is to
When the load on a system exceeds the amount of transform voltage to a lower or higher level of
power that a single or existing number of voltage, and to provide the ties, transformation,
generators can deliver, an additional generator is switching, and protection for the transmission and
connected to the system to deliver required power. distribution systems. Substations contain
This method of adding an alternator in the existing transformers in order to convert voltage levels, as
system is called ‘parallel operation of alternators.’ well as circuit breakers, and a large amount of
protection and control equipment.
Switchyard - A switchyard is a substation without
transformers which operates only at a single
voltage level. These systems can be associated
with a transformer substation, or can be a separate,
stand-alone facility. Switchyards can be manned
or unmanned. Switchyards are mainly used for
connections and interconnections. The switchyard
delivers generated power from the power source
to the nearest grid or transmission line.
Distribution system
Distribution system consists of all the facilities
and equipment connecting a transmission system
to the customer's equipment.
A typical distribution system can consist of:
 Substations
 Distribution Feeder Circuits
 Switches
 Protective Equipment
 Primary Circuits
 Distribution Transformers
 Secondaries, and
 Services