ch-4 - Bitumen Bound Materials1

UNITY UNIVERSITY
DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

& CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
MANAGEMENT
HIGHWAY ENGNEERING II
CENG 4302
Chapter Four
Bitumen-Bound Materials
Berhanu G.
Dec,2018
1
Content
 Type of Bitumen Materials
Highlight and the rest
 Natural bitumen Reading Assignment
 Refinery Bitumen
 Tests for Bituminous Materials
 Consistency test
 Durability test
 Rate of curing
 Other tests
 Mix Design
 Type of bitumen mixture
 Job-Mix formula
 Marshal Test
2
Bitumen Bound Pavement Materials
 Binders used in pavement construction are mainly of two
types :
 Cement: most commonly used cementing agent in the concrete
building industry, and in road construction, it is used as a binder
for rigid pavement structures and a stabilizing agent.
 Bitumen, also known as asphalt cement in the US: is a viscous
liquid or solid material, black or dark brown in colour, having
adhesive properties, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons which
are soluble in carbon disulphate --- bind aggregates together and
form asphalt concrete from the highest class of highways to thin,
dust-control layers on seldom-used roads.
3
 Types of Bituminous Materials
Bituminous Materials
Natural Bitumen Refinery Bitumen
Penetration grade Liquid bitumen

Lake Rock asphalt
bitumen
asphalt
Cutbacks Emulsions
Slow curing Medium curing Rapid curing Anionic Cationic

cutback cutback cutback emulsion emulsion
4
 Natural Bitumens are:
 Native asphalts are obtained from asphalt lakes in Trinidad and
other Caribbean areas, and were used in some of the earliest
pavements in North America after softening with petroleum
fluxes
 Rock asphalts are natural rock deposits containing bituminous
materials that have been used for road surfaces in localities
where they occur.
Trinidad Lake Asphalt
5
 Refinery Bitumens are:
 Bitumens artificially produced by the industrial refining of crude
petroleum oils are known under a number of names depending
on the refining method used such as residual bitumens, straight-
run bitumens, steam-refined bitumens
 Petroleum crudes are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons
differing in molecular weight and consequently with varying
bitumen contents.
• asphaltic-base crudes are crudes which contain high
proportions of road bitumen.
• paraffinic-base crudes are with little or no bituminous bodies
present.
• mixed-base crudes are crudes which exhibit characteristics of
both the previous categories.
6
 Manufacture of
refinery bitumen
7
 Types of petroleum refinery processes:
 Fractional distillation -- the crude oil is vaporized by heating it
above its boiling point under pressure. The lightest fractions of
the crude remain as a vapour and are taken from the top of the
distillation column, heavier fractions are taken off the column as
side-streams with the heaviest fractions remaining as a liquid and
therefore left at the base of the column.
 Vacuum or steam distillation -- refining is carried out, without
changing them chemically by the use of reduced pressures and
steam injection in the fractionating column to remove high
boiling temperature constituents such as those contained in the
non-volatile oils.
8
 Types of petroleum refinery processes:
 Cracking distillation -- consists of exposing the petroleum crude
to a temperature of 475-600ºC at pressure varying from 3 to 75
atmospheres. This process produces heavier residues as a
consequence of forming the lighter materials. These residues are
known as "cracked oil" or "cracked asphalt".
 Asphalts produced by these different methods are of various
grades asphalt cement, depending upon the degree to which
distillates are removed as determined by the conditions of
distillations.
 They are further processed by air-blowing, blending,
compounding, and admixing with other ingredients to make
variety of asphalt products used in paving, roofing, waterproofing,
coating and sealing materials, and materials for industrial
applications.
9
Penetration grade bitumen
 Penetration grade bitumen or asphalt cements are in consistency
from semi-solid to semi-liquid at room temperature.
• Such bitumen are graded according to their
• viscosity (mainly used in the US): the most common grading are AC
2.5, AC 5, AC 10, AC 20, and AC 40
• Penetration: Penetration is the depth in 0.1 mm that a specified
needle is able to penetrate the samples when standard penetration
tests are carried out.
• The penetration grades which roughly correspond to the above
viscosity grades are 200-300, 120-150, 85-100, 60-70, and 40-50,
respectively.
• The viscosity grades indicate the viscosity in hundreds of poises ±
20% measured at 60ºC (140ºF). For example, AC 2.5 has a viscosity
of 250 poises ± 50. AC 40 has a viscosity of 4000 poises ± 800.
10
Penetration grade bitumen
 Penetration grade bitumen is used in road construction, the
harder grades, 35 pen to 100 pen, being used in asphalt where
bitumen stiffness is of primary importance and the softer
grades, 100 pen to 450 pen, in macadams where the lubricating
properties during application and bonding of the aggregate
in service are more important.
11
 Liquid Bitumen
 Liquid binders are modified penetration grade bitumen
prepared as liquid products for handling at relatively low
temperatures and mixed with aggregates either when cold or
only warmed sufficiently to make them surface-dry.
 The two forms of liquid bitumen are:
• Cutback bitumen -- prepared by dissolving the asphalt
cement in a suitable volatile solvent to reduce their viscosity
to make them easier to use at ordinary temperatures,
• Bitumen emulsions -- prepared by emulsifying the asphalt
cement in an aqueous medium
12
 Cutback Bitumen
 During construction, upon curing by evaporation of the solvent, the cured-
out asphalt cement will be in approximately the same condition as before
being taken into solution and bind the aggregate particles together. The
curing period depends on the volatility of solvents.
 Cutback bitumen are grouped into three types based on the type of solvent,
which governs the rates of evaporation and curing:
• Slow-curing (SC):,
• Medium-curing (MC), and
• Rapid-curing (RC).
 Each type of cutback bitumen is subdivided into several grades characterized
by their viscosity limits. The viscosity is controlled by the quantity of cutback
solvent to make the various grades from very fluid to almost semi-solid at
ambient temperatures.
13
 Cutback Bitumen
 Slow-curing (SC):
 Obtained directly as slow-curing straight-run asphalts through
the distillation of crude petroleum or as slow-curing cutback
asphalts by "cutting back" asphalt cement with a heavy distillate
such as diesel oil.
 They have lower viscosities than asphalt cement and are very
slow to harden. Slow-curing asphalts are usually designated as
SC-70, SC-250, SC-800, or SC-3000, where the numbers are
related to the approximate kinematic viscosity in centistokes at
60ºC (140ºF).
 They are used with dense-graded aggregates and on soil-
aggregate roads in warm climates to avoid dust.
14
 Cutback Bitumens
 Medium-Curing (MC) Cutbacks:
 produced by fluxing, or cutting back, the residual asphalt (usually
120-150 penetration) with light fuel oil or kerosene.
 The term medium refers to the medium volatility of the
kerosene-type diluents used.
 Medium-curing cutback asphalts harden faster than slow-curing
liquid asphalts, although the consistencies of the different grades
are similar to those of the slow-curing asphalts. However, the
MC-30 is a unique grade in this series as it is very fluid and has
no counterpart in the SC and RC series.
 The fluidity of medium-curing asphalts depends on the amount
of solvent in the material. MC-3000, for example, may have only
20 percent of the solvent by volume, whereas MC-70 may have
up to 45 percent.
 These medium-curing asphalts can be used for the construction of
pavement bases, surfaces, and surface treatments. 15
 Cutback Bitumen
Rapid-Curing (RC) Cutbacks :
 Produced by blending asphalt cement with a petroleum distillate
that will easily evaporate, thereby facilitating a quick change from
the liquid form at time of application to the consistency of the
original asphalt cement. Gasoline or naphtha generally is used as
the solvent for this series of asphalts.
 The grade of rapid-curing asphalt required dictates the amount
of solvent to be added to the residual asphalt cement. For
example, RC-3000 requires about 15 percent of distillate,
whereas RC-70 requires about 40 percent.
 These grades of asphalt can be used for jobs similar to those for
which the MC series is used, but where there is a need for
immediate cementing action or colder climates.
16
 Asphalt emulsions
 produced by breaking asphalt cement, usually of 100-250 penetration range,
into minute particles and dispersing them in water with an emulsifier.
 These minute particles have like electrical charges and therefore do not
coalesce. They remain in suspension in the liquid phase as long as the water
does not evaporate or the emulsifier does not break.
 Asphalt emulsions consist of asphalt, which makes up about 55 percent to 70
percent by weight, up to 3% emulsifying agent, water and in some cases may
contain a stabilizer.
 Two general types of emulsified asphalts are produced, depending on the type
of emulsifier used:
 Cationic emulsions, in which the asphalt particles have a positive charge;
 Anionic emulsions, in which they have a negative charge.
 Each of the categories is further divided into three subgroups, based on how
rapidly the asphalt emulsion will return to the state of the original asphalt
cement as: rapid setting (RS), medium-setting (MS), and slow setting (SS).
17
 A cationic emulsion is identified by placing the letter "C" in front of the
emulsion type; no letter is placed in front of anionic and non-ionic emulsions.
For example, CRS-2 denotes a cationic emulsion, and RS-2 denotes either
anionic or non-ionic emulsion.
 The anionic and cationic asphalts generally are used in highway maintenance
and construction.
 Since anionic emulsions contain negative charges, they are more effective in
adhering aggregates containing electropositive charges such as limestone,
whereas cationic emulsions are more effective with electronegative aggregates
such as those containing a high percentage of siliccous material.
18
 Cationic emulsions also work better with wet aggregates and in colder
weather.
 Bitumen emulsions break when sprayed or mixed with mineral aggregates in a

field construction process; the water is removed, and the asphalt remains as a
film on the surface of the aggregates.
 In contrast to cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsions can be applied to a damp

surface.
19
 The Air-Blown Bitumens
 The physical properties of the short residue are further modified by air-
blowing : a process in which a soft asphaltic residue is heated to a high
temperature in an oxidation tower where air is forced through the residue
either on a batch or a continuous basis.
 The process results in a dehydrogenation and polymerization of the residue.
The hard asphaltic material produced by this process is known as oxidized or
air-blown asphalt and is used almost entirely for industrial applications, such
as roofing, flooring, mastics, pipe coatings, paints, etc, but their use in road
construction is limited.
20
 Road Tars
 Tars are obtained from the destructive distillation of such organic materials as
coal.
 Their properties are significantly different from petroleum asphalts.
 In general, they are more susceptible to weather conditions than are similar
grades of asphalts, and they set more quickly when exposed to the
atmosphere.
 Tars are rarely used now for highway pavements.
21
 Several tests are conducted on bituminous materials to ascertain whether
materials used in highway construction meet the prescribed specification.
These include:
 Consistency Tests:
 Penetration Test
 Viscosity Test
 Float Test
 Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test
 Durability Tests:
 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFO)
22
 Rate of Curing:
 Distillation Test for Emulsions
 Distillation Test for Cutbacks
 Other general Tests:

 Specific Gravity Test
 Ductility Test
 Solubility Test
 Flash-Point Test
 Loss-on-Heating Test
23
 The consistency of bituminous materials is important in pavement
construction because the consistency at a specified temperature will
indicate the grade of the material.
 Because asphaltic materials exist in either liquid, semisolid, or solid
states, more than one method is for determining consistency of
asphaltic materials.
 The property generally used to describe the consistency of asphaltic
materials in the liquid state is the viscosity, which can be determined by
conducting either the Saybolt Furol viscosity test or the kinematic
viscosity test.
 Tests used for asphaltic materials in the semisolid and solid states
include the penetration test and the float test.
 The ring-and-ball softening point test may also be used for blown
asphalt.
24
 Penetration Test : The penetration test gives an empirical
measurement of the consistency of a semi-solid asphaltic material in
terms of the depth a standard needle penetrates into that material under
a prescribed loading and time. It is the bases for classifying semi-solid
bituminous materials into standard grades.
25
Consistency Tests:
 Say bolt Furol viscosity test is a test carried out by the
Saybolt Furol Viscometer which has a standard
viscometer tube, 12.7 cm (5 in) long and about 2.54 cm (1
in) in diameter with an orifice of specified shape and
dimensions provided at the bottom of the tube.
 When testing, the orifice is closed with a stopper, and the
tube is filled with a quantity of the material to be tested.
 The material in the tube is brought to the specified
temperature by heating in a water bath and when the
prescribed temperature is reached the stopper is removed,
and the time in seconds for exactly 60 millilitres of the
asphaltic material to flow through the orifice is
recorded.
26
 This time is the Saybolt Furol viscosity in units of seconds
at the specified temperature.
 Temperatures at which asphaltic materials for highway
construction are tested include 25ºC (77ºF), 50ºC (122ºF),
and 60ºC (140ºF).
 It is apparent that the higher the viscosity of the material,
the longer it takes for a given quantity to flow through the
orifice.
27
 Kinematic Viscosity Test : The test uses a capillary viscometer tube
to measure the time it takes the asphalt sample to flow at a specified
temperature between timing marks on the tube.
 Three types of viscometer tubes, namely Zeitfuch's cross-arm
viscometer, Asphalt Institute vacuum viscometer, and Cannon-Manning
vacuum viscometer(Absolute viscosity @ 60oc)are used.
28
 When the cross-arm viscometer is used, the test is started by placing the
viscometer tube in a thermostatically controlled constant temperature
bath, and a sample of the material to be tested is then preheated and
poured into the large side of the viscometer tube until the filling line
level is reached.
 The temperature of the bath is then brought to 135ºC (275ºF), and
some time is allowed for the viscometer and the asphalt to reach a time
mark.
 Flow is then induced by applying a slight pressure to the large opening
or a partial vacuum to the efflux (small) opening of the viscometer tube.
 This causes an initial flow of the asphalt over the siphon section just
above the filling line. Continuous flow is induced by the action of
gravitational forces.
 The time it takes for the material to flow between two timing marks is
recorded.
29
 The kinematic viscosity of the material in units of centistokes is
obtained by multiplying the time in seconds by a calibration factor for
the viscometer used.
 The calibration of each viscometer is carried out by using standard
calibrating oils with known viscosity characteristics.
 The factor for each viscometer is usually furnished by the manufacturer.
Unit of measure – Centistoke
Absolute viscosity = kinematic viscosity x

density
Eg. An asphalt cement with 800

centistoke kinematic viscosity and
density of 1.03, has an absolute viscosity
Standard Viscometer of 8 x 1.03 = 8.24 Poise 30
 Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test : used to measure
the susceptibility of asphaltic materials to temperature
changes by determining the temperature at which the
material will be adequately softened to allow a standard ball
to sink through it.
 A small brass ring of 15.875 mm (5/8 in) inside diameter
and 6.35 mm (1/4 in) high, a steel ball 9.525 mm (3/8 in) in
diameter, and a water or glycerin bath.
 The test is conducted by first placing a sample of the
material to be tested in the brass ring of 15.875 mm (5/8 in)
inside diameter, which is cooled and immersed in the water
or glycerin bath that is maintained at a temperature of 5ºC
(41ºF). 31
 Ring-and-Ball Softening Point Test
32
 The ring is immersed to a depth such that its bottom is
exactly 2.54 mm (1 in) above the bottom of the bath.
 The temperature of the bath is then gradually increased,
causing the asphalt to soften and permitting a steel ball
9.525 mm (3/8 in) in diameter to sink eventually to the
bottom of the bath.
 The temperature in at which the asphaltic material touches
the bottom of the bath is recorded as the softening point.
33
Consistency Tests:
 The float test: is used to determine the consistency of
semisolid asphalt materials that are more viscous than grade
3000 or have penetration higher than 300, since these
materials cannot be tested conveniently using either the
Saybolt Furol viscosity test or the penetration test.
 The brass collar is filled with a sample of the material to be
tested and then is attached to the bottom of the float and
chilled to a temperature of 5ºC (41ºF) by immersing it in ice
water.
 The temperature of the water bath is brought to 50ºC
(122ºF), and the collar (still attached to the float) is placed in
the water bath, which is kept at 50ºC (122ºF). 34
Float test cont..:
 The heat gradually softens the sample of asphaltic material
in the collar until the water eventually forces its way through
the plug into the aluminium float.
 The time in seconds that expires between the instant the
collar is placed in the water bath and that at which the
water forces its way through the bituminous plug is the
float test value, and it is a measure of consistency.
 It is apparent that the higher the float-test value, the stiffer
the material.
35
 Float test
• The float test
36
 Durability Tests :
 Thin-Film Oven Test (TFO): is a procedure that
measures the changes that take place in an asphalt
during the hot-mix process by subjecting the asphaltic
material to hardening conditions similar to those in a
normal hot-mix plant operation.
 The consistency of the material is determined before and
after the TFO procedure, using either the penetration test
or a viscosity test, to estimate the amount of hardening that
will take place in the material when used to produce plant
hot-mix.
37
 Durability Tests :
 The procedure is performed by pouring 50 cc of the material into a
cylindrical flat-bottom pan, 14 cm (5.5 in) inside diameter and 1 cm
(3/8 in) high. The pan containing the sample is then placed on a
rotating shelf in an oven and rotated for five hours at a temperature of
163ºC (325ºF). The amount of penetration after the TFO test is then
expressed as a percentage of that before the test to determine percent of
penetration retained. The minimum allowable percent of penetration
retained is usually specified for different grades of asphalt cement.
38
 Tests for Bituminous Materials :
 Other Tests
Ductility Test
 Ductility is the distance in centimetres a standard sample of asphaltic
material will stretch before breaking when tested on standard ductility
test equipment at 25oC (77oF).
 The result of this test indicates the extent to which the material can
he deformed without breaking.
 It also indicates the temperature susceptibility of binders. Bitumens
possessing high ductility are usually highly susceptible to temperature
while low ones are not.
39
 Other Tests
Ductility Test
 The test is used mainly for semisolid or solid materials,
which first are gently heated to facilitate flow and then are
poured into a standard mold to form a briquette of at least 1
cm2 in cross section.
 The material is then allowed to cool to 25ºC (77ºF) in a
water bath. The prepared sample is then placed in the
ductility machine and extended at a specified rate of speed
until the thread of material joining the two ends breaks.
 The distance (in centimetres) moved by the machine is the
ductility of the material.
40
 Other Tests
Solubility Test
 The solubility test is used to measure the amount of impurities
in the asphaltic material.
 Since asphalt is nearly 100 percent soluble in certain solvents, the
portion of any asphaltic material that will be effective in
cementing aggregates together can be determined from the
solubility test.
 Insoluble materials include free carbon, salts, and other inorganic
impurities.
 The test is conducted by dissolving a known quantity of the
material in a solvent, such as trichloroethylene, and then filtering
it through a Gooch Crucible.
 The material retained in the filter is dried and weighed. The test
results are given in terms of the percent of the asphaltic material
41
that dissolved in the solvent.
 Other Tests
Flash-Point Test
 The flash point of an asphaltic material is the temperature at which its
vapors will ignite instantaneously in the presence of an open flame.
 Note that the flash point is normally lower than the temperature at
which the material will burn.
 The test is conducted by partly filling the cup (either the Tagliabue
open-cup apparatus or the Cleveland open-cup) with the asphaltic
material and gradually increasing its temperature at a specified rate.
 A small open flame is passed over the surface of the sample at regular
intervals as the temperature increases.
42
 Other Tests
Flash-Point Test
 The increase in temperature will cause evaporation of volatile materials
from the material being tested, until a sufficient quantity of volatile
materials is present to cause an instantaneous flash when the open flame
is passed over the surface.
 The minimum temperature at which this occurs is the flash point.
 This temperature gives an indication of the temperature limit at which
extreme care should be taken, particularly when heating is done over
open flames in open containers.
43
 Other Tests
Specific Gravity Test
 The specific gravity of asphaltic materials varies with temperature – it is
therefore recorded as 1.41/25ºC.
 The test is normally conducted with the dry weight (W1) of the
pycnometer and stopper is obtained, and then the pycnometer is filled
with distilled water at the prescribed temperature. The weight (W2) of the
water and pycnometer together is determined. If the material to be tested
can flow easily into the pycnometer, then the pycnometer must be
completely filled with the material at the specified temperature after
pouring out the water. The weight W3 is then obtained. The specific
gravity of the asphaltic material is then given as
W3  W1
Gb 
W2  W1
Where Gb is the specific gravity of the asphaltic material and W1, W2, and
W3 are in grams.
44
 Other Tests
Specific Gravity Test
 If the asphaltic material cannot easily flow, a small sample of the
material is heated gradually to facilitate flow and then poured into the
pycnometer and left to cool to the specified temperature. The weight
W4 of pycnometer and material is then obtained. Water is then poured
into the pycnometer to completely fill the remaining space not occupied
by the material. The weight W5 of the filled pycnometer is obtained.
The specific gravity is then given as
W4  W1
Gb 
(W2  W )1  (W5  W4 )
45
 Other Tests
Loss-on-Heating Test
 The loss-on-heating test is used to determine the amount of
material that evaporates from a sample of asphalt under a
specified temperature and time.
 The result indicates whether an asphaltic material has been
contaminated with lighter materials.
 The test is conducted by pouring 50 g of the material to be
tested into a standard cylindrical tin and leaving it in an
oven for 5 hr at a temperature of 163ºC (325ºF).
46
 Other Tests
Loss-on-Heating Test
 The weight of the material remaining in the thin is determined, and the
loss in weight is expressed as a percentage of the original weight.
 The penetration of the sample may also he determined before and after
the test to determine the loss of penetration due to the evaporation of
the volatile material.
 This loss in penetration may be used as an indication of the weathering
characteristics of the asphalt.
47
 Rate of Curing
• Tests for curing is conducted to determine the time required for a
liquid asphaltic material to increase in its consistency on the
assumption that the external factors are held constant. Volatility
and quantity of solvent for cutbacks are commonly used to indicate
the rate of curing.
Distillation Test for Cutbacks
 In the distillation test, a sample of 200 cc of the material to be tested is
measured and poured into the graduated flask. The material is then
brought to boiling point by heating it with the burner. The evaporated
solvent is condensed and collected in the graduated cylinder. The
temperature in the flask is continuously monitored and the amount of
solvent collected in the graduated cylinder recorded when the
temperature in the flask reaches 190ºC (374ºF), 225ºC (437ºF), 260ºC
(500ºF), and 316ºC (600ºF). The amount of condensate collected at the
different specified temperatures gives an indication of the volatility
characteristics of the solvent.
48
 Rate of Curing
Distillation Test for Emulsions
 The distillation test for emulsions is similar to that described for
cutbacks. A major difference, however, is that the glass flask and
Bunsen burner are replaced with an aluminium alloy still and a ring
burner. This equipment prevents potential problems that may arise
from the foaming of the emulsified asphalt as it is being heated to a
maximum of 260ºC (500ºF).
49
Bitumen Grading System
50
Bitumen Grading System
ERA Design Manual 2013
51
Asphalt mixes – Flexible pavements
General
Asphalt mix consists of
Aggregates used in asphalt concrete: Aggregates
 coarse aggregates: retained on
2.36 mm sieve,
 fine aggregates: passing 2.36
mm sieve, and
 fillers: passing 0.075 mm sieve.
bitumen
ca 5 % 95%
 Recommended quality of coarse and fine
aggregates for use in premixed
53
Bitumen Aggregate Modifiers
~5% ~95%
•Hot /warm
Mixing process
•Cold
Laying and
compaction
WARM MIX ASPHALTS
Warm mix asphalts (WMAs) are asphalts produced, handled and
compacted at temperatures lower than those of conventional hot
asphalts.
This is achieved by lowering the viscosity of the binder using
additives or applying foaming processes, both known as WMA
systems. The aggregate mix gradation is the same as for the hot
mix variety.
Producing and using WMA have environmental and paving
benefits.
In the environmental aspect, fuel energy savings, reduction of
greenhouse gas emission and reduction of bitumen fumes, and
hence, improvement of workers’ welfare, are achieved.
COLD ASPHALTS
Cold asphalts are bituminous mixtures in which the binder
material is bituminous emulsion.
Cold because mixing, and hence laying, is carried out at ambient
temperatures
They are more easily to handle; they can be transported to longer
distances compared to hot asphalts
Cold asphalts require less total energy to be produced and laid, the
total greenhouse emissions is less and the working conditions and
labour safety are improved.
The limitations of the cold asphalts may be summarized in the
following:
They cannot be laid if rain is expected after laying;
Although they can be used for all pavement layers, as surface
course, cold asphalts are typically suitable for medium and
light traffic;
Quality control needs special attention particularly when mixed
in-place.
Despite the environmental, energy-saving and safety advantages
of cold asphalts, they are not as popular as hot asphalts.
Mix Design
■ Designing the mix – putting the binder and aggregate together to
meet design specifications economically.
■ Asphalt mix requirements
– Stability
– Durability
– Workability
– Flexibility
– Fatigue resistance
– Skid resistance
Volumetrics
We need to know something about mixture volumetrics before we can
use it to define optimum binder content (mix design) 
•Percentage of binder in the mix pb / ps

•Percentage of absorbed binder pba and effective binder pbe in the mix
•Maximum specific gravity of the asphalt mixture gmm
•Bulk specific gravity of the compacted mix or specimen gmb
•Percentage air voids in the compacted mix va (%air) VTM
•Voids in mineral aggregate VMA
•Voids filled with asphalt VFA
Mix Design
Volumetrics of bituminous mixes
Surface Voids
Vol. of water-perm.
voids not filled with
asphalt
Absorbed asphalt
Mix Design
Volumetrics of bituminous mixes Surface Voids
Volumetrics
Loose mix  Compacted specimen 

Gmm, Vba Gmb, % Air, VMA, VFA
Volumetrics
Asphalt Absorption
Absorption is expressed as a percentage by weight of aggregate rather
than as a percentage by total weight of mixture. Asphalt
absorption, Pba, is determined using:
Where,
Pba = absorbed asphalt, percent by weight of aggregate
Gse = effective specific gravity of aggregate
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of aggregate
Gb = specific gravity of asphalt
67
The effective asphalt content, Pbe
Is the total asphalt content minus the quantity of asphalt lost by absorption into
the aggregate particles.
It is the portion of the total asphalt content that remains as a coating
on the outside of the aggregate particles and it is the asphalt content
which governs the performance of an asphalt paving mixture. The formula is:
Where,
Pbe = effective asphalt content, percent by total weight of mixture
Pb = asphalt content, percent by total weight of mixture
Pba = absorbed asphalt, percent by weight of aggregate
Ps = aggregate content, percent by total weight of mixture
68
The voids in the mineral aggregate, VMA,
The intergranular void space between the aggregate particles in a compacted
paving mixture that includes the air voids and the effective asphalt content,
expressed as a percent of the total volume.
The VMA is calculated on the basis of the bulk specific gravity of the aggregate and is expressed as
a percentage of the bulk volume of the compacted paving mixture.
Therefore, the VMA can be calculated by subtracting the volume of the aggregate determined by its
bulk specific gravity from the bulk volume of the compacted paving mixture.
If the mix composition is determined as percent by weight of total mixture:
Where,
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume
Gsb = bulk specific gravity of total aggregate
Gmb = bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
Ps = aggregate content, percent by total weight of mixture
69
Air Voids, Va
The total volume of the small pockets of air (air spaces) between the coated
aggregate particles throughout a compacted paving mixture, expressed as
percent of the bulk volume of the compacted paving mixture.
The volume percentage of air voids in a compacted mixture can be

determined using:
Where,
Va = air voids in compacted mixture, percent of total volume
Gmm = maximum specific gravity of paving mixture (as determined in Section 3.4.5 or as
measured directly for a paving mixture by ASTM D 2041)
Gmb = bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
70
The voids filled with asphalt, VFA
The percentage of the intergranular void space between the aggregate particles
(VMA) that are filled with asphalt. VFA, not including the absorbed
asphalt, is determined using:
Where,
VFA = voids filled with asphalt, percent of VMA
VMA = voids in mineral aggregate, percent of bulk volume
Va= air voids in compacted mixture, percent of total volume
71
Significance of air void
•Mixes whose air voids content less than 2 – 3% fail by rutting.
Air Void content
Pavement age
Significance of air void
•Mixes whose air voids content less than 2 – 3% fail by rutting.
Sufficient void Low void content

content
High void content is also not beneficial, as it allows free circulation of air
and water, giving oxidation and stripping/raveling problems respectively.
Mix Design methods for asphalt concrete
1. Marshall mix design method
2. Superpave mix design method*
Mainly differ in sample preparation/compaction methods

plus testing the specimens.
Marshall mix design – Steps
1. Determine specific gravities of selected binder and
aggregates
2. Prepare the test specimens with appropriate compaction
effort
3. Test the specimens
– Bulk specific gravity of compacted specimen
– Stability
– Flow
– Specific gravity of loose mix
4. Compute %air voids in compacted mix
5. Compute VMA in %
6. Selection of binder content
7. Check specification values at optimum binder content
Marshall mix design – preparation of specimens
■ Samples with dimensiones: 102 mm diameter and
63 mm thick
■ Standard compaction effort
– 4.5 kg fall height 457 mm
■ Specimens at 6 different binder content, and 3

specimens at each binder content, i.e 18 samples
■ Determine viscosity of binder at different temp
using rotational viscometer and select Mixing and
Compaction temp
■ Mixing temp corresponding to a viscosity of 0.17
+/- 0.02 Pa.s
■ Heat dry aggregate with a temp not exceeding Mix
temp + 28 C
■ Place the heated mix in compaction mould (pre
heated) and compact
Mixing and Compaction temp
Marshall mix design –
preparation of specimens
Marshall mix design – Steps
Testing samples
1. Determine bulk sp. gravity of specimens
2. Condition the specimen in water bath at 60C for
30-40 minutes
3. Conduct Marshall stability test – determine
stability and flow for each specimen
4. Test should be completed within 30 seconds after
removing from water bath
Marshall mix design - Testing
Marshall mix design – Testing
Test temp 60C

• Stability
• Flow
Marshall mix design – Testing
Marshall mix design – volumetric analysis
■ Compute Air voids, VFA, VMA, etc for each specimen.
1. Marshall mix design method –optimum binder
content
Marshall Criteria example
SURFACE TREATMENTS
SURFACE TREATMENTS
A surface treatment comprises a thin film of binder,
generally bitumen or tar, which is sprayed onto the
road surface and then covered with a layer of stone
chippings.
The thin film of binder acts as a waterproofing seal preventing the
entry of surface water into the road structure.
The stone chippings protect this film of binder from damage by vehicle
tires, and form a durable, skid-resistant and dust-free
wearing surface.
In some circumstances the process may be repeated to
provide double or triple layers of chippings.
92
93
SINGLE SURFACE TREATMENT
A single surface treatment would not normally be used on a new

road base because of the risk that the film of bitumen will not give
complete coverage.
It is also particularly important to minimize the need for future
maintenance and a double dressing should be considerably more
durable than a single dressing.
When applied as a maintenance operation to an existing bituminous
road surface a single surface treatment can fulfill the functions
required of a maintenance re-seal, namely waterproofing the road
surface, arresting deterioration, and restoring skid resistance.
94
DOUBLE SURFACE TREATMENT
Double surface treatments should be used when:
A new road base is surface treated.
Extra ‘cover’ is required on an existing bituminous road surface
because of its condition (e.g. slightly cracked or patched surface).
There is a requirement to maximize durability and minimize the frequency of
maintenance and resealing operations.
The quality of a double surface treatment will be
enhanced of traffic is allowed to run on the first
treatment for a minimum period of 2-3 weeks before
the second treatment is applied.
This allows the chippings of the first treatment to
adopt a stable interlocking mosaic, which provides a
firm foundation for the second treatment.
95
TRIPLE SURFACE TREATMENT
A triple surface treatment may be used to
advantage where a new road is expected to carry
high traffic volumes.
The application of a small chipping in the third seal
will
Reduce noise generated by traffic and
The additional binder will ensure a longer maintenance-
free service life
96
Chippings for Surface Treatments
Ideally, chippings used for surface treatment should
be single sized, cubical in shape, clean and free from dust, strong, durable,
and not susceptible to polishing under the action of traffic.
It is recommended that chippings used of surface

treatment should comply with the requirements of
Table 4-12 for higher levels of traffic, and to the
requirements of Table 4-13 for lightly trafficked roads
of up to 250 vehicles per day:
97
Table 4-12: Grading Limits, Specified Size and Maximum
Flakiness Index for Surface Treatment Aggregates
98
Table 4-13: Grading Limits, Specified Size and Maximum
Flakiness Index for Surface Treatment Aggregates for
Lightly Trafficked Roads
99
Samples of the chippings should be tested for grading,
flakiness index, aggregate crushing value and, when
appropriate, the polished stone value and aggregate
abrasion value.
Specifications for maximum aggregate crushing value
(ACV) for surface treatment chippings typically lie in
the range 20 to 35. For lightly trafficked roads the
higher value is likely to be adequate but on more
heavily trafficked roads a maximum ACV of 20 is
recommended.
The polished stone value (PSV) of the chippings is
important if the primary purpose of the surface
treatment is to restore or enhance the skid resistance
of the road surface.
100
The PSV required in a particular situation is related
to the nature of the road site and the speed and
intensity of the traffic.
The resistance to skidding is also dependent upon
the macro texture of the surface which, in turn, is
affected by the durability of the exposed aggregate.
101
The nominal sizes of chippings normally used for surface
treatment are 6, 10, 14 and 20 mm.
Flaky chippings are those with a thickness (smallest
dimension) less than 0.6 of their nominal size.
In effect, the (average least dimension )ALD is the average
thickness of a single layer of chippings when they have bedded down into
their final interlocked positions.
The amount of binder required to retain a layer of
chippings is thus related to the ALD of the chippings rather
than to their nominal size.
The most critical period for a surface treatment occurs
immediately after the chippings have been spread on the
binder film.
102
PRIME COATS
Where a surface treatment is to be applied to a previously untreated road
surface it is essential that the surface should be dry, clean and as dust-
free as possible.
The functions of a prime coat is summarized as follows:
Maintain adhesion between the road base and a surface treatment
by pre-coating the road base and penetrating surface voids.
Seal the surface pores in the road base thus reducing the absorption
of the first spray of binder of the surface treatment.
Strengthen the road base near its surface by binding the finer particles
of aggregate together.
If the application of the surface treatment is delayed for some
reason it provides the road base with a temporary protection against
rainfall and light traffic until the surfacing can be laid.
103
Determining the average least dimension of chippings (ALD)
It is assumed that the particles will settle with their least dimension
being vertical.
The ALD of chippings is a function of both the average size of the
chippings, as determined by normal square mesh sieves, and the
degree of flakiness.
The ALD may be determined
A grading analysis is performed on a representative sample of the chippings
The sieve size through which 50 per cent of the chippings pass is
determined (i.e. the ‘median size').
The flakiness index is then also determined.
The ALD of the chippings is then derived from the nomograph shown in
Figure 7-5.
106
Figure 7-5
Determination of average
least dimension
107
Determining the overall weighting factor
The ALD of the chippings is used with an overall weighting factor
to determine the basic rate of bitumen spray.
The overall weighting factor F' is determined by adding together
four factors that represent:
the level of traffic,
the condition of the existing road surface,
the climate and
the type of chippings that will be used.
Factors appropriate to the site to be surface dressed are selected
from Table 7-6.
108
Table 7-6: Weighting factors for surface dressing design
109
 For example, if flaky chippings (factor -2) are
to be used at a road site carrying medium to
heavy traffic (factor - 1) and which has a very
rich bituminous surface (factor -3) in a wet
tropical climate (factor +1) the overall
weighting factor 'F' is: -2-1-3 + 1 = -5
110
Determining the basic bitumen spray rate
Using the ALD and 'F' values in the following
equation will give the required basic rate of
spread of binder.
R = 0.625+(F*0.023)+[0.0375+(F*0.0011)]ALD
Where
• F = Overall weighting factor
• ALD = the average least dimension of the chippings (mm)
• R = Basic rate of spread of bitumen (kg/m2)
111
Alternatively, the two values can be used in the design chart given in
Figure 7-6.
The intercept between the appropriate factor line and the ALD line is
located and the rate of spread of the binder is then read off directly at
the bottom of the chart.
The basic rate of spread of bitumen (R) is the mass of MC3000
binder per unit area on the road surface immediately after spraying.
The relative density of MC3000 can be assumed to be 1.0 and the
spread rate can therefore also be expressed in lt/m2, however,
calibration of a distributor is easier to do by measuring spray rates in
terms of mass.
112
Figure 7-6:
Surface dressing
design chart
113
The basic rate of spread of binder must also be modified to allow for the type of
binder used. The following modifications are appropriate:
Penetration grade binders: decrease the rate of spread by
10 per cent.
Cutback binders: for MC/RC 3000 no modification is
required. (In the rare cases when cutbacks with lower
viscosity are used the rate of spread should be
increased to allow for the additional percentage of
cutter used).
Emulsion binders: multiply the rate of spread given in the
chart by 90/bitumen content of the emulsion (per
cent). This calculation includes a reduction of ten per
cent for the residual penetration grade binder.
114
Spread rate of chippings
An estimate of the rate of application of the chippings
assuming that the chippings have a loose density of
1.35Mg/m3, can be obtained from the following
equation:
Chipping application rate (kg/m2) = 1 .364*ALD
The chipping application rate should be regarded as a
rough guide only.
It is useful in estimating the quantity of chippings that
is required for a surface dressing project before
crushing and stockpiling of the chippings is carried out.
115
The rate is determined
from Figure for the
given ALD at the
interception of line AB.
The rate at which
chippings should be
spread depends on their
size, shape and specific
gravity, but rates can be
estimated using Figure 7-
7.
116
117
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118

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UNITY UNIVERSITY

DEPARTEMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Natural Bitumen Refinery Bitumen

Penetration grade Liquid bitumen

Slow curing Medium curing Rapid curing Anionic Cationic

Trinidad Lake Asphalt

 Bitumen emulsions break when sprayed or mixed with mineral aggregates in a

 In contrast to cutback bitumen, bitumen emulsions can be applied to a damp

 Other general Tests:

Unit of measure – Centistoke

Absolute viscosity = kinematic viscosity x

Eg. An asphalt cement with 800

ERA Design Manual 2013

•Percentage of binder in the mix pb / ps

Loose mix  Compacted specimen 

The volume percentage of air voids in a compacted mixture can be

Air Void content

Sufficient void Low void content

Mainly differ in sample preparation/compaction methods

■ Specimens at 6 different binder content, and 3

Test temp 60C

A single surface treatment would not normally be used on a new

It is recommended that chippings used of surface

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