Second Year Physics

Prepared by Waqar Hussain

Index
Ch. No Chapters Name Pages
11 Heat 2-31
Numericals
12 Electrostatics 32-53
Numericals
13 Current Electricity 54-64
Numericals
14 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 65-91
Numericals
15 Electrical measuring instruments 92-101
Numericals
16 Electromagnetic waves and 102-116
Electronics
Numericals
17 Advent of Physics 117-134
Numericals
18 The Atomic Spectra 135-147
Numericals
19 The Atomic Nucleus 148-157
Numericals
20 Nuclear Radiations 158-161
Numericals

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Chapter 11

HEAT
Heat:
The energy that flows due the temperature difference between two bodies is called heat.
Temperature:
Temperature is a physical quantity which is directly proportional to the average translational
kinetic energy of molecules of a body or system.

Different Temperature Scales:

Three different temperature scales are developed for the determination of temperature of the
Body.

These are:

1) Celsius scale

2) Fahrenheit Scale

3) Kelvin scale

Celsius Scale:

On Celsius scale the freezing point of water is selected to

be 0oC, boiling point of water is selected to be 100oC, and
the region between them is divided into 100 equal
segments representing 1oC.

Fahrenheit Scale:

On Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is selected to be 32 oF, and boiling point of
water is selected to be 212oF and the region between them is divided into 180 equal segments
representing 1oF.

Relationship between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale:

Mathematical relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale is given by following relation.

𝟓
𝑻𝑪 = (𝑻 − 𝟑𝟐)
𝟗 𝑭

𝟗
𝑻𝑭 = (𝑻 ) + 𝟑𝟐
𝟓 𝑪

Here 𝑇𝐶 and 𝑇𝐹 represent the temperature in Celsius and Fahrenheit, respectively.

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Kelvin scale:
On Kelvin scale the freezing point of water is selected to be 273K and boiling point of water is
selected to be 373K and the region between them is divided into 100 equal segments
representing 1K. Segment on Kelvin scale is equal to the segment on Celsius scale.

Unit of temperature:
The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin and it is defined as
1
The273.15of thermodynamic temperature of triple point of water is called 1 Kelvin.

Law of Heat Exchange:

Heat lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of heat gain by the colder body.
Heat lost = Heat gain

Thermometric Properties:
Property of a substance, which changes uniformly with the change in temperature, is called
Thermometric property.
For Example:
Volume of gases, electrical resistance of a material or electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
material etc.

Thermal Expansion:
Change in physical dimension of a body (e-g length, Area or volume) with the change in
temperature is called Thermal expansion.
Explanation:
According to classical physics, molecules of substances are in continuous vibratory motion
about their mean position with certain amplitude. When a material is heated its molecule
absorb energy, which causes an increase in amplitude of the vibrating molecules that is way the
gap between them is increased and results in their change in dimension (e-g Length, Area and
Volume).

Type of Thermal Expansion:

There are following type of thermal expansion:

• Linear Expansion.
• Volumetric Expansion.
• Areal Expansion

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Linear Expansion:
The phenomenon in which length of an object Changes due to change in its temperature is
called Linear Expansion.

OR

The phenomenon in which length of an object changes on heating is called Linear Expansion.

Mathematical Expression:
Experimentally it is found that change in length is directly proportional to the original length Lo
and change in temperature ∆T.

∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿𝑜
∆𝐿 ∝ ∆𝑇

∆𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳𝒐 ∆𝑻 --------- (1)

Where α is constant of proportionality and termed as coefficient of linear expansion it may be

defined as:

“Fractional change in length per unit change in temperature.”

OR

“Change in length per unit original length per unit temperature.”

∆𝑳
𝜶=
𝑳𝒐 ∆𝑻

Numerical value of α depends upon material and temperature range.

If 𝐿𝑓 is the final length then change in length can be expressed as

∆𝑳 = 𝑳𝒇 − 𝑳𝒐

Equation (1) becomes

𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿𝑜 = 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇

𝐿𝑓 = 𝐿𝑜 + 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇

𝑳𝒇 = 𝑳𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

Replacing ∆T by the difference between final temperature “𝑇𝑓 ”and initial temperature “𝑇𝑖 “we
get:

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𝑳𝒇 = 𝑳𝒐 {𝟏 + 𝜶(𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )}

Above expression gives the relation among final length, original length and change in
temperature.

Volumetric Expansion:
The phenomenon in which Volume of an object Changes due to change in its temperature is
called Volumetric Expansion.

OR

The phenomenon in which volume of an object changes on heating is called Volumetric

Expansion.

Mathematical Expression:
Experimentally it is found that change in volume is directly proportional to the original volume
Vo and change in temperature ∆T.

∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉𝑜

∆𝑉 ∝ ∆𝑇

∆𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝒐 ∆𝑻 --------- (1)

Where β is constant of proportionality and termed as coefficient of volumetric expansion it may

be defined as

“Fractional change in volume per unit change in temperature.”

OR

“Change in volume per unit original volume per unit temperature.”

∆𝑽
𝜷=
𝑽𝒐 ∆𝑻

Numerical value of βstrictly depends upon temperature and material.

If 𝑉𝑓 is the final volume then change in volume can be expressed as

∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒐

Equation (1) becomes

𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑇

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑇

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𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝜷∆𝑻)

Replacing ∆T by the difference between final temperature “T f” and initial temperature “Ti “we
get

𝑽𝒇 = 𝑽𝒐 {𝟏 + 𝜷(𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )}

Above expression gives the relation among final volume, original volume and change in
temperature.

Relation between Coefficient of linear and volumetric expression:

Consider a box of dimensions l, w, and h. Its volume at some temperature 𝑇𝑜 is𝑉𝑜 . If the
temperature changes to Tf and its volume changes to V0+∆V. Where each dimension changes
according to relation

𝑳𝒇 = 𝑳𝒐 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

New dimensions will be

𝒍𝒇 = 𝒍(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

𝒘𝒇 = 𝒘(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉(𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

If Vf is final volume, then

𝑉𝑜 + ∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑓

But
𝑉𝑓 = 𝑙𝑓 𝑤𝑓 ℎ𝑓

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑙(1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)𝑤(1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) ℎ(1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ(1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)3

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)3

Using the mathematical relation

(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2

Equation (1) will become

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 (1 + 𝛼 3 ∆𝑇 3 + 3𝛼∆𝑇 + 3𝛼 2 ∆𝑇 2 )
As α is very small in magnitude neglecting its higher powers we get

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 (1 + 3𝛼∆𝑇) ----------- (2)

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Now, equation for volumetric expansion may be written as

𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜 (1 + 𝛽∆𝑇) ------------- (3)

Comparing equation (1) and (2) we get

𝜷 = 𝟑𝜶
Hence, coefficient of linear expansion is thrice the coefficient of volumetric expansion.

Bimetallic Thermostat:
It is a temperature sensitive device, which works on the principle of thermal expansion.
Construction:
It is made by joining two strips of metals with different coefficient of linear expansion

Working principle:
As the temperature of the strip increases, the two metals expand by different amounts and the
strip bends. The change in shape can make or break an electrical connection. As shown in
figure.

Kinetic Molecular Theory:

In 19th century Scientist give assumption on which they define an ideal gas. According to these
assumptions an ideal gas is a gas which follows following assumptions:

• A gas consists of small hard spherical balls called molecules of that gas.
• There is no molecular force of attraction between two molecules of a gas.
• The collision between two molecules or with the surface container of a gas is perfectly
elastic.
• The pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the number of collision of molecules
with the surface of container.
• The temperature of a gas is directly proportional to average kinetic energy of the
molecules of gas.
• The laws of mechanics are applicable on the molecules of gas.

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• Molecules move in a straight line until they collide with another molecule or with the
walls of container.
• The separation between two molecules is very large as compare to the size of the
molecule.
• At S.T.P 1𝑚3 of an ideal gas container contain 3 × 1025 molecules.

Gas Laws:
Physical laws that relate pressure, volume mass and temperature of a gas are called gas laws.

Boyles law:
In 1660 Robert Boyles Studied the relation between the pressure and the volume of a gas and
conclude an empirical law Known as Boyles Law.
Statement:
According to Boyles Law
“Volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure keeping the
temperature of gas constant.”
Mathematically
1
𝑉∝
𝑃
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉=
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Graphical Representation:
Pressure versus Volume graph of Boyle’s law is given below. From graph it is clear that the
relation between pressure and volume is hyperbolic. If P1 and V1 are pressure and volume at
point “i” and P2 and V2 are pressure and volume at point “f” than according to Boyle’s law:

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𝑃1 𝑉1 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑃2 𝑉2 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
Or
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Above equation is called sate form of Boyle’s law.

Charles Law:
In 1787 Jacques Charles studied the relation between the volume and temperature at constant
pressure.

Statement:
“Volume of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature keeping the
pressure of gas constant.”

Mathematically
𝑉∝𝑇

𝑉 = (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑇
𝑉
= (𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑇
Graphical Representation:
Volume versus Temperature graph of Charles’s law is given below
From graph it can be seen that volume of an ideal gas at constant pressure is linearly related
with the temperature and Volume is mathematically (or theoretically) Zero at -273 o C. this
point is called Absolute zero.

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Absolute zero can be defined as:

“It is the temperature, at which Volume of an ideal gas is theoretically Zero.”

Hence Charles law is not applicable at Zero Kelvin because:

• At zero Kelvin nothing can exist in gaseous state and Charles law is only applicable on
gases.
• According to law of conservation of energy volume of an any material cannot be zero at
any temperature.

General Gas Law:

Consider the gas Laws

According to Boyle’s Law:

“Volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure keeping the
temperature of gas constant.”
1
𝑃∝
𝑉
Or
1
𝑉∝
𝑃
According to Charles Law:
“Volume of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature keeping the
pressure of gas constant.”
𝑉∝𝑇
According to Avogadro Law

“Volume of given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles keeping the
pressure and temperature of gas constant.”
𝑉∝𝑛

Combine all laws given above we get

𝑛𝑇
𝑉∝
𝑃
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉=
𝑃
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Where R is called general Gas Constant and it has numerical value of 8.313 Jmol-1 K-1.
𝑃𝑉
𝑅= − − − − − − − −(1)
𝑛𝑇

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Now if P1, V1, T1 and P2, V2, T2 are pressure, volume and temperature at two different instant
then equation (1) becomes
𝑃1 𝑉1
𝑅= − − − − − − − −(2)
𝑛𝑇1
𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑅= − − − − − − − −(3)
𝑛𝑇2
Combining above equations we get
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑛𝑇1 𝑛𝑇2

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

Pressure of an Ideal Gas (Pressure Equation):

Consider a cubical container of dimensions equal to “L”
containing N number of molecules of an ideal gas. Each is
having mass “m”. Let one of the n molecules is moving along X-
direction with velocity vx and after striking the wall of the
container it bounces back in opposite direction.

Change in the momentum of the molecule can be written as

Initial momentum: 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣1𝑥

Final momentum: 𝑝𝑓 = −𝑚𝑣1𝑥

Change in momentum = Final momentum - Initial momentum

∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖

∆𝑝 = −𝑚𝑣1𝑥 − 𝑚𝑣1𝑥

∆𝑝 = −2𝑚𝑣1𝑥
Time taken during the complete trip can be find out as

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑡
Here
S=2L
V=vx
t=∆t

2𝐿 = 𝑣1𝑥 ∆𝑡

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2𝐿
∆𝑡 =
𝑣1𝑥
Force responsible for the change in momentum can be written as

∆𝑝
𝐹=
∆𝑡

−2𝑚𝑣1𝑥
𝐹𝑥 =
2𝐿/𝑣1𝑥

2
𝑣1𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = −𝑚
𝐿

This is the force exerted by the wall on the molecule. According to the third law of motion, the
force exerted by the molecule on the wall is equal and opposite.

2
𝑣1𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚
𝐿

Similarly, the forces due to “N” molecules can be written as

𝑚 2 2 2 2 )
𝐹𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥
𝐿 1𝑥
Since pressure is defined as force per unit area

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
𝑚 2 2 2 2 )
1
𝑃𝑥 = (𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 × 2
𝐿 L
𝑚 2 2 2 2 )
𝑃𝑥 = (𝑣 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥
𝐿3 1𝑥
Multiply by N/N
2 2 2 2 )
𝑚 (𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥
𝑃𝑥 = 𝑁
𝐿3 𝑁

Now since Nm is equal mass of the gas enclose and L3 is the volume of container hence density
of the gas “ρ” can be written as:
𝑁𝑚
𝜌= 3
𝐿

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Similarly, square mean of the velocities can be written as

2
(𝑣1𝑥 2 2 2 )
+ 𝑣2𝑥 + 𝑣3𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥
𝑉𝑥2 =
𝑁

Now pressure can be written as

𝑃𝑥 = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2
Using pascal principle 𝑃𝑥 = 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑃𝑧 = 𝑃
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑉𝑥2 -------------------------------- (1)

For molecule having all three components of velocity

𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2

For𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣𝑧2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑥2

𝑣 2 = 3𝑣𝑥2
𝑣2
= 𝑣𝑥2
3
Putting in equation (1) we get
1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3

Above equation is called Pressure equation or an ideal gas.

Kinetic Energy of Molecules of an Ideal Gas:

Consider the pressure equation for ideal gas
1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3
Since
𝑁𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

1 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑃= 𝑣
3 𝑉
1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝑣 2
3
Using General Gas law PV=nRT
1
𝑛𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝑚𝑣 2 − − − −(1)
3

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Number of moles can be expressed in terms of number of molecules (N) and Avogadro number
(NA) as:

𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
Equation (1) becomes
𝑁 1
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑁𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁𝐴 3

𝑅 1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − −(2)
𝑁𝐴 3
Here
𝑅
= 𝐾𝐵
𝑁𝐴
Where KB is called Boltzmann Constant

Equation (2) becomes

1
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
3
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
Dividing both sides with 2 we get
3 1
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
1
Since 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝟑
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝑲 𝑻
𝟐 𝑩
Above equation represent the kinetic energy of molecules of an ideal gas. From above equation
it is clear that Kinetic energy of molecule is dependent only on temperature of the gas.
Hence
𝑲. 𝑬 ∝ 𝑻
Derivation of Gas Laws from Pressure equation:

Boyles Law:

Consider the pressure equation for ideal gas

1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3
Since
𝑁𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

1 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑃= 𝑣
3 𝑉

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1
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚𝑣 2 − − − − − (1)
3

Now from relation for kinetic energy of molecule of an ideal gas

3
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾 𝑇
2 𝐵

3 1
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
Separating velocity

3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑣2 =
𝑚
Putting above in equation (1) we get

1 3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑚
3 𝑚

𝑃𝑉 = (𝑁𝐾𝐵 𝑇)
Hence
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Or
𝟏
𝑽∝
𝑷

Hence volume of an ideal gas is found to be inversely proportional to its pressure keeping other
factors constant which is according to Boyles Law.

Charles Law:
Consider the pressure equation for ideal gas
1 2
𝑃= 𝜌𝑣
3
Since
𝑁𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉

1 𝑁𝑚 2
𝑃= 𝑣
3 𝑉

1
𝑉= 𝑁 𝑚𝑣 2 − − − − − (1)
3𝑃
Now

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3
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾 𝑇
2 𝐵

3 1
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
Separating velocity
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑣2 =
𝑚
Putting above in equation (1)
1 3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑉= 𝑁𝑚
3𝑃 𝑚

𝑁𝐾𝐵
𝑉=( )𝑇
𝑃
Hence
𝑉 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑇
Or
𝑽∝𝑻
Hence volume of an ideal gas is found to be directly proportional to the absolute temperature
which is according to Charles Law.

Root Mean Square Velocity of Molecule of an Ideal Gas(𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 ):

Consider the relation for kinetic energy of an ideal gas
3
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2
3 1
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
Separating velocity
3𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝑣2 =
𝑚
Taking Squaring on both side

𝟑𝑲𝑩 𝑻
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √
𝒎

Heat Capacity:
Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body by 1Kis called Heat capacity of the
body.
Mathematically heat capacity (C) can be expressed as

∆𝑸
𝑪=
∆𝑻

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Specific Heat Capacity:

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of a material by 1Kis called Specific
Heat Capacity.
Mathematically Specific heat capacity (c) can be expressed as

∆𝑸
𝒄=
𝒎∆𝑻

The unit of specific heat capacity is Joules per Kilogram per Degree Kelvin 𝑱. 𝑲𝒈−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏

Molar Specific Heat:

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of substance by 1Kis called Molar
Specific Heat.

Mathematically:
Consider relation for specific Heat of a substance

∆𝑄
𝑐= − − − − − −(1)
𝑚∆𝑇

Number of moles (n) can be defined as the ratio of mass of the substance (m) and its molecular mass
(M);
𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀

𝑚 = 𝑛𝑀
Putting in equation (1) we get
∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑛𝑀∆𝑇

∆𝑄
(𝑀)(𝑐) =
𝑛∆𝑇

∆𝑸
𝑴𝑪 =
𝒏∆𝑻

Here MC is called molar specific heat of the substance and its unit is𝑱. 𝒎𝒐𝒍−𝟏 𝑲−𝟏 .

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DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY:

Heat capacity of the material can be determined by method of mixture.
PRINCIPLE:
“Heat loss by hot bodies is equivalent to heat gain by cold bodies.”
METHOD:
In this method, hot substance is mixed with cold substance because of which hot body will lose
heat, which is gain, by cold body, which result in rise in temperature of cold body. The specific
heat capacity of unknown material can be determined by using liquid & calorimeter of known
masses, specific heat & temperature using following relation.

(𝒎𝒘 𝒄𝒘 + 𝒎𝒄 𝒄𝒄 )(𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 )
𝒄𝒃 =
(𝑻𝒃 − 𝑻𝒇 )𝒎𝒃

Where,
• Cb is the specific heat capacity of material of bob (unknown).
• mb is mass of bob.
• Cc is the specific heat capacity of material of Calorimeter.
• mc is mass of calorimeter.
• Cw is the specific heat capacity of water.
• mw is mass of water.
• Ti is the initial temperature of water.
• Tf is the final temperature of water after placing heated bob.
• Tb is the temperature of heated bob.

Molar specific heats of an ideal gas:

Molar specific heat of an ideal gas be defined in two ways
I-e
1. At Constant Volume.
2. At Constant Pressure.

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume:

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gas by 1K in such a way that gas is not
allowed to expand (At constant volume) is called Molar Specific Heat at Constant Volume and it
is represented by CV.

Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure:

Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gas by 1K in such a way that gas is
allowed to expand (At constant pressure) is called Molar Specific Heat at Constant pressure and
it is represented by CP.

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Thermodynamics:
“The Branch of thermal physics which deals with the study of interconversion Heat energy and
other form of energies is called Thermodynamics.”

Work Done in Thermodynamics:

Consider a thermodynamic system such as a gas in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston.
When the gas is heated the gas in container is allowed to expand and results in increase in
height of the piston (ℎ) (due to increase in volume) to Work done by the system can be written
as

∆𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 − −(1)
Since
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Or 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
Equation (1) becomes
∆𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴ℎ
Since 𝐴ℎ = ∆𝑉(change in volume)
∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉
Above equation, represent work done in thermodynamics. It
shows that if volume is increased, the work will be positive and if
volume is decreased, the work will be negative.

First Law of Thermodynamics:

Statement:
“The net heat flow into the system is equal to the sum of
total work done and change in internal energy.”
Mathematical Expression:
Let ∆𝑄 is the amount of heat energy absorbed or extract out from the system and due to that
work is done represented by ∆𝑊and internal energy is changed by amount ∆𝑈. Then
accordingto; first law of thermodynamics:
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Sign convention:
• Heat absorbed +ve.
• Heat ejected or lost –ve.
• Work done by the system +ve.
• Work done on the system –ve.
• Final internal energy is greater change in internal energy will be +ve.
• Final internal energy is lesser change in internal energy will be -ve.

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Application of First Law of Thermodynamics:

Using first Law of thermodynamics 4 thermodynamic processes can be define
• Isobaric process.
• Isochoric process.
• Isothermal process.
• Adiabatic process
Isobaric Process:
Such a thermodynamic process in which pressure of the gas enclosed remain same throughout
the process is called Isobaric process.
Explanation:
Consider a thermodynamic system such as a gas in a cylinder
fitted with a movable piston. When the gas is heated the gas
in container is allowed to expand and results in increase in
height of the piston (ℎ) (due to increase in volume) to Work
done by the system can be written as
∆𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑑 − −(1)

𝐹
Since 𝑃=
𝐴
Or
𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
Equation (1) becomes
∆𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴ℎ
Since 𝐴ℎ = ∆𝑉 (change in volume)
∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉
Now according to first law of thermodynamics
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾

Putting value of Work in above equation we get

∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + 𝑷∆𝑽
Above equation represent Isobaric process. So, in isobaric process heat supplied to the system
is used partially to change the internal energy and partially to do work.

Graph of Isobaric process:

Graph of an isobaric process is a straight line parallel to x-axis.

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Isochoric Process:
Such a thermodynamic process in which the Volume the
gas enclosed remains same throughout the process is
called isochoric process.
Explanation:
Consider a thermodynamic system such as a gas in a
cylinder fitted with a fixed piston. Hence when the gas
is heated it is not allowed to expand and no work is
done.
Now according to first law of thermodynamics
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Since work done is zero. Hence,

∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼

Above equation represent Isochoric process. So, in isochoric process heat supplied to the
system is used completely to change the internal energy.

Graph of Isochoric process:

Graph of an isobaric process is a straight line parallel to y-axis.

Isothermal Process:
Such a thermodynamic process in which the temperature of the gas enclosed remains same
throughout the process is called isothermal process.
Explanation:
Consider a thermodynamic system, have
some weights placed on it to provide the
required external pressure, the base of the
system is perfectly heat conducting and
walls are perfectly none conducting. If the
weights on the piston are decreased the
external pressure become less than the
internal pressure and gas expands and
temperature start to decrease but since the
base is perfectly conducting it will absorb
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more heat energy and temperature will remain same (or remains at a constant value).
Now according to first law of thermodynamics
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Since temperature remains constant, therefore, there will be no change in internal energy.
Hence, above equation will become
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑾
Hence for an isothermal process all the heat energy absorbed is utilized in doing work with no
change in internal energy.

Graph of Isothermal process:

Graph of an isobaric process is a Hyperbola.

Adiabatic Process:
Such a thermodynamic process in which no heat flows
in or out of the system is called adiabatic process.
Explanation:
Consider a thermodynamic system such as a gas in a
cylinder fitted with a movable piston. The walls and
base of the container are perfectly insulated from its
surrounding and no heat flow in or out of the system.
If the piston is pressed and the gas is allowed to
compress than the internal energy of the gas is
increased but no heat will flow in or out of the system.
Now according to first law of thermodynamics
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Since no Heat in flown
∆𝑼 = −∆𝑾
So, in Adiabatic process no heat is flow or out of the system and Change in internal energy is
Equal to the negative of the Work done.

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Graph of Adiabatic process:
Graph of an adiabatic process is a Hyperbola.

Relation between Specific Heat at Constant Pressure and Specific Heat

at Constant Volume:
Consider a gas in a container if we heat the gas so that gas is
allowed to expand and pressure of the gas remain constant
all the heat energy will be used to increase the internal
energy of the gas and to do work than according to first law
of thermodynamics.
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Since

Above equation will become

∆𝑄𝑃 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 − − − − − (1)
Using general gas law
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Hence
𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇

Putting in Equation (1) we get

∆𝑄𝑃 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇
Since
∆𝑄𝑃 = 𝑛𝑐𝑃 ∆𝑇
Above equation will become
𝑛𝑐𝑃 ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇-- (a)
Consider a gas in a container if we heat the gas so that gas is
not allowed to expand so that volume of the gas remain constant
and all the heat energy will be used to increase the internal energy
of the gas than according to first law of thermodynamics.
∆𝑸 = ∆𝑼 + ∆𝑾
Since work done is Zero
∆𝑸𝒗 = ∆𝑼
Since

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∆𝑄𝑣 = 𝑛𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇
Above equation will become
∆𝑈 = 𝑛𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇-------- (b)
Putting equation (a) in equation (b) we get

𝑛𝑐𝑃 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 + 𝑛𝑅∆𝑇

Or
𝑛𝑐𝑃 ∆𝑇 = 𝑛∆𝑇(𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅)
Or
𝑐𝑃 = 𝑐𝑣 + 𝑅
Or
𝒄𝑷 − 𝒄𝒗 = 𝑹
Hence the difference of Specific Heat at Constant Pressure and Specific Heat at Constant
Volume is equal to the general gas constant. Above equation also shows that the specific heat
capacity of any ideal gas at constant pressure is always greater that specific heat capacity of the
same gas at constant volume. I-e
𝒄𝒑 > 𝒄𝒗
Heat Engine:
The device, that convert heat energy into mechanical energy is called Heat engine.
Essentials of Heat Engine:
Essential of heat engines are:
• Furnace or hot body.
• Working substance.
• Condenser or Cold body.

Heat flow Diagram of Heat Engine:

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Refrigerator:
The device that makes heat to flow from cold body to hot body is called Refrigerator.
Essential of Refrigerator:
• Condenser or cold body.
• Working substance.
• Furnace or hot body.

Heat flow Diagram of Refrigerator:

The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Two statements can state the Second law of thermodynamics.

Kelvin Statement:
“We cannot construct a heat engine which does nothing
but convert heat energy into mechanical energy.”

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Clausius Statement:
“We cannot make heat to flow from cold body to hot body
without expenditure of external work.”

Equivalency of Kelvin and Clausius Statements:

In order to prove the equivalency of Kelvin and Clausius statements let us suppose that the
Kelvin stamen is wrong. I-e
“We can construct a heat engine that can convert Heat energy completely into mechanical
energy”

Now consider a refrigerator that makes heat to flow from cold body to hot body but
some external work is required for that refrigerator to work.
If we connect the perfect heat engine with the refrigerator that we can use the work
output buy the ideal heat engine to run refrigerator. And so, we have a refrigerator that make
heat to flow form cold body to hot body without expenditure of work which is false according
to Clausius statement.
So, we conclude that if one Statement is wrong other automatically become wrong.
Hence, both Kelvin and Clausius statements are equivalent.

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Carnot Engine:
Introduction:
Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. It is
an imaginary heat engine free from friction & heat losses due to radiations or conduction.
Construction:
It consists of an ideal gas cylinder having conducting base, non-conducting walls and non-
conducting movable frictionless piston.
Carnot Cycle:
A Carnot engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy using a cyclic process consisting
of two isothermal and two adiabatic reversible processes called Carnot Cycle.

Working:
Working of Carnot engine consist of steps as follows

Step#1: (Isothermal Expansion).

Gas in cylinder is initially at pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature T1. The cylinder is than
placed at a heat reservoir and absorbs heat energy(𝑸𝟏 )and gas can expand isothermally, and
physical variables changes to P2, V2, T1.

Step#2: (Adiabatic Expansion).

The cylinder is than placed at an insulator and external work is done and gas can expand
adiabatically, and physical variables changes to P3, V3, T2.

Step#3: (Isothermal Compression).

The cylinder is than placed at a cold reservoir and eject heat energy(𝑸𝟐 ) and gas is allowed to
compress isothermally and physical variables changes to P4, V4, T2.

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Step#4: (Adiabatic Compression).
The cylinder is than placed at an insulator and external work is done and gas can compress
adiabatically, and physical variables changes to P1, V1, T1.

Graphical Representation of Carnot Cycle:

Efficiency of Carnot Engine:

Since throughout the Carnot Cycle net change in internal energy is zero there for firth law of
thermodynamics will be written as
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑊

∆𝑄 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
Efficiency of the Carnot engine can be written as

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂= × 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Δ𝑊
𝜂= × 100
𝑄1

𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝜂= × 100
𝑄1

𝑸𝟐
𝜼 = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝟏
Since heat supplied by and absorbed by hot and cold reservoir are function of their
temperature there for above expression can be written as
𝑻𝟐
𝜼 = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝟏

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It is obvious from above expression that efficiency of Carnot engine cannot be 100% because it
is possible if and only if the temperature of cold reservoir is 0K which impossible to reach
(according to 3rd law of thermodynamics).
Entropy:
The measure of molecular disorder of a system during a process is called Entropy.

Explanation:
Consider N molecules of gas confine in a container of volume V if we supply the heat
energy to the system then the Volume of the gas increases and arrangement of molecules is
disturbed now if we place the container on a cold reservoir the heat is lost by the system and
the volume of the gas become V again but probability of all molecule to be the same position as
they are initially is zero. That is why we conclude that

“Entropy of the system during an isothermal process increases or remains constant.”

Now Second law of thermodynamics can be stated in terms of entropy as

“When an isolated system undergoes change entropy of the system

Either increases or remains same.”

If heat is supplied to a system at constant temperature than change in entropy can be written
as

∆𝑸
∆𝑺 =
𝑻
Unit: The S.I unit of entropy is 𝑱𝑲−𝟏.

CHAPTER-11 NUMERICALS from PAST PAPER

1. A Carnot engine whose low temperature reservoir is 200K has efficiency 50%. It is
desired to increase this to 75% by how many degrees must the temperature of low
reservoir be decreased if the temperature of high temperature reservoir remains
constant.
2. A 200g piece of metal is heated at 150oC and then drop into an aluminum calorimeter of
mass 500g containing 500g water initially at 25oC. Find the final equilibrium
temperature of the system if the specific heat of metal is 128.1 J/kg.K, aluminum is 907
J/kg.K and water is 4200 J/kg.K.
3. A heat engine performing 400J work in each cycle has an efficiency of 25%. How much
Heat is absorbed and rejected in each cycle.

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4. A scientist store 22g gas in tank at pressure 1200 atm overnight the tank develops slight
leakage and the pressure drops to 950 atm calculate the mass of gas escaped.
5. In an isobaric process 2000J heat energy is supplied to a gas in a cylinder at constant
pressure of 1.01x105 N/m2. The piston of area of cross-section 2x102m2 moves through
40cm. Calculates increase in internal energy of system.
6. A steel bar is 10m in length is at -2.5oC what will be the change in length when it is
heated to 25oC. (β = 3.31x10-8 K-1)
7. A Carnot engine performs 2000J of work & rejects 4000J of heat to sink. If temperature
difference between source and sink is 85oC. Find the temperature of source and sink.
8. Calculate the density of hydrogen gas, considering it to be ideal gas when root mean
square velocity of hydrogen molecules is 1850m/s at 0oC and at 1 atm pressure.
9. Heat engine perform work at rate of 500KW. The efficiency of the engine is 30%.
Calculate loss of heat per hour.
10. Find the change in volume of brass sphere 0.6m diameter. When it is heated from 30 oC
to 100oC. ( = 19x10-6 K-1)
11. A Celsius thermometer in laboratory reads the surrounding is 30 oC. What is the
temperature in Fahrenheit & absolute scale?
12. The brass ring of 20 cm diameter is to mount on a metal rod of 20.02cm diameter at
20oC. To what temperature should ring be heated. ( = 19x10-6 K-1)
13. A 100g copper block is heated in boiling water for 10 minutes and then it is dropped into
150g water at 30oC in 200g calorimeter. If the temperature of water is raised to 33.6oC.
Determine specific heat of calorimeter. ( Ccopper = 386J/Kg.K)
14. The low temperature reservoir of Carnot engine is at -3oC and has an efficiency of 40%.
It is desired to increase the efficiency by 50%. By how many degrees should the
temperature of hot reservoir be increased?
15. An air storage tank whose volume is 112 L contains 2Kg air at pressure of 15atm. How
much air would have to force to enter tank so that pressure becomes 18 atm. assuming
no change in temperature.
16. 1200J of heat energy is supplied to the system at constant pressure. The internal energy
of system increased by 750J and volume by 4.5m3. Find work done against the piston &
the pressure on the piston.
17. Find the root mean square velocity of hydrogen molecule at 100 oC take the mass of
hydrogen molecule 3.32x10-27 Kg. and K = 1.38x10-23J/K.
18. A Carnot engine performs 1000J of work & rejects 4000J of heat to sink. If temperature
difference between source and sink is 75oC. Find the efficiency & the temperature of
source.
19. A cylinder of diameter 1.00cm at 30oC is to be slid into hole in a steel plate. The hole has
a diameter 0.99970cm at 30oC. To what temperature must the plate be heated?

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20. If 1 mole of monatomic gas is heated at constant pressure from -30oC to 20oC. Find the
change in internal energy and the work done during the process.
(Cv = 12.5J/K.mol & Cp = 20.8 J/K.mol)
21. An ideal heat engine operates in a cycle between temperature 227oC and 127oC. it
absorbs 600 joules of heat find work done per cycle and efficiency
22. Find the volume occupied by gram mole of a gas at 10 oC and 1 atm pressure.
23. A glass is filled to mark 60 cm3with Hg at 20oC. If flask contents are heated to 40oC how
much Hg will above the mark. (glass = 9x10-6/K
βHg = 182x103/K)
24. 540 cal of heat is required to vaporize water at 100 oC. Determine the entropy change
involved to vaporized 5g water (1cal = 4.2J)
25. The meter bar of steel is measured at 0oC & -2.5oC. what will be difference in their
length at 30oC ( = 11x10-5 K-1)

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Chapter#12

Electrostatics
Coulomb’s Law:
Statement:
“Magnitude of electric force between two charges is directly proportional to the product of
magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.”
Mathematical Representation:
Consider two charges 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 placed at the distance 𝒓from each other. The magnitude of
electric force between two charges 𝑭 can be written as
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞1 𝑞2 − − − (𝑎)
1
𝐹 ∝ 2 − − − (𝑏)
𝑟
Combining above expressions
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝ 2
𝑟
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 − − − (𝟏)
𝒓𝟐
Where:𝑘 constant of proportionality called Coulomb’s constant. It depends upon the medium
between charges and its value for free space is defined as
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐
Here,𝜺𝒐 is the permittivity of free space. Numerical value of 𝒌for free space is
𝒌 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐 ≅ 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐
Electric force can now be written as
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭= × 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
For medium other than free space value of 𝒌 can be defined as
𝟏
𝒌=
𝟒𝝅𝝐
Here, 𝝐 is the permittivity of medium and it is defined as
𝝐 = 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓
Here,𝜺𝒓 is called relative permittivity. Electric force between two charges can now be written as
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭= × 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝒓
In vector form Force exerted by charge 𝑞1 on 𝑞2 can be written as
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = × 𝟐 𝒓̂ 𝟏𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝒓

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Electric Field:
“Space or region surrounding an electric charge or a charged body within which another charge
experiences some electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion when placed at a point is called
Electric Field.”
Test Charge:
A charge with very small magnitude (approaching to zero) so that the effect of its electric field
is negligible is called Test Charge.
Electric Field Intensity:
A measure of the strength of an electric field at a point in space around it is called Electric field
intensity.
It may also be defined as
“Force experienced by a positive test charge at point in an electric field.”
It is a vector quantity and its direction are same as the direction of force.
Mathematical Representation:
The electric field ⃗𝑬intensity due a charge 𝒒at a point in space in presence of a test charge 𝒒𝒐
can be written as
⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑭 − − − (𝒂)
𝑬 𝒒 𝒐

Since
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐹= × 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
Equation (a) will become
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜 1
⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 = × 2 𝑟̂
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 𝑞𝑜
𝟏 𝒒
⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = × 𝒓̂
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
Here 𝒓̂is the unit vector in the direction of force as well Electric field

The magnitude of electric field intensity can be written as

𝟏 𝒒
𝑬= × 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓
Unit:
The SI unit of electric intensity is Newton per Coulomb𝑵𝑪−𝟏 or volt per meter𝑽/𝒎.

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Electric Lines of Force:

Imaginary lines drawn to represent an electric field are called Electric lines of force.
Properties of Electric Lines of force:
• These lines show the direction of field at each point.
• The closeness of these lines shows the field strength (closer the lines higher the field
strength).

• These lines of forces are originated from Positive charges and terminated at negative
charges. The direction of lines is in general the direction of force experienced by a
positive test charge.

• ⃗ is tangent to the electric field lines at each point

The electric field vector𝑬
• The number of lines drawn leaving a positive charge or ending on a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

• No two field lines can cross each other.

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Electric Flux:
Number of Electric lines of force passing through an area is called Electric flux.
Mathematically:
Mathematically Electric flux can be defined as
“The dot product of Electric field intensity and Vector area is called
Electric Flux.”
⃗ .𝑨
𝝓=𝑬 ⃗

Vector Area is defined as

“A vector Perpendicular to surface having magnitude equal to the Area of the
surface is called Vector Area.”
Magnitude of electric flux can be written as
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − −(𝑎)
Here,𝜽 is the angle between Electric field vector and vector area.

Now,
If we divide the Area 𝑨into many small segments 𝚫𝑨such that

𝑨 = ∑ 𝚫𝑨
The Electric flux can now be written as
⃗⃗ . ∑ 𝚫𝑨
𝝓=𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

MAXIMUM FLUX:
Let𝜃 = 0o
Equation (a) will become
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(0)
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨

ZERO FLUX:
Let 𝜃 = 90o
Equation (a) will become
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(90)
𝝓=𝟎

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MINIMUM FLUX:
Let 𝜃 = 180o
Equation (a) will become
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(180)
𝝓 = −𝑬𝑨

Electric Flux due to a Point Charge in a Closed Sphere:

Consider an isolated positive point charge𝒒. The lines of forces from 𝒒
will spread uniformly in space around it cutting the surface of an
imaginary sphere. Now we want to find flux due to point charge. For this
purpose, we divide the whole sphere into small patches. Each patch is
denoted by∆𝑨 .
Electric flux can be written as
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
As the electric field vector is parallel to each patch i-e the angle between
vector area and electric filed is zero for every patch i-e 𝜽 = 𝟎𝐨
Now
𝜙 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(0)
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨 − − − (𝟏)
Now flux through patch ∆𝐴1
𝜙1 = 𝐸∆𝐴1
Similarly flux through patch ∆𝐴2
𝜙2 = 𝐸∆𝐴2
Now following the similarly, the flux through 𝑛𝑡ℎ patch can be written as
𝜙𝑛 = 𝐸∆𝐴𝑛
Total flux through the sphere will be equal to the algebraic sum of all these flux
i.e.
𝒊=𝟏

𝝓 = ∑ 𝝓𝒊
𝒊=𝒏
𝑖=1

𝜙 = ∑ 𝐸. 𝐴𝑖
𝑖=𝑛
𝑖=1

𝜙 = 𝐸 ∑ 𝐴𝑖 − − − (2)
𝑖=𝑛

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Since
𝑖=1

𝐴 = ∑ 𝐴𝑖 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑖=𝑛
And
1 𝑞
𝐸= × 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
Equation (2) will become
1 𝑞
𝜙= × 2 × 4𝜋𝑟 2
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
𝒒
𝝓=
𝜺𝒐
Hence, The Flux going out of the sphere is independent of radius of sphere.

Gauss’s Law:
It is a quantitative relation which applies to any closed hypothetical surface called Gaussian
surface. It is named after the Karl Gauss (1771-1855) who stated it first.
Statement:
“The total Electric Flux emerging out or sinking into a closed surface in an electric field is
proportional to the algebraic sum of the electric charges enclosed within the surface.”
Mathematically:
Mathematically Gauss’s Law can also be defined as
“The total electric flux diverging out from a closed surface is equal to the product of the sum of
𝟏
all charges present in that closed surface and𝜺 .”
𝒐
𝒒
𝝓=
𝜺𝒐
If there are𝒏 positive spherical charge bodies of different enclosed in a Gaussian surface then
flux due to each charge body can be written as
𝑞1
𝜙1 =
𝜀𝑜
𝑞2
𝜙2 =
𝜀𝑜
.
.
.
𝑞𝑛
𝜙𝑛 =
𝜀𝑜

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If total flux diverging out of the surface is 𝜙 then it may be written as
𝝓 = ∑ 𝝓𝒏
𝒒𝒏
𝝓=∑
𝜺𝒐
𝟏
𝝓= ∑ 𝒒𝒏
𝜺𝒐
1
Hence, total flux diverging out is equals to the times the total charge enclosed𝒒.
𝜀𝑜
𝒒
𝝓=
𝜺𝒐

Application of Gauss’s Law:

a) The Electric Field Due to a Thin Spherical charged Shell:
Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell having radius 𝒂 as shown in figure below
Now, Electric flux due to the charges can be written as
𝝓 = 𝑬𝑨
Since
𝒒
𝝓 = -----------------(a)
𝜺𝒐

For total Flux “𝝓 ” For this the whole Gaussian surface is divided
into small nth sections having surface area ΔA1, ΔA2, ΔA3 ….ΔAn of
almost equal area “ΔA” and Electric field “E” is remain parallel and
same for each section. Then the total flux through all sections of
Gaussian surface/Sphere will be:
𝜙 = 𝜙1+ 𝜙2+ 𝜙3……+ 𝜙n _________________eq(1)
𝜙 = EΔA1cos00 + EΔA2cos00 + EΔA3cos00 + ………. + EΔAncos00
cos00=1
𝜙 = EΔA1 + EΔA2 + EΔA3 + ………. + EΔAn
𝜙 = E (ΔA1 + ΔA2 +ΔA3 + ………. + ΔAn) ∑ΔA= ΔA1 + ΔA2 +ΔA3 + ………. + ΔAn
𝜙 = E (∑ΔA) ∑ΔA = 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝜙 = E ( 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 )---------------(b)
Compare eq. (a) and eq. (b)
𝒒
E ( 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 ) =
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
E=
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝜺𝒐

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Field intensity inside the Shell:
For Field intensity inside the Shell consider Gaussian surface consider
a Gaussian surface inside the shell having radius 𝒓 such that 𝒓 < 𝒂 .
Equation (a) will become
𝒒
= 𝑬(𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 )
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
𝑬=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
Since charged inside the shell is zero there fore
𝑬=𝟎

Field intensity on the surface of Shell:

For field intensity on the surface Equation (a) will
become
𝒒
= 𝑬(𝟒𝝅𝒂𝟐 )
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
𝑬=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒂𝟐

Field intensity outside the Shell:

For Field intensity outside the Shell consider Gaussian
surface consider a Gaussian surface inside the shell
having radius 𝒓 such that 𝒓 > 𝑎 .
Equation (a) will become
𝒒
= 𝑬(𝟒𝝅𝒓)
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
𝑬=
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
b) Electric Field Due to an infinite charged Sheet:
Consider an infinite positive charged sheet as shown in figure. The
electric filed intensity due to this charged sheet can be find out by
using Gauss law. Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface passing
through the charged sheet as shown in figure.
Since, there is no electric line of force through the surface area of
Gaussian surface there is no electric flux through the surface area.

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𝜙1 = (0)𝐴1 cos 𝜃
𝝓𝟏 = 𝟎
Electric flux through the two-cross section of the Gaussian Surface
𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝜙3 = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃
Since the angle between electric line of forces and vector Area is 00
𝜙2 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(0)
𝝓𝟐 = 𝑬𝑨
For second cross section area
𝜙3 = 𝐸𝐴 cos(0)
𝝓𝟑 = 𝑬𝑨
Total flux𝝓 can be written as
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3
𝜙 = 0 + 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴
𝝓 = 𝟐𝑬𝑨
According to Gauss law
𝒒
𝝓=
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
𝟐𝑬𝑨 =
𝜺𝒐
𝒒
𝑬= − − − (𝒂)
𝟐𝑨𝜺𝒐
Charge density𝝈 can be defined as
𝒒
𝝈≡
𝑨
Equation (a) will become
𝝈
𝑬=
𝟐𝜺𝒐

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c) Electric Intensity Due to Two Oppositely Charged

Sheets:
Consider two metal plates of same area places parallel to each other
such that the distance between them is much smaller than their area.
If the plates are carrying the equal amount of charges the flux leaving
the positive plate is same as the flux entering the negative plate.
Electric field intensity for both plates will be same as for infinitely
𝝈
charged sheet i.e
𝟐𝜺𝒐
Net Electric field intensity at any point between the plates will be
𝝈 𝝈
𝑬= +
𝟐𝜺𝒐 𝟐𝜺𝒐

𝝈
𝑬=
𝜺𝒐
𝝈
⃗𝑬 = 𝒓̂
𝜺𝒐
Here,𝒓̂is the unit vector directed from positive plate toward the negative plate.

Electric Potential:
The electric potential in an electric field at a point is defined as:
“The amount of work done in moving a unit positive test charge from infinity to that point
against the electric forces is called Electric Potential.”
Mathematical Explanation:
Consider test charge 𝑞𝑜 placed at a point in an electric field. If the Work done in carrying the
that test charge to that point is 𝑊 then electric potential 𝑉 can be written as
𝑊
𝑉 = − − −(𝑎)
𝑞𝑜
Here, Negative sign indicate the work done against the field
The Electric potential energy can be written as

𝑈 = −𝑊
Equation (a) will become
𝑼
𝑽=
𝒒𝒐

Hence electric potential can be defined as

“Potential energy per unit test charge is called the Electric Potential.”

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Electric Potential Difference OR Potential Difference:

“The amount of work done in moving a unit positive test charge from one point to another point
in an electric field is called Electric Potential Difference or Potential Difference.”
Mathematical Explanation:
Consider a positive test 𝒒𝐨 charge present at point 𝒂where its potential energy is 𝑼𝒂 .This test
charged moved to point 𝒃 within the electric fieldwhere its energy become𝑼𝒃 .

The electric potential energy at point 𝒂 can be written as

𝑼𝒂
𝑽𝒂 =
𝒒𝒐
Similarly, electric potential at point 𝒃 can be written as
𝑼𝒂
𝑽𝒃 =
𝒒𝒐
The change in electric potential or potential difference between point a and b can be written as
𝑈𝑎 𝑈𝑏
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 = −
𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑜
𝑈𝑎 − 𝑈𝑏
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 =
𝑞𝑜
∆𝑼
∆𝑽 =
𝒒𝒐
Above expression represent the potential difference between the two points in Electric field.
Relation between Electric Field and potential Difference:
Consider a positive test 𝒒𝐨 charge present at point 𝒂.This test charged moved to point 𝒃within
the electric field. Such that displacement vector from 𝒂 to 𝒃 is ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑆.
The work done∆𝑾 against the electric file in moving that test charge to 𝒃 can be written as
∆𝑊 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑆 − −(𝑖)
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
Since𝑭 = 𝒒𝒐 𝑬 , equation (𝑖) becomes
∆𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑆
∆𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸∆𝑆 cos 𝜃
∆𝑊 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸∆𝑆 cos 𝜃
∆𝑊
𝐸 cos 𝜃 =
𝑞𝑜 ∆𝑆
∆𝑉
𝐸 cos 𝜃 =
∆𝑆
If the angle between the electric field and displacement vector is 180o then Electric field
intensity can be written as:
∆𝑽
𝑬=−
∆𝑺
The quantity∆𝑽/∆𝑺 is called the potential gradient so the electric field intensity at any point in
space is “Negative of rate of change of potential with respect to displacement.”

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Absolute Potential near an Isolated Point Charge:

Consider two points 𝑨 and 𝑩 in a straight line at distance
𝒓𝑨 and 𝒓𝑩 respectively from a point charge 𝒒 as shown in figure.
In order to determine the potential difference between point
𝑨and𝑩 a test charge should be moved from point 𝑨to𝑩. Since
the distance between point 𝑨and𝑩is considerably large
determining potential difference in steps.
Potential difference ∆𝑉𝐴1between point 𝑨and𝟏 can be written
as
𝐸𝑞𝑜 (𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟1 )
∆𝑉𝐴1 = −
𝑞𝑜
∆𝑉𝐴1 = −𝐸(𝑟𝐴 − 𝑟1 )
𝑲𝒒
Since 𝑬 = 𝒓𝟐
𝐾𝑞
∆𝑉𝐴1 = − (𝑟 − 𝑟1 ) − − − (1)
𝑟2 𝐴
Here 𝒓 is the geometric mean of𝒓𝑨 and 𝒓𝟏 i-e
𝒓 = √ 𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏
𝒓𝟐 = 𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏
Putting in equation (1) we get
𝐾𝑞
∆𝑉𝐴1 = − (𝑟 − 𝑟1 )
𝑟𝐴 𝑟1 𝐴
𝑟𝐴 𝑟1
∆𝑉𝐴1 = −𝐾𝑞 ( − )
𝑟𝐴 𝑟1 𝑟𝐴 𝑟1

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑽𝑨𝟏 = −𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝑨

Similarly, potential difference ∆𝑉12 between point 1 and 2 can be written as

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑽𝟏𝟐 = −𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏

Following the same procedure potential difference ∆𝑉𝐵𝑁 between point B and N can be written
as

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑽𝑩𝑵 = −𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝑵 𝒓𝑩

The total potential difference∆𝑽𝑩𝑨 between point 𝑨and𝑩will be the sum of the potential
difference of each step i-e

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𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −𝑲𝒒 ( − ) − 𝑲𝒒 ( − ) + ⋯ − 𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝑵 𝒓𝑩

1 1 1 1 1 1
∆𝑉𝐵𝐴 = −𝐾𝑞 ( − + − +⋯+ − )
𝑟𝐴 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟𝑁 𝑟𝐵

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑽𝑩𝑨 = −𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝑩

𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝑩 − 𝑽𝑨 = 𝑲𝒒 ( − ) − − − (2)
𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨

Now to find the absolute potential 𝑽𝑩 at point𝑩 let the point𝑨to be at infinity so that
potential𝑽𝑨 at point𝑨 is Zero.

Equation (2) will become

𝟏 𝟏
𝑽𝑩 − 𝟎 = 𝑲𝒒 ( − )
𝒓𝑩 ∞

𝑲𝒒
𝑽𝑩 =
𝒓𝑩

In general potential 𝑽at a distance 𝒓from the charge 𝒒can be written as

𝑲𝒒
𝑽=
𝒓

Electron-Volt:
Consider the expression for electric potential due to an electron
𝑼
𝑽=
𝒆

𝑼 = 𝒆𝑽
Putting the units, we get
𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 × 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕

Hence, we get a unit of energy called the Electron-Volt (eV).

Relation between electron volts and potential energy can be expressed as

𝟏𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱

Electron volt is very useful unit. In atomic and semiconductor physics energies are frequently
expressed in Electron-Volts.

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Capacitor:
The capacitor is an electrical device that can store electrical charge, thereby creating an electric
field that, in turn, stores energy. It is also called Condenser.

Construction:
System of two conductors separated at a distance “d” by an
insulating medium such as air or any other forms a capacitor. The
conductors could be of any size but the distance between them
should be very small as compare to their size.

Mathematical Explanation:
Since the energy stored in capacitor is dependent on the electric
field intensity between the conductors which depends on the
charge stored on each conductor the more the charge stored higher the potential difference
between the conductors.

Therefore, the potential difference between the plates is directly proportional to the charge
stored on each plate. i-e
𝑞∝𝑉

𝒒 = 𝑪𝑽
Here, C is called the capacitance of capacitor or Capacitance which may be defined as

“The ability of a system of conductors and insulator (i-e capacitor) to store electric
charge is called Capacitance.”
It may also be defined as

“Charge stored per unit voltage developed across it is called capacitance.”

Capacitance of a device is dependent on the Geometric arrangement of conductors and the

insulated medium between them.

Unit:
The unit of capacitance is Farad(𝑭)

Farad is very large unit so for practical purpose convenient units are

Micro farad 𝜇𝐹 = 10−6 𝐹

Pico farad 𝑝𝐹 = 10−12 𝐹

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Parallel Plate capacitor:

A capacitor made by the placing two conducting metal sheets parallel to
each other such that the distance between the plates is very small as
compare to the facing area of plates is called Parallel plate capacitor.
Expression for Capacitance:
Consider to oppositely charge metal plates having charge 𝒒 placed at the distance 𝒅 from each
other. If the medium between the plates is air the electric field intensity between the plates can
be written as

𝝈
𝑬= − − − (𝟏)
𝜺𝒐
Since
𝑞
𝜎=
𝐴

𝒒 = 𝝈𝑨
Now since
𝑉 = 𝐸∆𝑆 = 𝐸𝑑
𝝈𝒅
𝑽=
𝜺𝒐
Now expression for capacitance 𝑪𝒐 can be written as
𝒒
𝑪𝒐 =
𝑽
Putting values, we get
𝜎𝐴
𝐶𝑜 = 𝜎𝑑
𝜀𝑜

𝑨𝜺𝒐
𝑪𝒐 =
𝒅
From above expression it is clear that the capacitance of a capacitor is dependent on the
geometric properties of capacitor and the medium separating the plates.

If the medium between the plates is other than air the capacitance of the capacitor will be
𝑨𝝐 𝑨𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓
𝑪= =
𝒅 𝒅
𝑪 = 𝑪𝒐 𝜺𝒓
Hence the presence of a dielectric medium increases the capacitance.

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Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance:

Consider an air-filled capacitor charged at a certain voltage so
that an electric field 𝐸𝑜 is set up between the plates of
capacitor.
Now if we introduce a dielectric medium between the plates
due to the potential difference between the plates of capacitor
the Molecules of Dielectric medium get polarized as shown in
figure and an electric field 𝐸𝐷 is set up due to the polarized
molecules of the dielectric medium since the Electric field set
up by the molecules is opposite to Electric field 𝐸𝑜 the net
electric field 𝐸 become less than 𝐸𝑜 which in response
decreases the potential difference between the plates and
hence more charge has to be stored on plates to mention the Voltage across the plates. So, the
charge per unit Volt is increased which is defined to be capacitance.
Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor When Dielectric is
Completely Filled between the Plates
Let the space between the plates of capacitor is filled with a
dielectric of relative permittivity 𝒓.The presence of dielectric
reduces the electric intensity by 𝒓times and thus the capacitance
increases by r times.
𝑪 = 𝑪𝒐 𝜺 𝒓
𝑨𝝐 𝑨𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓
𝑪= =
𝒅 𝒅

When both air & dielectric is present between plates:

Electric intensity when air is present
𝜎
𝐸1 =
𝜀𝑜
Electric intensity when air & dielectric both are present
𝜎
𝐸2 =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
The potential difference between plates is
V = V1 + V2

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But 𝑽 = 𝑬∆𝑺

𝑉 = 𝐸1 (𝑑 − 𝑡) + 𝐸2 𝑡
𝜎(𝑑 − 𝑡) 𝜎
𝑉 = + 𝑡
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝜎 𝑡
𝑉 = {(𝑑 − 𝑡) + }
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝜎 1
𝑉 = {𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝜎 1
𝑉 = {𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑞
But, 𝜎 = 𝐴
𝑞 1
𝑉 = {𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜀𝑟
Since 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑉 1
𝑉 = {𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟

𝐶 1
1 = {𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝐴𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝐴𝜀𝑜
𝐶 =
1
{𝑑 + 𝑡 ( – 1)}
𝜀𝑟
Combination of Capacitors:
Capacitors connected in parallel:
Consider three capacitors having𝐶1 ,𝐶2 , 𝐶3 capacitance respectively are connected in parallel.
We can replace them by an equivalent capacitor having capacitance𝐶𝑒 . A charge q given to a
point divide itself resides on the plates of individual capacitor as 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , 𝑞3 respectively.
Since
𝒒 = 𝑪𝑽
Hence, the total charge stored in parallel combination is equal to the
sum of charge stored across each capacitor in combination.
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3

𝐶𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 + 𝐶3 𝑉3

Since 𝑉 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3
𝐶𝑒 𝑉 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉

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𝐶𝑒 𝑉 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 )𝑉

𝐶𝑒 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

Hence, the equivalent capacitance of capacitor connected in parallel is the algebraic sum of the
capacitances of each capacitor in the network. For parallel combination of 𝒏 capacitors above
expression will become.
𝑪𝒆 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪 𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑪𝒏

Capacitors connected in Series:

Consider three capacitors having𝐶1 ,𝐶2 , 𝐶3 capacitance respectively are connected in parallel.
We can replace them by an equivalent capacitor having capacitance 𝐶𝑒 .
Since
𝒒
=𝑽
𝑪
Hence, Sum of individual voltage across each capacitor is equal to the Voltage of source.
i-e
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑞 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3
= + +
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶3

Since the charge developed across each capacitor is same

𝑞 = 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3

Above expression will become

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
= + +
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

𝑞 1 1 1
= 𝑞( + + )
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

Hence, the reciprocal of equivalent capacitance of capacitor connected in series the algebraic
sum of the reciprocal of capacitances of each capacitor in the network. For series combination
of 𝒏 capacitors above expression will become.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯+
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

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CHAPTER-12 NUMERICALS
PAST PAPER
1990
Q.4. (c) An oil drop having a mass of 0.002kg and charge equal to 6 electron’s charge is
suspended stationary in a uniform electric field. Find the intensity of electric field.
(Charge of electron = 1.6 x 10–19C) (2.04 x 1016 V/m)
1991
Q.4. (c) Calculate the potential difference between two plates when they are separated by a
distance of a 0.005m and are able to hold an electron motionless between them.
(Mass of electron = 9.1x10–31 Kg) (2.79x10–13 volts)
1993
Q.3 (c) Calculate the equivalent capacitance and charge on 5µF capacitor as show in the figure
C1 = 3µ F
C2 = 2µ F
C3 = 5µ F
C4 = 4µ F
V = 10 volts

(6.1µF)
1994
Q.4. (c) Two horizontal parallel metallic plates, separated by a distance of 0.5cm are connected
with a battery of 10 volts. Find:
1. The electric field intensity between the plates.
2. The force on a proton placed between the plates. (2000V/m, 3.2x10–16 N)
1995
Q.4. (c) Two capacitors of capacitance 400µF and 600µF are charged to the potential difference
of 300volts & 400volts respectively. They are then connected in parallel. What will be
the resultant potential difference and charge on each capacitor? (360V, 0.144C,
0.216C)
1996
Q.3. (c) A thin sheet of positive charge attracts a light charged sphere having a charge –5x10–6 C
with a force 1.69N. Calculate the surface charge density of the sheet.
(Єo = 8.85x 10–12 C2/Nm2) (5.98x10–6coul/m2)

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Q.4. (c) A particle of mass 0.5g and charge 4 x 10–6C is held motionless between two oppositely
charged horizontal metal plates. If the distance between them is 5mm, find:
(i) The electric intensity (ii) The potential difference between the plates.
(1225V/m, 6.125 V)
1997
Q.3. (c)A capacitor of 200 pF is charged to a P.D. of 100 volts. Its plates are then connected in
parallel to another capacitor and are found that the P.D. between the plates falls to 60
volts. What is the capacitance of the second capacitor? (133.33pF)
1998
Q.3. (c) Calculate the force of repulsion on +2 x 10–8 coulomb charge. If it is placed before a
large vertical charged plate whose charge density is + 20 x 10–4 coulombs/m2.(2.26 N)
1999
Q.3. (c) Two capacitors of 2.0 µF and 8.0µF capacitance are connected in series and a potential
difference of 200 volts is applied. Find the charge and the potential difference for each
capacitor. (3.2 x 10–4Coul, 160V, 40V)
2000
Q.3. (c) A charged particle of –17.7 μC is close to a positively charged thin sheet having surface
charge density 2 x 10–8Coul/m2. Find the magnitude and direction of force acting on the
charged particle. (0.02N, towards the –ve charge)
2001
Q.3. (c) A parallel plate capacitor has the plates 10cm x 10cm separated by a distance of 2.5cm.
It is initially filled with air, what will be the increase in its capacitance if a dielectric slab
of the same area and thickness 2.5cm is placed between the two plates? (Take ЄR = 2)
(3.54pF)
2002 (Pre-Med. group)
Q.3. (d) Find the equivalent capacitance in the given circuit and charge on each capacitor:

(3μF, 30 μC, 10 μC, 20 μC)

Q.4. (d) A small sphere of weight 5 x 10–3N is suspended by a silk thread 50mm long which is
attached to a point on a large charge insulating plane. When a charge of 6 x 10–8C is
placed on the ball the thread makes an angle of 30° with the vertical; find the charge
density of the plane. (8.515 x 10–7 C/m2)

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2002 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.5. (d) A proton of mass 1.67 x 10–27 kg and a charge of 1.6 x 10–19C is to be held motionless
between two horizontal parallel plates 10cm apart: find the voltage required to be
applied between the plates. (1.0228 x 10–8 V)
2003 (Pre Med. group)
Q.5. (d) A particle carrying a charge of 10–5C starts from rest in a uniform electric field of
intensity 50Vm-1 Find the force on the particle and the kinetic energy it acquires when it
is moved 1m. (5x10–4N, 5x10–4J)
2004
Q.3. (d) An electron has a speed of 106 m/s. Find its energy in electron volts. (2.8125eV)
2006
Q.3. (d) How many electrons should be removed from each of the two similar spheres, each of
10 gm, so that electrostatic repulsion is balanced by the gravitational force?
(5.39 x 106 electrons)
2007
Q.3. (d) How many excess electrons must be placed on each of the two small spheres placed
3.0cm apart if the force of repulsion between the spheres is 10 –19N? (625 electrons)
2008
Q.3. (d) A capacitor of 12 F is charged to a potential difference 100V. Its plates are hen
disconnected from the source and are connected parallel to another capacitor. The
potential difference in this combination comes down to 60V. What is the capacitance of
the second capacitance? (8F)
2009
Q.3. (d) A proton of mass 1.67 x 10 −27 kg and charge 1.6 x 10 −19 C is to be held motionless
between two horizontal parallel plates 6cm apart; find the voltage required to be
applied between the plates. (6.13725 nV)
2010 Q2. (x)How many electrons should be removed from each of two similar spheres each of
10 gm so that electrostatic repulsion may be balanced by gravitational force (e = 1.602 x 10–19 C)?
(5.4 x 106 electrons)
2011
2. (vii) A proton of mass 1.67х10–27 kg and charge 1.6 х10–19C is to be held motionless between
two parallel horizontal plates. Find the distance between the plates when the potential
difference of 6 x 10–9 volts is applied across the plates. (5.86 cm)
2012
Q2(xiii) Two-point charges of +2 x 10- 4 C and -2 x 10- 4 C are placed at 40 cm from each other. A
charge of +5 x 10- 5 C is placed midway between them. What is the magnitude and
direction of force on it?

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2013
Q2(xi) The surface charge density on a vertical metal plate is 25x10-6 C/m2. find the force
experienced by a charge of 2 x 10-10C placed in front close to the sheet.
(εo = 8.85 x 10-12C/Nm2)
2014
Q2(viii) A 10µF capacitor is charged to a potential difference of 220V. It is then disconnected
from the battery. Its plates are connected in parallel to another capacitor and it is found
that the potential difference falls to 100V. What is the capacitance of the second
capacitor?

2015
Q2(x) A thin sheet of positive charge attracts a light charged sphere having a charge –5x10–6 C
with a force 1.69N. Calculate the surface charge density of the sheet.
(Єo = 8.85x 10–12 C2/Nm2) (5.98x10–6coul/m2)
Q2(xiv) How many electrons should be removed from each of two similar spheres each of 10 gm
so that electrostatic repulsion may be balanced by gravitational force (Gravitational
constant = G = 6.67 x 10–11Nm2/Kg2 and K = 9 × 10911Nm2/C2)? (5.4 x 106 electrons)

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Chapter#13

Current Electricity
Electric Current:
Amount of charge passing through the cross-section area of a conductor in a unit time is
defined as the electric current
Mathematically:
Let 𝒒 is the amount of charge passing through the cross section of a
conductor in time 𝒕 as shown in figure. The electric current 𝑰 can be
expressed mathematically as
𝒒
𝑰=
𝒕
The S.I unit of electric current is Amperes and it may be defined as

Electric current is a fundamental quantity and the unit of electric charge Coulomb is defined in
terms of electric current as

“It is the amount of charge that passes through the cross-sectional area of a conductor in 1
second if the current passing through the conductor is 1 ampere.”
Explanation:
In normal condition the free electrons in a metal
conductor are in continuous random motion identical to
the motion of the molecules of an ideal gas. For each
electron moving in a particular direction there is another
electron moving in the opposite direction hence net
current is zero. Now if an external electric field is applied
across the conductor through a battery (or any other
source) the electrons are attracted toward the positive
terminal of the battery and drift toward the positive
terminal with velocity 𝒗𝒅 . Now as all the electrons are
moving in the same direction there is a net charge flow
through the conductor, hence developing an Electric
Current.

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Types of Current:
On the basis of direction, the electrical current has two types

• Electronic Current:
It is the current in the direction of motion of electron flowing in conductor under the
influence of a potential source. Its direction is from negative to positive.

• Conventional Current:
It is the current in the direction in which positive charges would have been flown in
conductor under the influence of a potential source. Its direction is from positive to
negative.

Ohm’s Law:
Significance:
It is an empirical law discovered by Georg Simon Ohm in 1827. It is fundamental law in electrical
and electronics.

Statement:
“Voltage developed across a conductor is directly proportional to the current passing through it
keeping the other physical factors constant.”
OR
“Current passing through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it
keeping the other physical factors constant.”
Mathematically:
If 𝐼 is the current passing through a conductor and 𝑉 is the voltage dropped across it then
mathematically Ohms can be expressed as
𝑉∝𝐼
𝑘𝑉 = 𝐼 − − − (1)

Here 𝒌 is the conductance of the given material wire. The

resistance 𝑹 of wire is defined as the reciprocal of the
conductance
1
𝑅=
𝑘
Equation (1) becomes
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
𝑹 is called resistance of the given material.

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Limitations of Ohm’s Law:
The limitations of Ohm’s law are,

1) Dimensions of conductor must be same

2) Temperature of conductor must be same
3) It holds only for metallic conductor

Graphical representation:
The graph between the voltage and current is shown in figure.

Resistance:
The opposition the flow of Electric current is called Resistance
Explanation:
Phenomena of resistance can be explained as:
If an external electric field is applied across the conductor through a battery (or any other
source) the electrons are attracted toward the positive terminal of the battery and drift toward
the positive terminal, with drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 . These electrons in their way toward the positive
terminal of the battery collide with the vibrating atoms of material and lose energy this lost in
energy causes difficulty to the electron in reaching the positive terminal.

Factor affecting Resistance:

Electrical Resistance depends upon following factors.
• Dimensions of conductors (length area of Cross section).
• Temperature.
• Stress and strain.
The S.I unit of Resistance is Ohm which is equivalent to volt per meter represented by Greek
letter capital Omega (Ω) .

Resistivity:
Resistance per unit length per unit cross sectional area of material is called Resistivity or
specific resistance.
Explanation:
Resistance of the conductor depends upon the dimensions of the conductor as
• Length of conductor (𝐿) . Higher the length higher the resistance.
• Cross-sectional Area of conductor (𝐴). Higher the cross-sectional lower the resistance.

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Mathematically it can be expressed as
𝑅∝𝐿
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
Combining above expression
𝐿
𝑅∝
𝐴

𝝆𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨

Here 𝝆 is called resistivity or Specific resistance and can be expressed as.

𝑹𝑨
𝝆=
𝑳

The S.I unit of Specific resistance or resistivity is Ohmmeter (𝛀. 𝒎).

Dependence of Resistance on temperature:

The resistance in flow of electric current is due to the collision of electrons with the ions or
atoms of the metal (solid). As the temperature of a body increases its atoms or molecules start
vibrating with the higher amplitude and the probability of collision of electrons with the ions or
atoms increases which causes the increase in resistance of material.

Mathematically:
Let 𝑅𝑜 is the resistance of a material (metal) at temperature 𝑇1 if the temperature is changed
to 𝑇2 the resistance of the material will be changed to 𝑅𝑡 .
The change in resistance (∆𝑅) is directly proportional to the original resistance

∆𝑅 ∝ 𝑅𝑜

∆𝑅 ∝ ∆𝑇

∆𝑅 ∝ 𝑅𝑜 ∆𝑇

∆𝑅 = 𝛼𝑅𝑜 ∆𝑇

Here 𝛼 is called the temperature co-efficient of resistance of and it is defined as

“Change in resistance per unit original resistance per unit change in temperature is called
temperature co-efficient of resistance."

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Temperature co-efficient of resistance could be positive of negative. Temperature co-efficient
of metallic resistances is always positive. Whereas the Co-efficient of Semiconductor materials
could be negative or positive depending on temperature range negative.

Final resistance 𝑅𝑇 is can be written as

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜 + ∆𝑅

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜 + 𝛼𝑅𝑜 ∆𝑇

𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇)

In Terms of Resistivity:

As we know that resistance is directly proportional to resistivity therefore,

𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝛥𝑇)

Combination of Resistance:
Series Combination of Resistor:
In series combination of resistors there is only one path for the flow of electric current.
Electric current passing through each resistor is same.
Potential difference across each resistor is different and it depends upon the value or
resistance.

Expression for Equivalent Resistance

Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected to one another in series circuit as shown
below.

Let the circuit is connected to a power supply of

voltage 'V' and an electric current 'I' is passing
through the circuit.

Potential difference across R1 is V1

Potential difference across R2 is V2
Potential difference across R3 is V3

The sum of the Potential differences is equal to 'V'.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3

According to Ohm's law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

𝐼𝑅𝑒 = 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3

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𝐼𝑅𝑒 = 𝐼(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 )

𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Hence, equivalent resistance of circuit is always greater than any of the resistance connected in
series in the circuit.

Parallel Combination of Resistors

In parallel combination of resistors there is more than only one path for the flow of
electric current. Electric current passing through each resistor is different and it depends upon
the value of resistance. Potential difference across each resistor is the same.

Expression for Equivalent Resistance

Consider three resistances R1, R2 and R3 connected to one another in
parallel circuit as shown in figure below

Let the circuit is connected to a power supply of voltage 'V' and an

electric current 'I' is passing through the circuit.

Electric current passing through R1 is I1

Electric current passing through R2 is I2
Electric current passing through R3 is I3
The sum of all three currents is equal to 'I'.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉
According to Ohm's law 𝐼 = 𝑅
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

Equivalent resistance of circuit is always smaller than any of the resistance connected parallel in
the circuit.

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Power Deception in Resistors:

When current flows in a conductor then a part of electrical energy appears in the form of heat
energy which is known as Power Deception in Resistor.

Explanation:
When an electric current pass through a conductor, some useful
electrical energy is dissipated in the form of heat energy. This
loss of electrical energy is due to the collision of charges with
the atoms of conductor. Loss of electrical energy in unit time is
referred to as "power dissipation in resistor".

Unit
Its unit is Watt (W) which is equivalent to Joule per second (J/s).

Mathematically
Power is defined as Work done per unit time
𝑊
𝑃=
𝑡
Since
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑞
𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉
𝑞𝑉
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑞
Since 𝐼 =
𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 — (1)
Using Ohms law 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
𝑃 = (𝐼𝑅)𝐼
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅— (2)
𝑉
Again, using Ohm’s Law 𝐼 = 𝑅
𝑉 2
𝑃=( ) 𝑅
𝑅
𝑉2
𝑃= 𝑅
𝑅2

𝑉2
𝑃= — (3)
𝑅

Combining equation (1), (2) and (3)

𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 = 𝑹

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INTERNAL RESISTANCE:
“When current passes through a source of potential difference, such
as a battery, then it experiences some opposition within the source
this opposition in the flow of current is called internal resistance.”

Electromotive Force:
Work done per unit charge by the potential source is called
Electromotive force it is equal to the open terminal voltage of a Voltage Source is called Electro
Motive force.
Mathematically:
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟
Here 𝐸 is the e.m.f of the battery and r is the internal resistance of battery and 𝐼 is the
Maximum current that a battery can provide.
If we connect the battery across resistance 𝑅 the potential dropped 𝑉 across 𝑅 can be written
as Find out as
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝑉
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑅
Current in the circuit can be written as
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
Now if the battery is lost the Electrical energy and it is charging by an external source
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
TERMINAL VOLTAGE:
“The potential difference appears at the two terminals of a source in the presence of internal
resistance and a current is passing through it, is called terminal voltage.”

V = 𝐸 – Ir

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ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

The term e.m.f is used for a device which The term potential difference is used for a
produces electricity e.g cell, battery, and device which uses electricity e.g. filament,
generator. speaker, and fan.
A source of electricity changes other forms A device which uses electricity changes
ofenergy into electric energy. electric energy into other forms of energy.
Formula: E = Formula: V =

Unit: Volt Unit: Volt

The emf of a source is 1V if it changes 1J of The potential difference across a device is
energy from other forms into electric form 1V if it changes 1J of energy from electric
for every 1C charge flowing through it. form into other forms for every 1C charge
flowing through it.

CHAPTER-13 NUMERICALS FROM PAST PAPERS

1995

Q.3(c) A platinum wire of diameter 0.2mm is wound to make

a resistor of 4 Ω. How long a wire is needed for this
purpose? (ρ =11x10–8Ωm)
(1.1424m)

1996

Q.4(c) The resistance of a copper wire is 1.27Ω at 20°C. Find its resistance at 0°C and at 100°C.
The temperature coefficient of resistivity of copper is α = 0.0039°C–1 (1.178 Ω, 1.637Ω)

2000

Q.4(d) You are given three resistors each of 2 ohms. How would you arrange these resistors to
obtain the equivalent resistances of (i) 1.33 ohms (ii) 3 ohms (iii) 6 ohms? Also prove the
result mathematically.

2001

Q.3(d) Find the equivalent resistance and the current through R3& R4. Given R1 = 20Ω, R2 = 30Ω,
R3 = 20Ω, R4 = 40Ω, R5 = 10Ω
(20Ω, 15A)

2002 (Pre Med. group)

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Q.6(d) A battery of 24V is connected to a 10Ω load and current of 2.2 amp is drawn; find the
internal resistance of the battery and its terminal voltage. (0.9Ω, 22V)

2002 (Pre Engg. group)

Q.3(d) The resistance of a tungsten wire used in a filament of a 60-watt bulb is 240Ω when the
bulb is hot at a temperature of 2020°C, what would you estimate its resistance at 20°C?
(The temperature coefficient of tungsten α 0.0046/°C) (25.4Ω)

2003 (Pre Med. group)

Q.3(d) Find the equivalent resistance in the given circuit, current I and potential difference
between ‘a’ and ‘b’:

R1 = 5Ω, R2 = 2Ω, R3 = 3Ω, R4 = 6Ω, V = 6 volts (1A, 5V, 6Ω)

2003 (Pre Engg. group)

Q.3. (d) A 50-ohm resistor is to be wound with platinum wire, 0.1 mm in diameter. How much
wire is needed (ρ = 11 x 10–8 Ωm)? (3.57 m)

2005

Q.6. (d) Two resistances of 10Ω and 50Ω are connected in series with a 6-volt battery.
Calculate:

i) The charges drawn from the battery per minute

ii) The power dissipated in 10Ω resistance. (6C,0.1W)
2006

Q.4. (d) A 50-ohm resistor is required from a copper wire, 0.2 mm in diameter. What is the
length of the wire needed? (ρ=1.6x10–8 Ω-m) (98.125m)

2008

Q.3. (d) A rectangular block of iron has the dimensions 1.2cmx1.2cmx15cm.

(i) What is the resistance of the opposite

square ends?

(ii) What is the resistance between two of the

rectangular faces?

(The resistivity for iron at room temperature is 9.6x10–

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8m) (1 x 10–7, 6.4 x10–8)

2009

Q.6. (d) In the given diagram R1 = R2 = 4 Ω and R3 = 6Ω. Calculate the current in the 6Ω resistor.

(0.37A)

2010

Q.2. (xi) A water heater that will deliver 1 kg of water per minute is required. The water is
supplied at 20°C and an output temperature of 80°C is desired. What should be the
resistance of the heating element in water if the line voltage is 220V? (Sp. Heat of water
= 4200 J/kg K). (11.52)

2011

Q.2. (x) A rectangular bar of iron is 2 cm х 2 cm in cross –section and 20 cm long. What is the
resistance of the bar at 500˚C if ρ = 11х10–8Ω-m and α = 0.0052K–1?
(1.98 x 10–4)

2012 You are given three resistors each of 2Ω. How would you arrange these to obtain
equivalent resistance of: (a) 1.33Ω (b) 3Ω (c.) 6Ω. Verify the results mathematically?

2013 Two resistors of 5Ωand 2Ω are connected in parallel with a 9V battery. Calculate the
current and power dissipated in each resistance.

2014

Q2(ii)A rectangular bar of iron is 2 cm X 2cm in cross section an 20 cm long. What will be its
resistance at 500oC? If α = 0.0052 K-1 and ρ = 11 x 10-8Ωm

2015

Q2(vii) A 50-ohm resistor is to be wound with platinum wire, 0.1 mm in diameter. How much
wire is needed (ρ = 11 x 10–8 Ωm)?
(3.57 m)

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Chapter 14
Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Magnet:
It is a natural substance which attracts the things made up of iron, cobalt and nickel. If it is
suspended freely, it always points towards geographical north and south.

Magnetic Field:
The region around the magnet in which its effect can be experienced is called magnetic field.
Magnetic Force:
The force experienced by a magnetic substance due to a magnet is called magnetic field.

Magnetic Lines of Force:

In the magnetic field the effect of magnet is caused by special lines of force which are called
magnetic lines of force.

Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force:

i) The magnetic lines of force start from the North Pole and end at south pole.
ii) Inside the magnet, these lines continue from the South Pole to the North Pole.
iii) They do not intersect each other.
iv) They pass through iron more easily as compared to air.

Magnetic Field of a Straight Wire:

When a current is flowing in a straight wire, a magnetic field is produced around the wire. It consists of
concentric circular magnetic lines.

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Force on Charge Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field:

Experimentally it is found that when a charge particle moves in a magnetic field it experiences a force
due to magnetic field called magnetic force.

Mathematical Expression:
Mathematically the magnetic force on a charged particle is directly proportional to
the component of velocity of particle perpendicular to magnetic field, strength of
magnetic field and magnitude of charge.

𝐹 ∝ 𝑉⊥

Or
𝐹 ∝ 𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝐹∝𝐵

𝐹∝𝑞

Combing above
𝐹 ∝ 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Or

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Practically 𝑘 = 1, Hence

𝑭 = 𝒒𝒗𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

In vector form

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ × ⃗𝑩
𝑭 = 𝒒(𝒗 ⃗)

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Trajectory of a charged particle moving in a uniform magnetic field:

Consider a charged article moving in a uniform magnetic field of
strength 𝑩 such that it is making angle 𝜽 with the magnetic field
⃗⃗ . The components of velocity vector parallel and
vector𝑩
perpendicular to the field vectors can be written as

𝑣⊥ = 𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑣∥ = 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The particle will experience magnetic force which will alter 𝒗⊥ and it
will move in a helical path along magnetic field. The radius of helical path can be written as

Magnetic force on particle is

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Due to circular motion Centripetal force is

𝑚 𝑣⊥2 𝑚 (𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
𝐹𝑐 = =
𝑟 𝑟
Comparing above
𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑐

𝑚(𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2
𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑟
𝑚𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑞𝐵 =
𝑟

𝒎𝒗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒓=
𝒒𝑩

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Force on a current carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field:

Consider conductor of length 𝒍 placed in a uniform magnetic field of
strength 𝑩. If the current flowing through the conductor is 𝑰 and the
angle between velocity vector 𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗ is 𝜽 then
⃗ and magnetic field vector 𝑩
the force experience by the conductor can be written as

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒒(𝒗
𝑭 ⃗⃗ )
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑩

As the charges moves from one end of the conductor to other end of
the conductor in time 𝒕 the velocity of charges can be written as

⃗𝒍
⃗ =
𝒗
𝒕
Putting in above we get
⃗
⃗𝑭 = 𝒒 (𝒍 × ⃗𝑩
⃗)
𝒕

⃗ × ⃗𝑪 = 𝒎 (𝑨
Using property of cross product 𝒎𝑨 ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗
𝑪)

𝒒
⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 = (𝒍⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗)
𝒕
Or

𝑭 = 𝑰(𝒍⃗ × ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗)

Now the magnitude of force can be written as

𝑭 = 𝑰𝒍𝑩𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

As the magnitude of force changes with the inclination of the conductor with respect to the
magnetic field, therefore, L is taken as a vector, its magnitude is equal to length of the
conductor and its direction is same as the direction of conventional current.
The magnitude of force experienced by a straight current carrying conductor in a uniform
magnetic field is given by
F = ILB sin 

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When conductor is perpendicular to the field 𝜽=90o, force experienced by the conductor will be
maximum and is given by:
F = ILB (Sin90o =1)
When the conductor is held parallel to the field 𝜽=0° then;
F=0 (Sin0o=0)
“Force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is always perpendicular
to length of the conductor as well as the magnetic field and its direction can be determined by
right hand rule”.

Torque on a Current Carrying Coil in a Uniform Magnetic Field:

When current is passed through a coil placed in a

magnetic field, a couple is developed which rotates the
coil. A coil “PQRS” is placed in a uniform magnetic field B
and capable of rotation about an axis xx’.

L=length of coil
b = breath of the coil.
As current I pass through the coil, force is produced on
each length of the coil.

→ → →
∵ 𝐹 = 𝐼 (𝐿 × 𝐵)
F =BIL sin 90o
F =BIL (1)
F=BIL

Torque of couple is given by,

𝜏 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝜏 =𝐹×𝑏
𝜏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 × 𝑏 = 𝐵𝐼𝐴
for coil of N turns;
 = BIA N

 = BINA.......................(i)

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Eq(i) applies when the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of magnetic field. When the
plane of coil makes an angle “α”with the direction of magnetic field then;
 = Force x Couple arm
 = BIL x b cos
 = BlA cos ( A = L b )
For N turns;
 = BINA cos 
• Torque is maximum when the plane of coil is parallel to the magnetic field i.e. when α=0.
• Torque is zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field
i.e. α= 90.

Magnetic Flux:
The number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through the surface is called “Magnetic
flux”.

Mathematical Definition:
Magnetic flux is equal to the dot product of magnetic field of induction " B" and the vector area
"  A" of the surface, provided the magnetic field of induction is uniform over the given area of
the surface. It is denoted by 𝛷𝑚 .
⃗ . ∆𝐴
∆𝛷𝑚 = 𝐵

 m = B A cos
The unit of magnetic flux is “Weber”.

Magnetic Flux Density:

“The magnetic flux per unit area of a surface which is held normal to the field is called Magnetic
Flux Density”
It is denoted by “B”.
 m
B=
A

The Unit of magnetic flux density is “W/m2” or “Tesla”.

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J.J Thomson Experiment for charge to mass ratio of

electron:
Significance:
It was the first direct measurement of charge to mass ration of an electron which led to the
measurement of mass of electron.
Experimental Setup and working:
It consists of a highly evacuated glass tube, fitted
with electrodes. Electrons are produced by heating
a tungsten filament electrically. Electrons are made
to accelerate and form a beam by passing through
discs A and B. They are passed through electric and
magnetic field. Finally, they fall on zinc sulphide
screen.

Calculations:
As the electron beam is moves in a circular arc when
passing through magnetic field its centripetal force is equal to the magnetic force i-e

𝑭𝒎 = 𝑭 𝒄

𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒆𝒗𝑩 =
𝒓
𝒆 𝒗
=
𝒎 𝑩𝒓
Calculation for velocity:
Method#1:
As the particle is moving under the influence of an electric field its kinetic energy can be written as

𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉
2
2𝑒𝑉
𝑣2 =
𝑚

2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√
𝑚

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Putting in equation (1)

𝑒 2𝑒𝑉 1
=√ ×
𝑚 𝑚 𝐵𝑟

Squaring on both sides

𝑒 2 2𝑒𝑉
( ) =
𝑚 𝑚𝐵2 𝑟 2

𝒆 𝟐𝑽
= 𝟐 𝟐
𝒎 𝑩 𝒓

Method#2:
If an electric field is applied perpendicular to the magnetic field such that it will cancel the effect of
magnetic force and the electron beam passes by in a straight line then

𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝑚

𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝑣𝐵

𝐸
𝑣=
𝐵

Putting in equation (1) we get

𝑒 𝐸 1
= ×
𝑚 𝐵 𝐵𝑟

𝒆 𝑬
=
𝒎 𝑩𝟐 𝒓

Calculation for Radius:

If the electron beam strikes the screen at point E as shown in figure then using law of chords

𝐷𝐸 × 𝐸𝐵 = 𝐴𝐸 × 𝐸𝐶

𝑎 × 𝑎 = 𝑏 × (2𝑟 − 𝑏)

𝑎2 = 2𝑟𝑏 − 𝑏 2
2
Since 𝑏 is negligible
𝑎2 = 2𝑟𝑏

𝒂𝟐
𝒓=
𝟐𝒃

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Biot-Savart Law:
Statement:
“Strength of magnetic field (𝑩) around a conductor is directly proportion to the current (𝑰)
flowing through a conductor and inversely proportional to the distance (𝒓) from the
conductor.”
Mathematical Expression:
According to Biot-Savart law
𝐵∝𝐼

𝐵∝𝑟
Combining above we get
𝐼
𝐵∝
𝑟

𝝁𝒐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅 𝒓
𝝁𝒐
Here is constant of proportionality and its Numerical value of 𝝁𝒐 is
𝟐𝝅

𝝁𝒐 = 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝑻𝑨−𝟏 . 𝒎−𝟏

Ampere’s Law:
Statement:
“The sum of the product of the tangential component of magnetic field of induction and the
length of an element of a closed curve taken in a magnetic field is “i” times the current which
passes through the area bounded by this curve”.
Mathematical Representation:

 (B. L )
i =n

t =  0  I enclosed
i =1

Proof:

Consider a straight current carrying conductor through which current “I” is flowing.
Experimentally, it has been observed that the strength of the magnetic field produced at any
point near the conductor is directly proportional to twice the current “I” and inversely
proportional to the distance “r” from the conductor.

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BI
1
B
r2
by combining both observations,

I
B
r
I
B = (constant)
r
0 I
B= .
2 r
0
is the constant of proportionality and it is known as permeability of free-space.
2

The value of "  0 " is 4  10 −7 Web/Amp-m

0 I
B= ..............(i )
2 r

The above relation shows that the value of “B” at all the points on the circle will be the same if
a straight conductor is at the center of the circle. Hence the magnitude of magnetic field of
induction “B” at any point on the surface of a circular closed path can be calculated with the
help of equation (i) the above formula is valid only for a circular closed path surrounding the
conductor.
To derive a general formula, we will divide the circle into many small elements each of length
" l" . The tangential component of magnetic field of induction for an element is " B cos "
hence, the product of tangential component of “B” and length of an element " l" is given as;

( B cos )l = Bl cos

But,
The sum of these products for all the elements is given by:
 B.l =  BlCos
In this case the angle 0 between B. and l each and every point is zero, because the circular
path coincides exactly with the magnetic field.
 B.l =  BlCos
 B.l =  Bl
 B.l = B l

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0 I
 l = 2  r (Total length of the circular closed path), But B=
2 r
circular closed path, from

equation (i).

→ → 0 I
 B .  l = 2 r  2 r
i =n

 ( B. L)
i =1
i =  0 I ..........................(ii )

Equation (ii) is the general form of Ampere’s circular law. It is independent of the distance of
elements form the conductor; therefore, it is applicable to closed curve of any shape taken in
the magnetic field.

Application of Ampere’s Law:

With the help of Ampere’s law the magnetic field of induction B due to a current can be
determined provided  B.l for an imaginary closed curve around the conductor is known.

Determination of “B” Inside a Long Solenoid:

A coil of insulated wire wound on a cylindrical core is called Solenoid. When a strong current pass
through the loops a magnetic field is formed inside the “Core” of Solenoid. Outside the core,
the field is very weak so that the force of induction is negligible outside the core.
Consider rectangular amperian loop, the length of its sides is l1, l2, l3 and l4.

To Determine the Line Integral of Magnetic Induction

The line integral of magnetic induction on Amperian loop is given by;
→ → → → → → → → → →
 B .  l = B .l 1 + B . l 2 + B . l3 + B . l 4 ..............(i )

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→ →
Now, for B .l1
→ →
since B and l1 are parallel, therefore (i.e. θ = 0o)
→ →
B . l1 = B l1 cos 0 o
→ →
B . l1 = B l1 (1)
→ →
B . l1 = B l 1

→ →
Now for B .l 2
→ →
since B and l 2 are perpendicular, (i.e. θ = 90o)
→ →
B . l 2 = B l 2 cos 90 o
→ →
B . l 2 = B l 2 (0 )
→ →
B .l2 = 0

→ →
Now for B .l 3
→ →
since B and l 3 are anti- parallel, therefore (i.e., θ = 180o)

→ →
B . l3 = B l3 cos 0o

Since at l3 the field strength is zero (i.e., B = 0)

→ →
B . l 3 = (0 ) l 3 (− 1)
→ →
B . l3 = 0

Now for 𝑩𝒍𝟒

→ →
Since, B and l 4 are perpendicular, (i.e., θ = 90o)

→ →
B . l 4 = B l 4 cos 90 o
→ →
B . l 4 = B l 4 (0 )
→ →
B .l4 = 0

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Now;
→ →
 B .  l = Bl1 + 0 + 0 + 0
→ →
 B.  l = B l1

To Determine the Total Current Passes Through Amperian Loop:

Suppose the no. of turns per unit length of solenoid is “n”, therefore the no. of turns on “l1” is
“nl1”. If “I” be the current passes through “one” turn, hence the total current enclosed by the
rectangular Amperian loop will be “nl1I”.
Now, applying Ampere’s Law;

→ →
 B .  l = 0 ( I enclosed )

Bl1 =  0 (nl1 I )
B =  0 nI
 NI  N
OR B= o ; n = 
L  L

Where, “N” and “L” are the number of turns and length of solenoid respectively.

If a medium other than vacuum is present at the core of the solenoid the value of “B” is given
by;
B = m n I
where "  m " is the permeability of the medium.

r o N I
B = m n I =
L

Toroidal Field:
Consider a toroid of outer radius 𝒃, inner radius 𝒂 and
mean radius 𝒓 having 𝑵 turns such that the current flowing
through each turn is 𝑰. If we divide toroid in 𝑛 small equal
segments such that each segment is parallel to the
magnetic field vector tangent to it. Now, according to
Ampere’s law:

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝛴𝐵∆𝑙𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑙
𝛴𝐵.

Since 𝜃 = 0°

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⃗⃗⃗ = 𝛴𝐵∆𝑙𝑛 = 𝐵𝛴∆𝑙
⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑙
𝛴𝐵.

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟)
⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑙
Σ𝐵.

Using ampere’s law

𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼

𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓

Now Applying Amperes Law in toroid. Consider an ampere loop of radius 𝑹.

If𝑹 > 𝑏:
If 𝑅 > 𝑏 then the net current through the ampere loop is zero (current in is equal to current
out) hence:

𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝑰 𝝁𝒐 𝑵(𝟎)
𝑩= =
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟐𝝅𝒓

𝐵=0

If 𝑹 < 𝑎:
If 𝑅 < 𝑎 then the net current through the ampere loop is zero, hence:

𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝑰 𝝁𝒐 𝑵(𝟎)
𝑩= =
𝟐𝝅𝑹 𝟐𝝅𝒓

𝐵=0

If 𝑹 = 𝒓:
If 𝑅 > 𝑟 then we get

𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝑹

𝝁𝒐 𝑵𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓

Hence Magnetic field exists inside toroid only.

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Electromagnetic Induction:
Changing magnetic flux in a coil or loop produces an emf in it. This emf is called induced emf
and the phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Induced emf causes current in the
loop which is called induced current.

Faraday’s Law:

According to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

1. “An emf is induced in a coil through which the magnetic flux is changing”.

2. The magnitude of induced emf depends only upon the number of turns and the time
rate of change of flux linked with the circuit.
Hence,


3.  = − N
t

Where “N” represents the number of turns of coil,  is the change of magnetic flux in time t .
The negative sign is introduced according to Lenz’s Law, to indicate the direction of induced
emf. " N " is called Flux Linkage.

The emf will be induced if there is a change of magnetic flux, no emf will be induced if flux
either becomes zero or becomes constant.

Lenz’s Law:

According to Lenz’s Law, “The direction of induced emf and hence the direction of induced
current is always such that it opposes the change which produces it”.

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Mutual-Induction:
The phenomenon in which an E.M.F is induced in to a coil due to
change in current in a nearby coil is called Mutual-Induction.

Explanation:
If we place a coil (secondary coil) near another coil (primary coil)
through which current is passing the magnetic flux of primary coil
will pass through secondary coil. When current flowing through
primary coil changes it changes magnetic flux through the
secondary coil due to which an E.M.F is induced in it which is
according to Faraday’s law of EM induction.

Mathematical Expression:
Consider secondary coil having 𝑁𝑠 turns. If the current flowing through the primary coil is change by
amount ∆𝐼𝑠 in time ∆𝑡 then the induced E.M.F can be written as

∆𝑰𝑷
𝝃𝑺 = −𝑴
∆𝒕

Here 𝑴 is called Mutual-inductance and it depends upon physical and geometrical properties of both
coils.

According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

∆𝜙𝑆
𝜉𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆
∆𝑡

Comparing above we get

∆𝜙𝑆 ∆𝐼𝑃
−𝑁𝑆 = −𝑀
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝑁 ∆𝜙𝑆 = 𝑀∆𝐼𝑃

Or

∆𝝓𝑺
𝑴=𝑵
∆𝑰𝑷

Unit of Mutual Inductance:

The unit of mutual inductance is “Henry”.

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Self-Induction:
The phenomenon in which an E.M.F is induced in to a coil due to change in current in that coil is
called Self-Induction.

Explanation:
When current flowing through a coil changes it
changes magnetic flux through the coil due to
which an E.M.F is induced in to the coil which is
according to Faraday’s law of EM induction.

Mathematical Expression:
Consider a coil having 𝑁 turns. If the current
flowing through the coil is change by amount ∆𝐼 in time ∆𝑡 then the induced E.M.F can be
written as

∆𝑰
𝝃 = −𝑳
∆𝒕

Here 𝑳 is called self-inductance and it depends upon physical and geometrical properties of
coil.

According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction

∆𝜙
𝜉 = −𝑁
∆𝑡
Comparing above we get

∆𝜙 ∆𝐼
−𝑁 = −𝐿
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝑁 ∆𝜙 = 𝐿∆𝐼

Or

∆𝝓
𝑳=𝑵
∆𝑰

Unit of Self Inductance:

The unit of self-inductance is “Henry”.

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Motional E.M.F:

When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field, a potential difference is established

between its ends. The potential difference is called motional emf.

Explanation:
When the conductor is moved with velocity𝑣, the free electrons in the conductor also move
along with it with same velocity. A force acts on each electron which is given by.

F = e( B  v )

This force pushes the free electrons from end “b” to end “a” of the wire. As a result, upper end
becomes more and more positive and lower end negative. Transfer of electrons stops when
force F is balanced by the electrostatic attraction between ends “a” and “b”. Hence, under
given conditions, a certain value of emf is obtained.

Derivation of Formula:

Suppose;
q = Total charge transferred from end “b” to “a”.

B =Flux density of uniform magnetic field.

 =Angle between v and B .

l=Length of the conductor.

Force on charge “q” is;

F = q (B  v )
F = qB v sin 
Work done on the charge from “b” to “a”

W =F I
W = q B v sin   I
Motional emf is
W qBv sin   I
 = =
q q
 = B v l sin 

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Electromechanical Device:
An electromechanical device is that which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy or
mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Electric Motor: A motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy:

Generator: A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Alternating Current Generator (Dynamo):

It is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and gives
output in the form of alternating current using the concept of Motional EMF.

Construction:
An AC generator consist of following parts

• A wire loop or Coil

• A magnet
• Slip rings
• Carbon brushes
• Armature

Working:
• As the coil rotates in the magnetic field an EMF is induced in along its lengths(𝐴𝐵 =
𝐶𝐷 = 𝑙).
• As these lengths are in series with each other the sum of the EMFs in AB and CD is
received at output through the slip rings rubbing along carbon brushes connected to the
output leads.
• The magnitude of EMF varies with time due to change in angle between velocity vector
of coil and magnetic field vector.
• Due to the rotation of coil the direction of current changes in each half cycle therefore
the output current is Alternating in nature.

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Expression for EMF of an AC generator:

If the coil is rotating with linear speed 𝑣 in the magnetic field of strength 𝐵 then the
instantaneous output EMF 𝝃can be written as
𝝃 = 𝟐𝒗𝑩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
If the breadth of the coil𝐴𝐷 = 𝑏, then the linear speed 𝑣 can be written as
𝒃
𝒗= 𝝎
𝟐
Hence
𝒃
𝝃 = 𝟐 × 𝝎𝑩𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
𝟐
𝝃 = 𝝎𝑩𝒃𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
Since area of coil is 𝐴 = 𝑏𝑙
𝝃 = 𝑨𝑩𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
If coil has 𝑁 turns then

𝝃 = 𝑨𝑵𝑩𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

The maximum output EMF 𝝃𝒐 will be obtain when coil is perpendicular to the field (𝑖. 𝑒 ∶ 𝜃 =
𝜔𝑡 = 90°) can be written as

𝝃𝒐 = 𝑨𝑵𝑩𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎°)

𝝃𝒐 = 𝑨𝑵𝑩𝝎

Now instantaneous output EMF can be written as

𝝃 = 𝝃𝒐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

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Expression For Maximum emf:
The emf induced in the coil will be maximum when sin ωt=1, which is possible when the angle
 
“θ” between v and B is 90o, at this particular moment plane of the coil will be exactly parallel
to the magnetic field,
 max = NAB
Relation Between Instantaneous emf “ξ” and maximum emf “ξmax”
The instantaneous and maximum emf induced in the coil are related by:
 =  max sin  t

 = 2f
In the rotating coil emf induced changes in magnitude and direction with time, such an emf is
known as alternating emf. The current caused by alternating emf will also change continuously
in magnitude and direction. Under the influence of alternating emf free electrons of the
conductor will simply vibrate about their mean position.

Transformer:
Transformer is an electric device which is used either to step up or step down an alternating
emf (Voltage). It works on the principle of “Mutual Induction”.

Construction & Working:

A transformer consists of two coils known as “primary”
and “secondary”. These coils of insulated copper wires
are wound one on top of the other on a laminated soft
iron core. On one of the coils, known as the “primary
coil”, an alternating emf (Voltage) is applied. Due to self-
induction an emf (  P ) Is induced in the primary coil,
 m
given by;  P = −N P ..................(i )
t

m
Where “Np” is the no. of turns in primary coil and is
t
the rate of change of flux through primary coil. Since, the secondary coil is wound on top of the
primary coil; therefore, the flux linked with the two coils will be practically equal. In other

words, the rate of change of flux m for both coils are same.
t

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Due to mutual induction, emf Induced  S in the secondary coil is given by:

m
S = − NS ..................(ii )
t

Where, “Ns’ is the no. of turns in secondary coil.

Dividing eq. (ii) by eq. (i)

m
 S − N S t
=
 P − N  m
t
P

 S NS
=
 P NP

Efficiency of Transformer:

Efficiency may be defined as;

“The ratio of power output to power input”.

Power Output’=  S I S
Power Input =  P I P

If the power loses in a transformer are neglected then,

Power Output = Power Input
 S IS =  P IP
 S IP
=
 P IS
This relation shows that in a step-up transformer for which ( S   P ), " I P " will greater than “IS”.
Step Up Transformer:
If NS >NP then " S " also be greater than " P " , A transformer in which ( S   P ) is known as “Step
up Transformer”. It increases the applied voltage, whereas ( I S  I P ).

Step Down Transformer:

A transformer in which NS<NP, gives lower emf through the secondary coil i.e. ( S   P ) is
known as “Step down Transformer”. It decreases the applied voltage whereas ( I P  I S ).

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Uses of Transformer:
1. Step up transformer is used for sending electricity to long distance.
2. Step down transformer is used to decrease the large voltage up to 220 volts.
3. In electric bell the step-down transformer is used to set the voltage up to 4 volts.

Power Losses in A Transformer:

1. Power loses in transformer is mainly due to resistance of its wires.
2. To minimize this source of power loss, thick copper wire is used in the coil which carries
larger current.
3. Eddy current induced on the surface of iron core due to the changing magnetic flux, produce
heating effect.
4. To minimize this effect core is made up of thin sheets of soft iron separated by a thin layer of
varnish.

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CHAPTER-14 NUMERICALS from Past Papers

1985
Q.4. (c) A toroidal coil has 300 turns and its mean radius 12cm. Calculate the magnetic field of induction
‘B’ inside the coil when a current of 5 amperes passes through it. (2.5 x 10–3Wb/m2)
Q.5. (c) Current of 2 amperes passes through an inductive circuit. What is the self-inductance of
the circuit if the current falls to zero in 0.1 seconds? The average value of induced e.m.f.
is 20 volts. (1.0 Henry)
1986
Q.5. (c) A train is moving directly towards south with a uniform speed of 10m/s, if the vertical
component of the earth’s magnetic field induction is 5.4x10–5 Tesla. Compute the e.m.f. induced
in the axle 1.2m long.
(6.48x10–4 volts)
1987
Q.4. (c) An electron having a speed of 1.6x106 m/s is moving along a circle of radius 1.82x10–6m entering
perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field. Find the value of magnetic field. (5 Tesla)
1988
Q.5. (c) A solenoid of diameter 5.0cm is 25cm long and has 250 turns. If the current flowing in it is 5
amperes, find B inside the solenoid. (6.28x10–3 web/m2)
1990
Q.4. (c) Find the current required to produce a field of induction B = 2.51x 10–3 web/m2 in a 50cm long
solenoid having 4000 turns of wire. (0.25A)
1992
Q.4. (c) A current of 2 amperes is passing through a solenoid. If the solenoid has 24 turns per cm of its
length, find the value of B. (6.03x10–3 web/m2)
Q.6. (c) A transformer has 1000 turns in its primary coil. If the input voltage of the transformer is 200
volts, what should be the number of turns of the secondary coil to obtain an output of 6.0 volts?
(30 turns)
1993
Q.5. (c) A 10eV electron is moving in a circular orbit in a uniform magnetic field of strength 10-4weber/m2.
Calculate the radius of the circular path. (0.107m)
Q.6. (c) A coil having an area of cross section 0.05m2 and number of turns 100 is placed perpendicular to
the magnetic field of induction 0.08 weber/m2. How much e.m.f. will be induced in it if the field
is reduced to 0.02 weber/m2 in 0.01 seconds? (30 volts)
1994
Q.6. (c) A solenoid 25cm long has a cross-section of 5 square cm with 250 numbers of turns on it. If a
current if 5 amperes is passed through it, find “B” in it. (6.28x10–3 web/m2)
1995
Q.4. (c) An electron is moving along a circle of radius 1.8 x 10–7m. Calculate the speed of the electron on
entering perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field of 5.0 Tesla. (15.81x104 m/s)

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1996
Q.4. (c) A coil of 100 turns and area (4cm x 2cm) is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.45 T. The coil
carries a current of 1.5 amperes. Calculate the torque on the coil when the plan is at 60° with B.
(0.0054 Nm)
Q.5. (c) An airplane is flying in a region where the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is
3.2x10–4T. If the wingspan of the airplane is 50m and its velocity is 360 km/hour, find the
potential difference between the tips of the wing of airplane. (1.6V)

1997
Q.4. (c) An  particles are accelerated from rest at a P.D. of 1 KV. They then enter a magnetic field
B=0.2T perpendicular to their direction. Calculate the radius.
Given m = 6.68 x 10–27 kg & q = 2e. (0.032m)

1998
Q.4. (c) A solenoid 20 cm long has three layers of windings of 300 turns each. If a current of 3 amperes is
passed through it, find the value of the magnetic field of Induction. (0.016 web/m2)

Q.5. (d) A 500 turn coil in A.C. Generator having an area of 1000 cm2 rotates in a magnetic field of value
50 Tesla. In order to generate 220 volts maximum, how fast is the coil to be rotated? Express
your answer in terms of the number of revolutions per second. (0.088 rad/sec, 0.014rev/s)
1999
Q.5. (d) A 10eV electron is moving in a circular orbit in a uniform magnetic field of strength 10-4
weber/m2; calculate the radius of the circular path.
(0.107m)
Q.6. (d) A transformer has 1000 turns in the primary coil. If the input voltage of the transformer is 200
volts, what should be the number of turns of the secondary coil to obtain an output of 6.0 volts?
(30 turns)
2001
Q.5. (d) What will be the mutual inductance of two coils when the change of a current of a 3 amperes in
one coil produces the change of flux of 6 x 10–4 Weber in the second coil having 2000 turns?
(400mH)
Q.6. (d) An electron is accelerated by the potential difference of 1000 volts. It then enters into a uniform
magnetic field of induction B = 2.5, weber/m2 at an angle of 45° with the direction of the field,
find the value of the path described by the electron. (6.04 x 10–5 m)
2002 (Pre–Med)
Q.5. (d) A long solenoid is wound with 10 turns per cm and carries a current of 10 amperes; find the
magnetic flux density within it. (0.0125 web/m2)
2002 (Pre–Engg)
Q.5. (d) An e.m.f. of 45 milli-volts is induced in a coil of 500 turns, when the current in a neighboring coil
changes from 10 amperes to 14 amperes in 0.2 seconds.
a) What is the Mutual Inductance of the coils?
b) What is the rate of change of flux in the second coil? (2.25mH, 9 x 10–5 web/sec)

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2003 (Pre–Med)
Q.5. (d) The current in a coil of 325 turns is changed from zero to 6.32 amperes thereby producing a flux
of 8.46 x 10–4 Webers. What is the self-inductance of the coil? (43.2mH)
2003 (Pre–Engg)
Q.5. (d) Calculate the speed of an electron entering perpendicularly in a uniform magnetic field of 5.0
w/m2 which moves along a circle of radius 1.8 x 10–6 m in the field. (1.58 x 106 m/sec)
Q.6. (d) A coil of 50 turns is wound on an ivory frame 3cm x 6 cm which rotates in a magnetic field of
induction B = 2 web/m2. What will be the torque acting on it if a current of 5 amp passes
through it and the plane of the coil makes an angle of 45° with the field. (0.6363 Nm)
2004
Q.5. (d) How fast must a proton of mass 1.67 x 10–27 kg be moving if it is to follow a circular path of
radius 2.0 cm in a magnetic field of 0.7 Tesla? (1.34 x 106 m/sec)
Q.6. (d) The current in a coil of 500 turns is changed from zero to 5.43 amps. Thereby producing a
magnetic flux of 8.52 x 10–4 Webers. What is the Self-Inductance of the coil? (78.45mH)
2005
Q.5. (d) A proton accelerated through 1000 volts is projected normal to a 0.25 Tesla magnetic field.
Calculate the following:
a) The Kinetic energy of the proton on entering the magnetic field.
b) The radius of the circular path of the proton (1.6 x 10 –16 J, 0.0182 m)

Q.6. (d) A step-down transformer having 4000 turns in primary is used to convert 4400 volts to 220
volts. The efficiency of the transformer is 90% and 9KWatt output is required. Determine the
Input power, the Number of turns in the secondary coil and the current in the primary and
secondary coils? (10000W, 200turns, 2.23A, 40.9A)
2006
Q.5. (d) A long solenoid is wound with 35 turns in 10cm and carries a current of 10A. Find the magnetic
field in it. (4.3 x 10–3wb/m2)
2007
Q.4. (d) An airplane is flying in a region where the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is
3.2x10–4T. If the wingspan of the airplane is 50m and its velocity is 360 km/hour, find the
potential difference between the tips of the wing of airplane. (1.6V)
20
Q.5. (d) A step-down transformer reduces 1100V to 220V. The power output is 12.5KW and overall
efficiency of the transformer is 90%. The primary winding has 1000 turns. How many turns do
the secondary have? What is the power input? What is the current in each coil?
(200 turns, 13.8 x 103 Watt, 12.6A, 56.81A)
2009
Q.4. (d) A pair of adjacent coil has a mutual inductance of 850mH. If the current in the primary coil
changes from 0 to 20A in 0.1 sec; what is the change in the magnetic flux in the secondary coil of
800 turns? (2.12 x 10–2webers)

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2010
Q.2. (x) Find the current required to produce a field of induction B = 2.512 x 10–3 T in a 50 cm long
solenoid having 4000 turns of wire. (µo = 4π x 10 –7Wb/A-m
(0.785A)
2011
Q.2. (viii) An alternating current Generator operating at 50 Hz has a coil of 200 turns, while the coil has
an area of 120cm2. Calculate the magnetic field intensity applied to rotate the coil to produce
the maximum voltage of 240V. (0.31831T)

Q.2. (xiii) The inner and the outer diameters of the toroid are 22cm and 26cm. If a current of 5.0 amp is
passed which produces 0.025 tesla flux density inside the core, find the approximate length of
the wire wound on the toroid. (µo = 4π x 10 –7Wb/A-m).
(226.2m)
2012
Find the current required to produce a field of induction B = 2.512 x 10–3 T in a 50 cm long
solenoid having 4000 turns of wire. (µo = 4π x 10 –7Wb/A-m).
2013
An alternating current generator operates in at 79 Hz the area of coil is 500 cm2. Calculate the
number of turns in the coil when a magnetic field of induction 0.06 web/m 2 produces a
maximum potential difference of 149 V.
2014
Q.2. (iii) An iron core of solenoid 500 turns has a cross section of 5 cm2. A current of 2.3 A passing
through produces of flux of B = 0.53 T. How large an e.m.f is induced in it, if the current is turned
off in 0.1 second? What is the self-inductance of the solenoid?
2015
Q.2(ix) An e.m.f. of 45 milli-volts is induced in a coil of 500 turns, when the current in a
neighboring coil changes from 15 amperes to 4 amperes in 0.2 seconds.
a) What is the Mutual Inductance of the coils?
b) What is the rate of change of flux in the second coil?

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Chapter#15

Electrical Measuring Instruments

The Moving Coil Galvanometer:
The moving coil galvanometer is a basic electrical instrument. It is used for the detection or
measurement of small currents.

Principle
When current flows in a rectangular coil placed in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic
torque due to which it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through it.

Construction:
The essential parts of a moving coil galvanometer are
• A U-shaped permanent magnet with cylindrical concave pole-pieces.
• A flat coil of thin enamel Insulated wire (usually rectangular)
• A soft iron cylinder
• A scalar lamp and scale arrangement

Working:
When a current pass through the galvanometer coil, it
experiences a magnetic deflecting torque, which tends
to rotate it from its rest position. As the coil rotates it
produces a twist in the suspension strip. The coil rotates
until the elastic restoring torque due to which the strip
does not equalize and cancel the deflecting magnetic
torque and then it attains equilibrium and stops
rotating further.
𝜏𝐷 = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼

Where
𝐵 = 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑.
𝐼 = 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.
𝜃 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙.
The restoring elastic torque (𝝉𝑹 )is proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension
strip According to Hook’s Law
𝝉𝑹 = 𝑪𝜽

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Where
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡.
𝐶 = 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡.
Under equilibrium condition:
𝜏𝐷 = 𝜏𝑅
𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼 = 𝐶𝜃

𝐶
𝐼 =
𝐵𝑁𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠𝛼

If the magnetic field were uniform (as with flat pole pieces)𝜶would continuously increase with I
and cos 𝛼 factor would not be constant. Then the current "I" would not be proportional to ""
and the scale of the galvanometer not linear. However, due to the radial magnetic field the
plane of the coil is always parallel to the field irrespective of the position of the coil rotates. So
"α" the angle between the plane of the coil and direction of the field is always zero. Hence,
𝐶𝑜𝑠 (0°) = 1. The equation (i) therefore, reduces to:
𝐶
𝐼 =
𝐵𝑁𝐴

Since C, B, A and N are constant for a galvanometer, therefore,

𝐼∝𝜃
Thus, current through the coil is directly proportional to the angle of twist of the suspension (or
deflection)
Current Sensitivity of Galvanometer
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is usually defined as the current in microampere is
required to cause one-millimeter deflection on a scale place 1.0 meter from the needle of the
galvanometer.

To Increase Sensitivity of Galvanometer

Now we know that:

𝑪
𝑰 =
𝑩𝑵𝑨

Sensitivity will be large if the small value of current (I)  is large. To increase "", we should
decrease C/BNA. So,

• "C" should be small: For this long wire of small area of cross section should be used. But
"C" constant is too small.
• Area of coil should be large: But this makes size of galvanometer large.
• "N" Number of turns of coil should be increased: But this increases the weight of coil.
• "B" should be large: This is achieved by: Using powerful magnet& introducing iron core
in coil.

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Ammeter:
Ammeter is an instrument, which is used for measuring electric
current.
Conversion Of Galvanometer Into Ammeter:
Consider a galvanometer "𝑮" whose resistance is 𝑹𝒈 and which
gives full scale deflection when current "𝑰𝒈 " flows through it to
convert the galvanometer into an ammeter which of range "𝑰" a
shunt resistance "𝑹𝒔 " of appropriate small value should be
connected with the galvanometer such that the current "𝑰𝒈 " must
flow through the galvanometer coil.
Mathematical Expression for Shunt Resistance(𝑹𝒔 ):
The potential difference "𝑽𝒈 " across the galvanometer is given by
𝑉𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔

The potential difference "Vs" across the shunt is given by

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑅𝑠 = (𝐼– 𝐼𝑔 )𝑅𝑠
Where
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 = 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡.
As "𝑅𝑔 " and "𝑅𝑠 " are connected in parallel to each other therefore potential difference across
them will be equal i.e.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑔
(𝐼– 𝐼𝑔 )𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
𝑰𝒈
𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹
𝑰– 𝑰𝒈 𝒈

Ammeter is always connected in series with the circuit.

Multi Range Ammeter:

Sometimes an ammeter has more than one range, which means that it has as many different
shunts as the ranges. The desired range is selected by insertion the proper shunt in position. In
one type, one end of each shunt is permanently connected to a common terminal while the
other end of each is connected through a range to a second common terminal.

Voltmeter:
Voltmeter is an instrument which is used for measuring potential difference between any two
points of a current carrying (or between the two terminals of a source of emf).

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Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter:

Consider a galvanometer "G" where resistance is "𝑹𝒈 " and which
deflects full scale for the current "𝑰𝒈 " to convert this galvanometer into
a voltmeter measuring a Potential difference up to "𝑽" volts. An
appropriate high resistance "Rn" must be connected in series with it
such that for the potential difference "𝑉" applied between the ends of
the above combination. The current "𝑰𝒈 " must flow through the
galvanometer. However, the total resistance between the terminal a&b
is 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑔 .

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅𝑔 + 𝑅𝑥 )
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 + 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑥

𝑉– 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔 = 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑥

𝑉– 𝐼𝑔 𝑅𝑔
𝑅𝑥 =
𝐼𝑔

𝑽
𝑹𝒙 = – 𝑹𝒈
𝑰𝒈

Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the circuit.

Multiage Voltmeter:
Sometimes a voltmeter has more than one range, which means it has as many different
resistances as the ranges. The desired range is selected by inserting the proper resistance in
position. We have a common terminal marked (+) and as many other terminals as the ranges. In
the other type one terminal is common marked (+) while the different range terminals can be
connected by using range switches to the other common terminals.

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Wheat Stone Bridge:

A mesh of 4 resistances connected in the configuration as shown
in figure is called Wheatstone bridge
Working:
When the switch is closed
R1 & R2 are connected in series. Reason: (only one path for
the flow of current)
R3 & R4 are connected in series.
R1 & R3 are connected in parallel. Reason: (two paths for the
flow of current)
R2 & R4 are connected in parallel.
Let current I1 flows through R1 & R2 and I2 through R3 & R4.
When bridge is balanced,
Potential of point ‘B’ = potential of point ‘D’
Therefore,
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐷
But V = IR
𝐼 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅3 --------------(i)
Similarly,
VBC = VCD
or
𝐼1 𝑅2 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 ------------(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii)
𝐼1 𝑅1 𝐼2 𝑅3
=
𝐼1 𝑅2 𝐼2 𝑅4
𝑅1 𝑅3
=
𝑅2 𝑅4
Under balanced condition if any three resistances are known then the fourth can be found
easily (i.e. Wheatstone principle).

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Meter Bridge:
The Meter Bridge also called slide - Wire Bridge is an instrument based on Wheatstone principle
Explanation:
It consists of a long thick copper strip bent
twice at right angles. Two small portions are
cut off from it near the bends to provide the
gaps across which two resistances are known
one and an unknown may be connected.
Each of the three pieces of the strip is
provided with binding screws. A uniform wire
(of magnetic or other) one meter long and of
fairly high resistance is stretched, along the side a meter scale is connected to the ends of the
strip.
Working:
For measuring an unknown resistance "X" it is connected in one gap of the Meter Bridge and a
standard resistance box "R" is connected in the other gap. A cell and a galvanometer are
connected. The jockey "J" is moved along the wire to obtain the balance point D. Under
balanced condition the length of the wire segment AD toward X is 𝑳𝒙 and the length of the wire
segment CD towards 𝑹 is 𝑳𝑹 then their resistances are ρL(R) respectively.
Where ρ = resistance per unit length of the wire. Applying Wheatstone relation
𝜌𝐿𝑥
𝑋
= 𝐴
𝑅 𝜌𝐿𝑅
𝐴
𝑿 𝑳𝒙
=
𝑹 𝑳𝑹

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POST OFFICE BOX [P.O BOX]

Post Office Box is an instrument, which is based on
Wheatstone principle. It was first introduced for
finding resistance of telegraph wires and for fault -
findings work in the post and telegraph office that's
why it is called "Post Office Box".
It is more compact and easier to use.

It consists of three sets of resistances P, Q and R. The

arms P and Q called the ratio arms, usually consists of
three resistances each viz. 10, 100 and 1000 ohms so that any decimal ratio from 1:100 to 100:1
may be used. The third arm "R" is an ordinary set of resistances. The unknown resistances "X"
to be measured forms the fourth arm. Introducing the ratios 1:1, 10:1, 100:1 in turn the balance
or null position is traced by adjusting "R". Balance is usually obtained at the ratio 100:1 for
some value of "R". With this value of "R" the value of X can be easily be calculated using
relation of Wheatstone bridge i.e.
𝑃 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑋
𝑋 𝑄
=
𝑅 𝑃

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POTENTIOMETER:
Potentiometer is device for measuring the p.d (voltage) between two points of a circuit or the
e.m.f of a current source.

Construction:
It consists of a uniform wire stretched on a wooden
board along a meter scale.

Working:
Consider a uniform resistance wire AB of length L
and Resistance R, across which is connected to a
source of constant EMF (e.g. an accumulator)
through a key and a rheostat to adjust and maintain
a constant current 1 through it.

As the current flows, the P.d. between A and B = V (AB) = IR

If one terminal of a wire is connected to a while other is moved on the wire AB then instrument
acts as a Potential Divider.

To find an unknown EMF of a cell or some other potential difference or the ratio of the emf of
two cells consider the circuit. The positive terminals of a cell of unknown E.m.f "E (N)" and a
standard cell of E.m.f E (N) are connected to the terminal A. The negative terminals of both the
cells are joining to the jockey through a two-way key and a sensitive galvanometer. Using the
two-way key first cell E (N) only is introduced into the galvanometer branch and balanced point
C and length L are found for it.

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CHAPTER-15 NUMERICALS from Past Papers
1987
Q.3. (c) A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 50 ohms and it given a full-scale deflection for
P.D of 150 mV. What should be the resistance of the shunt used with the galvanometer in order
to use it as an ammeter reading up to 4 amperes? (0.0375Ω)
1989
Q.4. (c) A galvanometer of resistance of 50Ω gives full-scale deflection with a current of 0.005 amperes.
How will you convert it into an ammeter measuring maximum current of 1.0 ampere? (0.251 Ω)
1995
Q.4. (d) A galvanometer of resistance 60Ω given full-scale deflection with a current of 4mA, a resistance
of 10940 Ω is connected in series with the coil to convert it into voltmeter; find the range of
voltmeter obtained. (44 volts)
1997
Q.3. (d)A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 25Ω, and it gives a full-scale deflection for a P.D.
of 50 mV. If the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter reading up to 50 volts, what
should be the resistance of the series resistor? (24975 Ω)
2000
Q.3. (d)A moving coil galvanometer has a resistance of 50Ω, and it gives a full-scale deflection for a P.D.
of 100 mV. If the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter reading up to 50 volts, what
should be the resistance of the series resistor? (24950 Ω)
2002 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.3. (d) The coil of a Galvanometer having a resistance of 50 ohms and a current of 500 micro-amperes
produces a full-scale deflection in it. Compute:
a) The shunt required to convert it into an ammeter of 5 amperes range.
b) The series resistance required to convert it into a voltmeter of 300-volt range.
(0.005Ω, 599950Ω)
2003 (Pre Med. group)
Q.3. (d) An ammeter deflects full-scale with a current of 5 amperes and has a total resistance of 0.5
ohm. What shunt resistance must be connected to it to measure full scale current up to 30
amperes? (0.1)
2003 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.6. (d) A 300 volts’ voltmeter has a total resistance of 20 kilo-ohms. What additional resistance is
required to convert it into a voltmeter, reading up to a maximum of 600 volts?
(20000 Ω)
2004
Q.6. (d) A 250-volt voltmeter has a total resistance of 20,000Ω. What additional series resistance must
be connected to it to increase its range to 400 volts? (12000)
2005
Q.6. (d) A maximum 50 milli-ampere current can be allowed to flow through a 19.8ohm coil of a
galvanometer. The galvanometer is to be used to measure 5-ampere maximum current.
Calculate the length of a copper wire to be used as a shunt. The diameter of the wire is 4mm;
the specific resistance (ρ) of copper is 1.6 x 10–8 ohm-m. (0.2, 157.1m)

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2006
Q.4. (d) An ammeter deflects full-scale with a voltage of 2.5 volts, and has a total resistance of 0.5Ω.
What small resistance must be connected to measure 20A full-scale? (0.166Ω)
2007
Q.5. (d) A 300 volts voltmeter has a total resistance of 20 kilo-ohms. What additional resistance is
required to convert it into a voltmeter, reading up to a maximum of 600 volts? (20000 Ω)
2008
Q.6. (d) A galvanometer has a resistance of 100 ohms. A difference of potential of 50mV gives the full-
scale deflection. Calculate the shunt resistance to read from 0–5A. What is the value of the
series resistance if the galvanometer is to be converted into a voltmeter to read up to 250V?
(0.01 Ω, 499900 Ω)
2010
Q.2. (ix) A galvanometer whose resistance is 50 deflects full-scale for a potential difference 100 mV
across its terminals. How can it be converted into a voltmeter of 50V range? (24950 Ω)
2012
A galvanometer of resistance of 50 ohms gives full scale deflection with a current of 10 mA. A
shunt of 0.05 ohm is connected in parallel to convert it into an ammeter. Find the range of the
ammeter.
2013
A voltmeter measuring up to 200 V has a total resistance of 20000 ohms. What additional series
resistance must be connected to it to increase its range to 600V?
2014
Q2. (i).A galvanometer having resistance 50Ω, deflects full scale for a potential difference of 100 mV
across the terminals. What resistance should be connected in series to increase its range to
50V?
2015
Q2 (viii)A galvanometer of resistance of 60Ω gives deflects full-scale for a potential difference of 100
mili-volts across its terminals. What shunt resistance must be connected to convert it into an
ammeter of 5 ampere range?

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Chapter#16

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND ELECTRONICS

Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory:
In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell with the help of mathematical analysis proved that light is wave in
nature but it is different from other waves.

According to Maxwell theory:

• Light is the visible part of spectrum of
electromagnetic waves
• Electromagnetic waves travel by the changing
electric and magnetic field.
• As electric field and magnetic field does not
require any medium electromagnetic field can
travel through vacuum.
• The direction of magnetic field, Electric field and direction of propagation are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
• The strength of Electric field at the same location and time is equal to the velocity of
light times the strength of magnetic field.
• Velocity of light is dependent on the electric and magnetic properties of medium.
Velocity of light in vacuum can be expressed as
𝟏
𝒄=
√𝝐𝒐 𝝁𝒐

𝒄 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝒔−𝟏

Information Carried by Electromagnetic Waves:

In the field of telecommunication, it is common practice to send information by wireless mean
to do it electromagnetic waves are used.
Modulation:
The superimposing of a low energy EM signal on a high frequency signal so that information can
be transmitted is called Modulation.
Modulating Signal:
The low frequency signal that contain message to be transmitted is called modulating signal.
Carrier Signal:
The high frequency signal on which modulating signal is super imposed is called carrier signal.

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Modulated signal:
The signal obtain after the modulation is called modulated signal.

Types of Modulation:
There are following two (basic) types of (analog) modulation:

1) Amplitude Modulation.
2) Frequency Modulation.

Amplitude Modulation:
A type of modulation, in which amplitude of a
carrier wave is modulated by an impose signal,
usually at audio frequency. The variation in the
amplitude of the carrier signal is proportional to
the variation of the modulating signal while the
frequency of the carrier remains constant.

Percentage Modulation:
In amplitude modulation it is common to
calculate percentage of modulation (M).

Mathematically percentage modulation (A.M) can

be expressed as

𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

𝑀= × 100
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠)

𝑀 = 𝑚𝑎 × 100

Here, 𝑚𝑎 is called Modulation index and it may be defined as

“It is the ratio peak amplitude of modulating signal to the peak amplitude of carrier signal.”

Modulation for error free purposes 𝑚𝑎 should be less than or equal to 1.

Application:
Amplitude modulation is used in variety of telecommunication application such as
• Transmitting video signals in television transmission.
• Armature AM radio.
• Walky Talkies.

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Sidebands:
In radio communications sidebands is a band of
frequencies higher than or lower than the carrier
frequency, containing power as a result of the
modulation process.
Amplitude modulation of a carrier wave normally
results in two mirror-image sidebands. The signal
components above the carrier frequency constitute
the upper sideband (USB), and those below the carrier
frequency constitute the lower sideband (LSB). In
conventional A.M transmission

Frequency Modulation:
A type of modulation in which in which a carrier wave is
made to carry the information in a signal (audio or
visual) by fluctuation in the frequency of the carrier
wave. The variation in the frequency of the carrier
signal is proportional to the frequency of the
modulating signal while the amplitude of the carrier
remains constant.
Application:
Frequency modulation is used in variety of
telecommunication application such as
• Transmitting Audio signals in television
transmission.
• Commercial FM radio.
• Cellular communication.

Reception of Electromagnetic signals:

Electromagnetic waves carrying the modulated carrier
signal are received at the receiving end with help of an
antenna and then Demodulated to obtain the message
signal.
Demodulation:
Signal processing process use to extract out the message
from the modulated carrier signal is called demodulation.
Demodulator:
The circuit used to demodulate the Modulated carrier
signal is called Demodulator.

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Band Theory of Solids:

• According to band theory in a substance there is large number of atoms packed closely.
• In normal condition electrons in the outer most shell of a bonded to atoms and are
called Valence electrons.
• The range of energy values that a valence electron in a crystalline solid can acquire is
called Valence band. Electron in a valence band is not free to move in a crystalline
structure.
• If electrons in the conduction band acquire enough energy it can come out of the
influence of their atomic nucleus and become free electron.
• The range of energy values that an electron in a crystalline solid acquires and become
free to move throughout the crystalline structure is called conduction band. Electron in
a conduction band is free to move in crystalline structure.
• The range of energy values that does not belongs to either valence, or conduction band.
This is the amount of energy required by a valence electron to jump from valence band
to conduction band. This band of energy is called forbidden energy gap or band gap or
energy gap.
• Electrical conductivity of solids varies with temperature.

Types of Solid material

There are following three types of solids on the basis of their electrical conductivity
1. Insulators.
2. Conductor.
3. Semiconductors
Insulators:
Materials which do not conduct electricity are called insulators. In insulator
there is a large band gap between the valance and conduction band and
the probability of an electron to exist in conduction band is zero. There for
at any temperature their electrical conductivity is zero.

Conductors:
Materials which conduct electricity are called Conductors. In
conductors there is no band gap between the valance and conduction
band (both band over laps each other) and the probability of an
electron to exist in conduction always 100%. Therefore, at any
temperature they are able to conduct electricity. Conductors have
positive temperature coefficient there for their electrical conductivity
decreases with increase in temperature.

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Semiconductors:
Materials which have electrical conductivity lying between conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors. In conductors there is no
band gap between the valance and conduction band (both band over
laps each other) and the probability of an electron to exist in
conduction always 100%. Therefore, at any temperature they are able
to conduct electricity. Conductors have positive temperature
coefficient there for their electrical conductivity decreases with
increase in temperature.
Types of Semiconductors
There are following two types of Semiconductors.
I. Intrinsic Semiconductors.
II. Extrinsic Semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure and naturally occurring semiconductors. Elements of group
IV-A in periodic table Such as germanium and silicon are example of elemental semiconductors.
Binary compound of group V-A and VI-A such as GaAs, GaP, IAs and CdS are example of
Compound semiconductors.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
These are artificially prepared semiconductor material having impurities added to them in order
to increase their electrical conductivity. They are prepared by the process of doping and also
called Doped semiconductors.
Doping:
Doping can be defined as:
“The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor crystal structure to increase their
electrical conductivity is called Doping.”
Types of Doping:
There are following two types of Semiconductor Doping.
1) Donor Doping.
2) Acceptor Doping.

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Donor Doping:
When elements of group V-A are used as doping impurity the doping is called Donor Doping.

Explanation:
Elements of group V-A has 5 valance electrons present in the outer most shell there for when
they are added to the crystal structure of intrinsic semiconductors such as pure silicon or
germanium four of them form covalent bonds with nearby atoms 5th electron remain
unbounded providing an excess electron to the semiconductor for the electrical conduction.

Acceptor Doping:
When elements of group III- A are used as doping impurity the doping is called Acceptor
Doping.
Explanation:

Elements of group III-A has three valance electrons present in the outer most shell there for
when they are added to the crystal structure of intrinsic semiconductors such as pure silicon or
germanium they Accept one of the electrons from a host atom and form four covalent bonds
with nearby atoms leaving a covalent bond between host atoms incomplete providing a
deficiency of electron (Hole) in semiconductor for the electrical conduction.

Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors:

Semiconductor materials have negative temperature coefficient i-e Conduction of
semiconductors increases with increase in temperature. But there is temperature range in
which the conduction of semiconductor decreases. Actually, at zero Kelvin temperature all
semiconductors (whether they are intrinsic or extrinsic) act as insulator this is due to the fact
that at this temperature there is no ionized impurity or broken covalent band.

Explanation:
As the temperature is increased impurities start to ionize. As the temperature increases more
the thermal energy is sufficient for bond breaking thus hole electron pairs are produced and
conductivity increases after that increase in temperature causes the lattice vibration to increase
and probability of electron to strike the nuclei and lose energy is increased which causes the
conductivity to decrease at further increase in temperature the drift velocity of electron
becomes sufficiently high so that the electrons can follow so fast and there probability of
striking the nuclei decreases so much and then conductivity continuo to increase.

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PN-Junction:
The region separating two different type of extrinsic semiconductor (p-type and n-type) in a
single crystal structure is called PN-junction.
Formation of Potential Barrier:
When the PN junction is formed, the N-type region loses free electrons as they diffuse across
the Junction. This creates a layer of positive charges (penta-valent ions) near the junction. As
these electrons move across the junction, these electrons combine with holes in the p-region
loses. This creates a layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the junction. These two
layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region. A point is reached where the
total negative charge in the depletion region repels any further diffusion of electrons
(negatively charged particles) into the p region (like charges repel) and the diffusion stops. In
other words, the depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of electrons across
the junction.

Semiconductor Diode:
It is the simplest and only semiconductor passive device it consists of a single PN-junction.

Diodes mode of operation:

There are two modes of diode operation.

• Forward Biased mode

• Reverse Biased mode

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Forward Biased Mode:

The diodes mode of operation in which the potential difference applied across the diode is
opposite to the built –in potential is called Forward Biased Mode.

Reverse Biased Mode:

The diodes mode of operation in which the potential difference applied across the diode is in
same direction to the built –in potential is called Reverse Biased Mode.

Rectifier:
It is an electronic circuit that converts A.C voltage (or Current) into D.C voltage (or Current).
There are two basic types of Rectifiers.
• Half Wave rectifier
• Full Wave rectifier

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Half Wave Rectifier:

It consists of a single semiconductor diode attached in series with A.C source. It utilizes half of
the Ac Signal voltage and converts in to D.C voltage.
Working:
• During the positive half cycle of A.C signal the diode is forward biased and current flow
through the circuit.
• The current passes through the Load resistor and voltage is developed across it.
• During the Negative half cycle of A.C signal the diode is reversed biased and no current
flow through the circuit.

• Since there is no current in the circuit there will be no voltage developed across the
Load resistor
• The output wave form is shown in figure.

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Full Wave Rectifier:

It consists of two semiconductor diodes attached with A.C source coupled through a center
tapped transformer. It utilizes full A.C Signal voltage and converts in to D.C voltage.

Working:
• During the positive half cycle of A.C signal the diode(𝐷1 ) is forward biased and current
flow through the circuit.
• The current passes through the Load resistor and voltage is developed across it.
• During the positive half cycle of A.C signal the diode(𝐷2 ) is forward biased and current
flow through the circuit.
• The current passes through the Load resistor and voltage is developed across it.
• The output wave form is shown in figure.

Photodiode:
Photodiode is an optoelectronic device that conducts electrical current
when illuminated with light (or other electromagnetic radiation
depending on material in manufacturing).

Construction:
Photodiode is a simple PN junction (normally made up of compound
semiconductors) encapsulate in glass or plastic. Encapsulating material is
painted black except the region which has to be illuminated with light.

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Working:
Photodiodes are used in reverse biased mode when there is no light falling on the photodiode
there is only a reverse leakage current flowing across the junction called the Dark current (Io).
When photodiode is exposed to light, the light falling on the PN junction creates hole-electron
pair within the junction, which are swept out of the junction due to built-in potential and added
to the already flowing dark current. This additional current is known as Short circuit current(Is).
Total current (I) flowing when photodiode is exposed to light can be represent mathematically
as:
𝐈 = 𝐈𝐨 + 𝐈𝐬
Applications:
Photo diode is used in variety of applications such as proximity sensors, Light operated
switches, remote controlled systems etc.

SOLAR CELLS:
Solar cells are semiconductor devices used to convert light
energy in to electrical energy, when exposed to light. The
efficiency of solar cells is from 14% to 45%.
Construction:
Solar cell is simply a PN junction. Selenium and silicon are
the widely used materials used for the manufacturing of
solar cells. Although, GaAs, IAs and CdS are also used
among other.

Working:
Solar cells are used without any biasing voltage. When light is allowed to fall on PN-junction
hole-electron pairs are produce within the depletion region which are then swept out of the
region by built-in potential in direction opposite to the direction of conventional forward
current in PN-junction current

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED):

Light emitting diodes are special purpose diodes.
These diodes have property that when forward
biased they radiate energy in the form of light.
Construction:
Light emitting diode is a simple PN junction. Material
such as Germanium or silicon radiates energy mostly
in the form of heat there for they cannot be used for
manufacturing of light emitting diode. On the other
hand other semiconductor materials such as GaAs,
GaP, and GaAsP etc. radiate most energy in the form
of light.
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Working:
The basic operation of the light-emitting diode (LED) is as follows. When the device is forward-
biased, electrons cross the PN junction from the n-type material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. These free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy
than the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombining
electrons release energy in the form of heat and light.
Application:
LEDs are use primary as power on indicators for many appliances. They are also used for alpha
numeric display as Seven segment am sixteen segment forms.

Transistor:
Transistor is an active semiconductor device (a semiconductor device that can induce gain into
a circuit). The word transistor is combination of two words i-e transfer and resistor.
Types of Transistors:
There are two types of transistor
1) NPN
2) PNP

NPN-Transistor:
NPN transistor is made by fabricating a single crystal in which a P- type material is fabricated
between two layers of N-type material.
Following figure, the crystal structure and schematic symbols for NPN-transistor

Working Of NPN-Transistor:
• The emitter base junction is forward biased & base collector junction is reversed biased.

• The forward bias causes the electrons in the n-type emitter

to flow towards the base which constituent current(𝑰𝑬 ).

• These electrons cross into the p-type base, they try to

combine with holes but the base is lightly doped and is
very thin.

• Therefore, only few electrons combine with holes and the

remaining electrons cross into the collector and generate collector current(𝑰𝑪 ).

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• In this way almost, the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. From the
above description it is clear that:

𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰 𝑩 + 𝑰𝒄
• Thus, there are two current paths through a transistor. One is the base-emitter path or
input and the other is the collector-emitter path or output.
𝑰𝑪
𝜶 =
𝑰𝑬
PNP-Transistor:
PNP transistor is made by fabricating a single crystal in which an N- type material is fabricated
between two layers of P-type material.
Following figure, the crystal structure and schematic symbols for PNP-transistor

Working Of PNP-Transistor:
• The emitter base junction is forward biased & base collector junction is reversed biased.

• The forward bias causes the holes in the p-type emitter to flow towards the base which
constituent 𝐼𝐸 current.

• These holes cross into the n-type base, they try to

combine with electrons but the base is lightly doped
and is very thin.

• Therefore, only few holes combine with electrons and

the remaining holes cross into the collector and
generate collector current 𝑰𝒄 .

• In this way almost, the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. From the
above description it is clear that:
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝒄
• Thus, there are two current paths through a transistor. One is the base-emitter path or
input and the other is the collector-emitter path or output.
𝑰𝑪
𝜶 =
𝑰𝑬

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Characteristics Curves:
The characteristic contains two curves i.e.
Input Characteristics:
It gives the relationship between input voltage & input current
• IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base – Emitter Voltage) is the input voltage for
CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input characteristics for CE mode will be the
relation between IB and VBE with VCE as parameter.
• The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased of p – n diode.
But as VCB increases the base width decreases
• The characteristics curves are represented as,

Output Characteristics:
It gives the relationship between voltage & current in output circuit.
• Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between collector current (IC)
and collector – emitter voltage (VCE) when the base current IB is the parameter.
• CE transistor has also three regions named
1. Active region:
The active region has collector region reverse biased and the emitter junction forward
biased.
2. Cut-off regions:
For cut-off region the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and the collector current
is not totally cut-off.
3. Saturation region:
For saturation region both the collector and the emitter junction are forward biased.

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• The characteristics curves is represented as:

AMPLIFIER:
Amplifier is a circuit or device that can raises the strength of a weak signal. The factor by which
an amplifier increases the strength of a weak signal is called gain of an amplifier.

Transistor as an Amplifier:
A transistor can be used to amplify a weak signal. The transistor has following relation between
base and collector current.
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜶𝑰𝑩
Where α is called the gain of the transistor.

Now if we apply a small voltage across the base emitter

junction, this voltage allows a small base current to flow
inside the base region resulting in large collector current
to flow in collector. Now, if we connect a large
resistance RC at collector. Collector current will cause a
large voltage to build across RC. Hence, small voltage
applied at BE junction is converted into large voltage
across RC.

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Chapter 17

ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICS

Frame of reference:
A set of coordinate axes by which the position of any object may be specified as it changes with
time.

For example: Position of a bird in a cage is defined by the reference of the cage, hence cage is
frame of reference for the bird.

Inertial frame of reference:

A frame of reference moving with constant velocity is called Inertial frame of reference.

For example: A car moving on a road.

Transformation:
The mathematical relation that relates a measurement made in one reference frame to another
is called Transformation.

Galilean Transformation:
It is mathematical relation satisfying Newton’s relativity, named after its inventor Galileo.

[Galilean transformation equations are based on assumption that all laws of mechanics are
same in all inertial reference frames]

Mathematical relations:

X’=X-vt

Y’=Y

Z’=Z

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Einstein’s Special Theory of Relativity:

In 1905 Albert Einstein put forward his special theory of relativity which revolutionize
the word of physics this theory consists of two postulates:

1. The principle of relativity: All the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames (i.e.,
there is no absolute frame of reference).

2. The constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in a vacuum has the same value,

c =2.997 924 58 x108 m/s, in all inertial reference frames, regardless of the velocity of the
observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light.

CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY:

Einstein show that Galilean transformation equation are failed when velocity of the
object become comparable to velocity of light. Due to this reason he used Lorentz
transformation equation (containing Lorentz factor) instead of Galilean transformation
equation and found the mathematical result for following phenomenon.

Einstein’s special theory of relativity gives the following results.

1. Mass Variation:
If “mo” is mass of a body at rest in observer’s frame of reference, then it’s mass “m” as
measured by an observer from another frame of reference moving with uniform velocity “v”
with respect to the body’s frame is given by:

𝐦𝐨
𝐦=
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐
𝐂

The above relation shows that mass “m” of the body appears to increase to an observer moving
with velocity “v” with respect to the body. Hence mass of a body depends upon whether the
body is at rest or is in motion relative to the observer. This effect takes place only if the relative
velocity between the object and the observer is comparable to the speed of light.

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2. Length Contraction:
If “L0’ is the length of a rod when it is at rest relative to an observer then its new length “L”
when it is in motion with velocity “v” relative to the same observer, is given by;
𝐕𝟐
𝐋 = 𝐋𝐨 √𝟏 − 𝐂𝟐

Where,

L= Relativistic length.

Lo= Proper length.

Hence length of the rod appears to reduce when there is relative motion between an observer
and the rod, provided the relative velocity is comparable to speed of light. This effect is known
as “Length Contraction”.
Length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion of the body. There no change
in length of the body perpendicular to the direction of its motion, hence change appears when
the length is parallel to direction of motion.

3. Time Dilation:
Let “to” be the time interval between two events at some point in space as recorded by an
observer at rest with respect to that point. Then the time interval recorded between the same
two events by another observer moving with velocity “v” relative to that point is given by;
𝐭𝐨
𝐭= 𝟐
√𝟏−𝐕
𝟐 𝐂

t= Relativistic time.

to =Proper time.

v2
Factor 1− appears in these equations is called “Lorentz Factor”. For ordinary relative
c2
velocities this factor is practically unity. Hence relativistic effects cannot be detected at ordinary
velocities. These effects cannot be neglected if the relative speed is comparable to the speed of
light.

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4. Mass Energy Relation:
Einstein concluded that energy possesses inertia and since the inertia is the property of mass
hence the energy is directly related to the mass of a body.
Hence Einstein gave the idea that mass and energy are interconvert able to one and other by
the relation,
𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜 𝟐
Where

E = Energy.

m = Relativistic mass.

C = Velocity of light

Definitions:

Rest mass:
The mass of an object as measured by an observer moving along with object in a frame of reference in
which object is moving it is denoted by mo and give by

𝐕𝟐
𝐦𝐨 = 𝐦√𝟏 −
𝐂𝟐

Relativistic mass:
The mass of an object as measured by an observer at rest in a frame of reference in which object is
moving it is denoted by m and given by

𝐦𝐨
𝐦=
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐
𝐂

Proper length:
Length of an object measured by an observer which in rest with respect to the object. It is given by

𝐋
𝐋𝐨 =
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝐕 𝟐
𝐂

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Relativistic length:
It is Length of an object measured by an observer moving with respect to the object. It is given by

𝐕𝟐
𝐋 = 𝐋𝐨 √𝟏 −
𝐂𝟐

Proper time:
Time measured by an observer moving along with clock. It is given by

𝐕𝟐
𝐭 𝐨 = 𝐭√𝟏 −
𝐂𝟐

Relativistic time:
Time measured by an observer which is at rest with respect to a moving clock.

It is given by

𝐭𝐨
𝐭=
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝐕 𝟐
𝐂

Black Body Radiation and Quantum Theory

Black body:
A body that absorb all the radiation falling on it and emit all the absorb radiation
on heating is called black body.

The absorptance and emissivity of the blackbody is equal to 1.

Construction:
In reality there is no perfect black body but an opening in the cavity of a body is a good approximation of
a black body.

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Black body radiation:

Radiation emitted by black body on heating is called black body radiation or thermal radiation or
thermal radiations.

Intensity versus wave length graph:

Intensity versus wave length graph of black body radiations observed at different temperature is given
below:

Properties of black body radiation:

• Black body radiations are independent of material of black body.

• Black body radiations are only dependent of temperature.
• Black body radiations are in the region of infrared and visible light only.
• Black body radiation is group of different wave length at a particular temperature.

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Laws of Black body radiations:

There are following laws of black body radiation.

Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Intensity of radiation is directly proportional to the 4th power of the temperature.

𝑬 ∝ 𝑻𝟒

𝑬 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒

Where σ is Stefan-Boltzmann and its value is 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕/𝒎𝟐 𝒌𝟒

Wien’s displacement law:

Wave length corresponding to the maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature.

𝟏
𝝀𝒎 ∝
𝑻

𝝀𝒎 𝑻 = (𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕)

Rayleigh jeans law

Energy corresponding to a particular wave length is inversely proportional to the 4th power of the wave
length

𝟏
𝑬∝
𝝀𝟒

Planks law:
Energy emitted is directly proportional to frequency of vibration of the atoms of black body

𝑬∝𝒇

𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇

Where

h= Plank’s constant=6.63 x 10-34 J.s

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Photo Electric Effect

The phenomenon in which electrons (called photoelectrons) are ejected out of the Metallic
surface when they are exposed to the electromagnetic radiation is known as photoelectric
effect.

Explanation:
Consider the experimental apparatus as shown in figure two metallic plates connected to a
voltage source in which one is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and other is
connected to the negative terminal of the battery. When light strikes the plate the electrons are
ejected out of the plate. The electrons are attracted toward the other plate by applying
sufficient positive voltage it. If the light source is removed there will be no current in the circuit.

Suppose that we now reverse the potential difference between the electrodes so that the
target material now connects with the positive terminal of a battery, and then we slowly
increase the voltage. The photocurrent gradually dies out and eventually stops flowing
completely at some value of this reversed voltage. The potential difference at which the
photocurrent stops flowing is called the stopping potential.

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Properties of photoelectrons:
The graph shows that No electrons are emitted out
unless the frequency of the incident light is not
equal to or greater than a certain frequency
is called “threshold frequency”

I. Effect Of Intensity
By increasing the intensity (number of
photons)of the incident light, the
number of the emitted electrons and
current also increases.

(Keeping frequency = Constant)

But the kinetic energy of the emitted

electrons, and the stopping potential,
remains almost the same.

II. Effect Of Frequency

By increasing the frequency of the

incident light, the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons, and hence the
stopping potential alsoincreases.
(Keeping Intensity = Constant)

But the number of the emitted

electrons, andhence the current,
remain almost the same.

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Laws of Photoelectric Effect:

After the number of experiments performed by the scientists some fundamental laws were
formulated about the emission of photoelectrons. These laws are:

i) To every metal surface there must needed radiations in a particular frequency

range, below which no photoelectric emission takes place. The minimum frequency
needed to emit photoelectrons from a metal surface, is referred as “Threshold
Frequency”. It is symbolized by “ o”. Its value depends on, nature of material of the
metal surface.

ii) The number of photoelectrons is directly depending on intensity of radiation,

provided  > o.

iii) The velocity and hence kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted out of metal
surface directly proportional to the frequency of incident radiations, provided  > 0.

Einstein Explanation of photo electric Effect

Einstein solved the problem regarding photo electric effect by adopting a quantized model of
light. According to Einstein the energy of light is not distributed evenly over the classical
wave front, but is concentrated in discrete regions (or in “bundles”), called quanta called
photons , each containing energy, ℎ𝑓.These photons strike electrons in the metals and if the
energy of photon 𝑬 is equal to the Work Function of Metals o (Minimum energy required for
dislodging the electron) and the kinetic energy of the escaping electron.

The magnitude of photoelectric work function directly depends on the threshold frequency
needed for metal surface.
Mathematically;
o   o
o = h o
Einstein’s Equation for Photoelectric Effect:
Let us assume that;
i. The frequency of incident light 
ii. The energy of incident photon = h 
iii. The threshold frequency for metal surface = o
iv. The photoelectric work function needed for the metal surface = (фo= h )
v. The K.E gained by the liberated electron.

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1
K .E max = 2
mvmax
2
Now, applying law of conservation of energy,
𝑬 = фo+ K.Emax
h = фo+ K.Emax
1
h = h O + mv 2 max
2
1
h - h O = mv 2 max
2
1 2  1 
h ( - O ) = mv max  mv 2 max = V e 
2  2 
 c
h ( —  0) = V0e   = 
 
𝒄 𝒄
𝒉 ( − ) = 𝑽𝒐 𝒆
𝝀 𝝀𝑶

Compton’s Effect:
In 1922 Arthur Holly Compton experimentally that x-ray photons behave like particles with momentum.

When X-ray photon strikes a crystal and catered at an angle intensity of scattered radiation is
peaked at two different wave lengths and scattered wavelength varies with scattering angle
which contradicts the Bohr Theory. According to Bohr Theory scattered X-ray should be of same
wave length as incident X-ray. The change in wavelengths of scattered photon and incident
photon is called “Compton Shift” in wavelength and symbolized by “  ”.

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Applying law of conservation of energy to the phenomenon

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝒆 = 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬′𝒆

𝒉𝒇𝟏 + 𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒉𝒇𝟐 + 𝒎𝒄𝟐 − − − (𝒂)

Applying Law of conservation of momentum

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒎 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏

In X-direction:

𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝒆 = 𝑷𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝑷′𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋

𝒉𝒇𝟏 𝒉𝒇𝟐
+𝟎= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
𝒄 𝒄

𝒉𝒇𝟏 𝒉𝒇𝟐
= 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 + 𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − − − (𝒃)
𝒄 𝒄

In Y-direction:

𝒉𝒇𝟐
𝟎= 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 − − − (𝒄)
𝒄

Solving Equation (a) (b) and (c) we get

1 1 ℎ
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2

Since

𝑐 = 𝜆𝑓

1 𝜆
=
𝑓 𝑐

𝜆2 𝜆1 ℎ
− = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2

𝜆2 − 𝜆1 ℎ
= (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑐 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2

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ℎ
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

ℎ
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑚𝑒 𝑐

𝜆2 − 𝜆1 = 𝜆𝑐 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

∆𝝀 = 𝝀𝒄 (𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)

Here

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34𝐽 . 𝑠
𝜆𝑐 = = = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎
𝑚𝑒 𝑐 9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 108

And 𝝀𝒄 is called Compton Shift.

De-Broglie Hypotheses:
According to De-Broglie

“If Electromagnetic radiation can act as particle than particles

like electron and proton can also behaves like wave “

Mathematically:
According to De-Broglie the wave length of a particle can be calculated by using relation

ℎ
𝑃= = 𝑚𝑣
𝜆

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

Statement:
“It is impossible to determine Momentum and position of a particle simultaneously.”

∆𝑷∆𝒙 ≥ 𝒉

OR

“It is impossible to determine energy and time simultaneously.”

∆𝑬∆𝒕 ≥ 𝒉

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Pair production
Pair production is a phenomenon of nature where energy is converted to mass. In this
phenomenon a wave of energy or a photon (a packet of energy) interacts with a heavy nucleus
to form an electron - positron pair. Pair production is observed to occur in nature when a
photon or an energy wave packet, of greater 1.02 MeV passes near the electric field of a large
atom such as lead, uranium or other heavy material with a large number of protons (around an
atomic number of 80 or 90). The photon is literally split into an electron and its anti-particle,
called a positron. Both have a rest mass energy equivalent of 0.511 MeV. So, it is can be
represented by an equation that shows the conservation of total energy:

h𝛎 = E- + E+ = (m0c2 + K-) + (m0c2 + K+) = K- + K+ + 2m0c2

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Pair Annihilation
Pair Annihilation means the reverse process of pair production. In the pair annihilation, the
electron and positron combine with each other and annihilate. Surely, the particles are
disappeared and radiation energy will occur instead of two particles. For the momentum
conservation, the most frequent process in pair annihilation is making two photons that have
exactly opposite direction and the same amount of momentum.

K- + K+ + 2m0c2 = 2 𝐡𝛎

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CHAPTER-17 NUMERICALS from Past Papers
1987
Q.7. (c) Find the cut off wavelength for a given metal whose work function is 4.14eV. (3002.7A°)
1989
Q.7. (c) The work function of certain metal is 3.03eV. When this metal is illuminated by the
infrared light of 1.2x1015 Hz. Find the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons. (1.9725eV)
1991
Q.7. (c) A 50 m trailer is moving with relativistic speed. It passes over a bridge of length 40m. To
an observer at rest with respect to the bridge at one instant, the trailer seems to overlap
the bridge i.e. the ends of the trailer seem to coincide with the ends of bridge. Find the
speed of the trailer. (1.8x108m/s)
1992
Q.7. (c) The work function of a photo emissive surface is 4.0eV. What will be the velocity of
fastest photoelectrons emitted from it by an accident light of frequency 3.0x10 15 Hz.
(1.722x106 m/s)
1994
Q.7. (c) The work function of metal is 2eV. The light of wavelength 3000 A° is made to fall on it.
Find the kinetic energy of the fastest emitted photoelectrons. (2.144eV)
1996
Q.7. (c) Find the relativistic speed at which the kinetic energy of a particle of rest mass mo
becomes doubles its rest mass energy. Given mo = 1.67x10–27 Kg. Also calculate:
1) Rest mass energy
2) Kinetic energy
3) Total energy (939.375MeV, 1878.75MeV, 2818.125 MeV)
1998
Q.7. (c) The range of visible light is 4000Ao to 7000Ao. Will photoelectrons be emitted by a
copper surface of work function 4.4eV, when illuminated by visible light? Give the
mathematical proof of your answer.
2001
Q.7. (c) When the light of the wavelength 4000°A falls on a metal surface, stopping potential is
0.6 volt. Find the value of the work function of the metal. (2.5eV)
2002 (Pre Med. group)
Q.7. (d) Find the speed at which the mass of a particle will be doubled. (2.56 x 108 m/s)

2002 (Pre Engg. group)

Q.8. (d) Given moc2 = 0.511MeV. Find the total energy E and the kinetic energy K of an electron
moving with a speed v = 0.85c. (0.979MeV, 0.459MeV)

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2003 (Pre Med. group)

Q.7. (d) If a neutron is converted entirely into energy, how much energy is produced? Express
your answer in joule and electron – volt. (9.39 x 108eV)
Q.8. (d) Sodium surface is shined with the light of wavelength 3 x 10 –7m. If the work function of
Na=2.46eV, find the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons. (1.68eV)
2003 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.8. (d) A sodium surface is shined with the light of wavelength 3 x 10 –7m, if the work function
of sodium is 2.46 eV, find the kinetic energy of the photoelectron.
(1.68eV)
2004
Q.7. (d) What minimum energy is required in an X-ray tube to produce X-rays with a
wavelength of 0.1 x 10–10m. (12.43 eV)
–6
Q.8. (d) Compare the energy of a photon of wavelength 2 x 10 m with the energy of X-ray
photon of wavelength 2 x 10–10m. (10–4)
2005
Q.8. (d) Estimate the relativistic mass and the wavelength associated with an electron moving
at 0.9c. (2.087 x 10–30kg, 1.176 x 10–12 m)
2006
Q.7.(d) An electron exists within a region of 10–10m, find its momentum uncertainty and
approximate kinetic energy. (1.05 x 10–24 Ns, 3.78eV)
2007
Q.8. (d) In Compton Scattering process the fractional change in wavelength of X-Rays Photon is
1% at an angle 120o; find the wavelength of X – rays used in this experiment.
(3.63 x 10–10 m)
2008
Q.7. (d) Calculate the relativistic speed at which the mass of a particle becomes double its rest
mass (2.59x 108 m/s)
2009
Q.7. (d) A sodium surface is shined with the light of wavelength 3 x 10 –7m, if the work function
of sodium is 2.46 eV, find the kinetic energy of the photoelectron and cutoff
wavelength. (1.68eV, 5061Ao)
2010
Q.2. (xiv) If the electron beam in a television picture tube is accelerated by 10,000 V what will
be the de Broglie’s wavelength? (h = 6.63 x 10–34 J.s., m = 9.1 x 10–31 kg). (1.28 x 10–11 m)

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2011
Q.2. (xii) What will be the relative velocity and momentum of a particle whose rest mass is mo
and kinetic energy is equal to twice of its rest mass energy. (2 2
c, 2 2 mo c )
3
Q.2. (xv) If the electron beam in a television picture tube is accelerated by 10 kV. What will be
the de Broglie wavelength of an electron? (h = 6.63 x 10 –34Js, m = 9.1 x 10–31 kg).
(1.28 x 10–11 m)
2012
Q.2 (iv) Given moc2=0.511 MeV. Find the total energy "E" and the kinetic energy K of an
electron moving with speed v=0.85c.mo= 9.1 x 10- 31 kg, c=3 x 108 m/s.
Q.2 (xv) A sodium surface is shined with the light of wavelength 3 x 10-7m, if the work function
of sodium is 2.46 eV, find the kinetic energy of the photoelectron and cutoff
wavelength. h=6.63x10-34 J-s, c =3 x 108m/s
2013
Pair annihilation occurred due to a head-on-collision of an electron and positron having
the same kinetic energy, produce pair of photons each having energy of 2.5 MeV. What
were their kinetic energies before collision? Given moc2=0.511MeV.
2014
Q2. (iv)What will be the velocity and momentum of a particle whose rest mass is mo and kinetic
energy is equal to twice of its rest mass energy.
Q2. (ix)In a TV picture tube, an electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 12000V.
Determine de-Broglie wavelength.
Given that (h = 6.63x10-34 J.s e=1.6x10 -19 C, me=9.11x10-31 kg).

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Chapter# 18

ATOMIC SPECTRA
Atomic Spectroscopy:
The branch of physics which deals with the measurement of the wavelength and intensities of
electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed by atoms is called Atomic spectroscopy.

Bohr Atomic Model of hydrogen:

In order to develop a quantitative theory for the spectrum off the hydrogen atom, Bohr put
forward the following postulates.

• An electron moves only in those circular orbits for which its orbital angular momentum
𝒉
𝑳is an integral multiple of ℏ = (𝟐𝝅).
𝒏𝒉
𝑳 = 𝒏ℏ =
𝟐𝝅
• Total energy of the electron remains constant as long as it remains in the same orbit.
• If an electron jumps from higher energy level (orbit) of energy 𝑬𝒊 to the lower energy
level (orbit) of energy 𝑬𝒇 i-e (𝑬𝒊 < 𝑬𝒇 ), a photon of is emitted. whose frequency is given
by
𝑬 𝒊 − 𝑬𝒇
𝒇=
𝒉

Determination of Atomic Radii:

Consider hydrogen atom as shown in figure as the electron revolving around the nucleus. Since
the electro is positively charged and the nucleus is consisting of a single proton there is a
columbic attractive force between these two particles given by

𝐾𝑒𝑒
𝐹𝐸 =
𝑟2

𝑘𝑒 2
𝐹𝐸 =
𝑟2

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As the electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius the exists a centripetal force acting on it
given by;

𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
This centripetal force is balanced by the Coulomb force

𝑘𝑒 2 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
= − −(𝑎)
𝑟2 𝑟
Now According to Bohr Atomic theory angular momentum of the electron can be written as

𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ
𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛ℏ
𝑛ℏ
𝑣=
𝑚𝑒 𝑟
Squaring on both sides we get
𝑛 2 ℏ2
2
𝑣 = 2 2
𝑚𝑒 𝑟
Putting above in equation (a) we get

𝑘𝑒 2 𝑚𝑒 𝑛2 ℏ2
= × 2 2
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑚𝑒 𝑟
2 2
𝑛 ℏ
𝑘𝑒 2 =
𝑚𝑒 𝑟
Separating for 𝒓we get
ℏ2
𝑟 = 𝑛2 ( )
𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑟 = 𝑛 2 𝑎𝑜
Where 𝒂𝒐 is called Bohr radius and its value is given by
ℏ2
𝑎𝑜 =
𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑒 2

(1.05459 × 10−34 )2
𝑎𝑜 =
9.11 × 10−31 × 9 × 109 × (1.6 × 10−19 )2

𝑎𝑜 = 0.53Å

𝒏 is called principle quantum number and it represents orbit number for the electron.

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For ground state(𝒏 = 𝟏) radius 𝒓𝟏 of orbit will be

𝑟1 = (1)2 × 0.53Å

𝑟1 = 0.53Å = 𝑎𝑜

There for Bohr radius can be defined as

“It is the radius of obit of electron in of a hydrogen atom in ground state.”

Determination of the Energy of an Electron in a “Stationary State”:

According to Bohr atomic theory electron does not radiate energy as long as it remains in the
same orbit or energy level.

The total energy 𝑬of the electron can be written as

𝑬 = 𝑲. 𝑬 + 𝑷. 𝑬

Kinetic Energy:
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
2
𝑘𝑒 2 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
=
𝑟2 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2
= 𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
𝑟
Separating for 𝒗𝟐 we get

2
𝑘𝑒 2
𝑣 =
𝑚𝑒 𝑟

Putting in expression for kinetic energy we get

1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑒
2 𝑚𝑒 𝑟

𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 =
𝟐𝒓

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Potential Energy:
Expression for electric potential is

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑒
𝑃. 𝐸 = −𝑊

𝑃. 𝐸
𝑉=−
𝑒
𝑃. 𝐸 = −𝑒𝑉

Now Since

𝑘𝑒
𝑉=
𝑟
Now potential energy can be written as

𝑘𝑒
𝑃. 𝐸 = −𝑒
𝑟

𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑷. 𝑬 = −
𝒓

Total Energy:
Total energy can be written as

𝑬 = 𝑲. 𝑬 + 𝑷. 𝑬

𝑘𝑒 2 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸= −
2𝑟 𝑟
𝑘𝑒 2 1
𝐸= ( − 1)
𝑟 2

𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑬=−
𝟐𝒓

Putting the value of 𝒓 in above expression we get.

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𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑬𝒏 = − 𝟐
𝟐𝒏 𝒂𝒐

𝟏 𝒌𝒆𝟐
𝑬𝒏 = − 𝟐 ( )
𝒏 𝟐𝒂𝒐

Now putting values of constant and converting in to Electron-Volts we get

𝒌𝒆𝟐
= 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝒆𝑽
𝟐𝒂𝒐

Putting the values in expression for 𝑬𝒏 we get

𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝒆𝑽
𝑬𝒏 = −
𝒏𝟐

Hydrogen Spectrum:
According to Bohr Atomic theory when an electron jumps from higher energy level (orbit) of
energy 𝑬𝒊 to the lower energy level (orbit) of energy 𝑬𝒇 i-e (𝑬𝒊 < 𝑬𝒇 ), a photon of is emitted
Whose frequency is given by
𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑓
𝑓=
ℎ
Here

1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸𝑖 = −
𝑛𝑖2 2𝑎𝑜

1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝐸𝑓 = − 2
𝑛𝑓 2𝑎𝑜

Putting values, we get

1 1 𝑘𝑒 2 1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑓 = [− 2 − (− 2 )]
ℎ 𝑛𝑖 2𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝑓 2𝑎𝑜

1 1 𝑘𝑒 2 1 𝑘𝑒 2
𝑓= ( 2 − )
ℎ 𝑛𝑓 2𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝑖2 2𝑎𝑜

𝑘𝑒 2 1 1
𝑓= ( 2 − 2)
2ℎ𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

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Now since
𝑐 = 𝜆𝑓
𝑐
𝑓=
𝜆
Putting in above we get
𝑐 𝑘𝑒 2 1 1
= ( 2 − 2)
𝜆 2ℎ𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

1 𝑘𝑒 2 1 1
= ( 2 − 2 ) − − − (𝑏)
𝜆 2𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑜 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

Now here
1
= |𝜐̅ |
𝜆
|𝜈̅ | is called wave number and
𝑘𝑒 2
= 𝑅𝐻
2ℎ𝑐𝑎𝑜
Where 𝑅𝐻 is called Rydberg constant and its numerical value is
𝑹𝑯 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎−𝟏
Now equation (b) will become
1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛𝑓 𝑛𝑖

Series of hydrogen spectrum:

Electron emits its energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation when it jumps from higher
energy level to lower energy level. Frequency of emitted EM radiation depends upon the
difference in energy between these energy levels.
These frequencies belong to the different regions of EM spectrum depending upon in which
energy state electron is after losing its energy. This phenomenon gives rise to the different
series of hydrogen spectrum. These series are given below
1. Lyman Series:
If an electron falls from higher energy level to the ground state (n=1) it emits radiation
which are in the ultra violet region of EM spectrum.|𝜐̅ | For Lyman series is written as
1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 1 𝑛𝑖
2. Balmer Series:
If an electron falls from higher energy level to the 1 stexited state (n=2) it emits radiation
which are in the visible region of EM spectrum.|𝜐̅ | For Balmer series is written as

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1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 2 𝑛𝑖
3. Paschen Series:
If an electron falls from higher energy level to the 2ndexited state (n=3) it emits radiation
which are in the infrared region of EM spectrum.|𝜐| For Paschen series is written as
1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 3 𝑛𝑖
4. Brackett Series:
If an electron falls from higher energy level to the 3rd exited state (n=4) it emits radiation
which are in the far infrared region of EM spectrum.|𝜐̅ | For Brackett series is written as
1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 4 𝑛𝑖
5. Pfund Series:
If an electron falls from higher energy level to the 4th exited state (n=5) it emits radiation
which are in the far infrared region of EM spectrum.|𝜐̅ | For Pfund series is written as
1 1 1
|𝜐̅ | = = 𝑅𝐻 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 5 𝑛𝑖

X-Rays:
X-rays are high frequency (short wavelength) electromagnetic radiation. Frequency range of X-
ray is from1016 𝐻𝑧 to1020 𝐻𝑧.

Generation of X-rays:
X-rays are generated by accelerating electron to high velocity and then suddenly stopping them
by collision with a solid body of atomic number greater than 10.
Typical apparatus used for X-ray generation is shown in figure.

High amount of current is passed through

highly resistive filament at cathode.
Cathode emits electron by thermionic
emission. These electrons are accelerated
to high speed by high potential difference
between anode and cathode. These high-
speed electrons collide with Anode (of
high atomic number). If potential difference is of several thousand of volt X-rays are emitted
out of the anode.

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X-Ray Spectra:
Spectral analysis of X-ray shows that

i. X-rays have continuous spectrum also called X-ray Bremsstrahlung.

ii. Under certain condition there is an additional line spectrum called Characteristic
spectrum.
X-Ray Continuous Spectra (X-ray Bremsstrahlung):
In ordinary condition, continuous spectrum is emitted with maximum frequency directly
proportional to the acceleration voltage and is nearly independent of material of which
electrodes are made off.
Explanation:
When fast moving electron from cathode passes near to the
nucleus of atoms in anode nucleus attracted it toward itself by
columbic force but due to the high speed of electron it passes
away with some deflection due to this scattering process
electron transfer some of its momentum to atom (or lose
energy).Since electron can lose any amount of energy (from zero
to its maximum energy eV) and therefore Continuous spectrum
is obtain and whole process can be described by the equation
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎 + 𝒆− (𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕) ⟶ 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒎 + 𝒆− (𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘) + 𝒉𝒇
Here;ℎ𝑓 is the energy of emitted X-ray photon.

X-ray line spectra (Characteristic Spectra):

In X-Ray spectra certain peaks high intensity peaks appear that
are called X-ray line spectra (Characteristic Spectra).
Explanation:
The process of emission of characteristic spectra takes place as
follows. When a highly energetic incident electron knocks an
electron from the k-shell, a vacancy occurs in that shell. This
vacancy is filled by the arrival of an electron from outside the k-
shell, emitting excess amount of energy in the form of photon.
If the electron jumps only one shell and returns with the
emission of X-rays to Y shell, then X-rays are termed as '𝒀𝜶 ' X-
rays. If the electron jumps two shells and returns with emission
of X-rays to suppose 'Y' shell, then X-rays are termed as '𝒀𝜷 ' rays
and so on, where Y may be K, L, M, ......

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LASER
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Laser is a device used to produce very intense, highly directional, coherent and monochromatic
beam of light.

Basic Conditions to Produce Laser

• There must be a Meta stable state in the system.
• The system must achieve population inversion.
• The photons emitted must be confined in the system
for a time to allow them further stimulated emission.
Principle of Laser
The principle of laser production is based on the fact that
atoms of a material have a number of energy levels in which
at least one is Meta stable state.

Explanation:
Consider three-level atomic system having
energies E1, E2 and E3, respectively. Let the
atoms are at ground state E1. If photons
interact with an atom in ground state, the
atom absorbs the photon and reaches the
excited state E3. We know that the excited
state is an unstable state, therefore,
electron must return back to ground state
E1 but such transitions are not allowed and
the electron first reach the state E2. Atoms
in the state E3 which has a life time of
about 10-8 sec decay spontaneously from state E3
to state E2 which is Meta stable and has life time of
10-3sec. This means that the atoms reach state E2
much faster than they leave state E2.
This results in an increase in number of atoms in
state E2, and hence population inversion is
achieved.
After achieving population inversion, it is exposed
to a beam of photons which causes induced
emission of photons, and a beam of laser is produced.

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Applications of Laser:
The lasers have widespread applications in industry, surgery, entertainment and in a number of
other disciplines of life. However, some of them are as under: Generally speaking, a laser
produces a very narrow and intense beam of light that can vaporize anything which comers in
its way.

• Laser as Accurate Cutter:

Precision cutting, welding and drilling of tiny holes into hardest materials can be
performed by laser beam.

• Application in Media
A very interesting application is the production of true three-dimensional images called
"HOLOGRAM". A hologram records not only the intensity of the light but also the phase
difference between two image-beams that cause the interference pattern to
reconstruct an image suspended in air like a real object.

• Application in Surgery
In surgery, the laser has proved a more delicate and accurate instrument than the finest
scalpel. It has been used for bloodlessly removing small humors, cutting and delicate
operations. Lasers are now widely used in the field of surgery. Laser can also be used to
fragment gallstone, stones in kidney and eye-surgery.

• Application as Range Finder

Laser beam is used as a range finder, lining up equipment accurately in surveying large
distances.

• Application in Electrical Devices

Tiny solid-state lasers are widely used in electrical devices. A laser beam replaces the
phonographic needle in a compact disk audio system for music reproduction of
extremely high fidelity. A laser can also be used for the photographic recording of
output data of computer.

• Application in Environmental Study

Laser is an important environmental monitoring instrument. Some types of laser can be
tuned to a desired frequency. These lasers can be used as a very sensitive detector of
pollutants in the atmosphere.

• Application in Nuclear Fusion

A high-power laser is also a potential source to induce nuclear fusion reaction.

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RUBY LASER:
Construction:
Ruby is a crystal of Al2O3, a small number of
whose Al atoms are replaced by Cr+3 ions. A high
intensity helical flash lamp surrounding the ruby
rod is used as light source to raise Cr atoms from
state E1 to E3.
The ruby laser is a cylindrical rod with parallel,
flat reflecting ends. One end is partially
reflecting. The flash light is attached with the
high voltage.
Working:
• Electrons are raised from ground state E1 to Excited state E3(optical pumping) which has
a lifetime 10-8 sec.
• The atoms from the state E3 make transition to state E2. Since E2 is meta-stable state
having life time equal to 10-3 sec.
• As atoms reach state E2 much faster than they leave state E2. This results in an increase
in the number of atoms in state E2 and hence population inversion is achieved.
• In this process few Cr atoms make spontaneous transition from E2 to E1 and emitted
photons stimulate further transition. In this way we obtain an intense, coherent,
monochromatic beam of red laser.

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CHAPTER-18 NUMERICALS
FROM PAST PAPERS
1990
Q.7. (c) A blood corpuscle has diameter about 9 x 10–6 m. In which excited orbit should a
hydrogen atom so that it is just about as big as the blood corpuscle. (291)
1993
Q.7. (c) The energy of the lowest level of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. Calculate the energy of
the emitted photons in transition from n = 4 to n = 2. (2.55eV)
1995
Q.7. (c) Find the wavelength of light which is capable of ionizing a hydrogen atom. (911.5A°)
1997
Q.7. (c) The energy of an electron in an excited hydrogen atom is –3.4 eV. Calculate the angular
momentum of the electron according to Bohr’s Theory. (2.1 x 10–34Js)
2000
Q.7. (c) What is the wavelength of the radiation that is emitted when hydrogen atom
undergoes a transition from the state n2 = 3 to n1 = 2. (6.5 x 10–7 m)
2002 (Pre Med. group)
Q.8. (d) What is the longest wavelength of light capable of ionizing a hydrogen atom? What
energy in electron volt is needed to ionize it? (9.12 x 10–8 m/s, 13.6eV)
2002 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.7. (d) A photon of 12.1 eV absorbed by a hydrogen atom originally in the ground state raises
the atom to an excited state. What is the quantum number of this state?
(E1 = –13.6 eV) (3)
2003 (Pre Engg. group)
Q.7. (d) An electron in the hydrogen atom makes a transition from the n = 2 energy state to the
ground state (corresponding to n = 1) find the wavelength in the ultraviolet region.
(1.21 x 10–7 m)
2005
Q.7. (d) In a hydrogen atom an electron experiences transition from a state whose binding
energy is 0.54 eV to the state whose excitation energy is 10.2 eV.
a) The quantum numbers of the two states
b) The wavelength of the photon emitted (5, 2, 4.342 x 10–7 m)
2007
Q.7. (d) Calculate the Binding Energy of a hydrogen atom. (–13.6 eV)
2008
Q.8. (d) Calculate the longest and shortest wavelengths of emitted photons where R H = 1.097
x 107 m–1. (656.33 nm, 364.6nm)

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2010
Q.2. (xii) Find the shortest wavelength of photon emitted in the Balmer series and determine its
energy in eV. (RH = 1.097 x 107 m–1). (3646Ao, 3.41eV)
2011
Q.2. (xi) Calculate the energy of the longest wavelength radiation emitted in the Paschen series
in hydrogen atom spectra. (RH = 1.0968 x 107 m–1, h = 6.63 x 10–34Js, m c = 3 x 108 m/s).
(1875.6 nm)
2012
Q2(xi) Find the value of shortest and the longest wavelength of emitted photon in hydrogen
spectra in Balmer series. (Rydberg constant = 1.097 x107 m-1)
2013
Q2(v) A hydrogen atom in the ground state gets excited by absorbing a photon of 12.15 eV.
Find the Quantum number of this state,
2014
Q2. (x) Determine the longest and shortest wavelength of photons emitted in the Lyman series.
(RH=1.097 x 107 m -1)
2015
Q2(xi) Find the shortest wavelength of photon emitted in the Balmer series and determine its
energy in eV. (RH = 1.097 x 107 m–1). (3646Ao, 3.41eV)

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Chapter#19

Atomic Nucleus
Nuclear Structure:
The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged
particle having mass 1.6726 × 10−27 kg and charge 1.6 × 10 − 19coulomb.
The charge of the proton is equal in magnitude of the charge of an electron, but
opposite to it in sign. Neutrons have no charge. Its mass is 1.6750 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔.
The mass of proton is 1836 times the mass of an electron.
Mass Number:
The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus is called Mass Number.
It is denoted by 'A'. This number is also called Nucleus Number.
Atomic Number:
The number of protons in a nucleus is called Atomic Number or proton number or charge
number. It is denoted by 'Z'.
Neutron Number:
The difference between mass number and atomic number is called Neutron Number.
It is denoted by 'N' and is given by
𝑵 = 𝑨 − 𝒁
Representation of an Element:
An element X having mass number A and atomic number Z is represented by the symbol.
𝑿𝑨𝒁
Isotopes:
The elements having same atomic number, but different mass number or neutrons number are
called isotopes. Example hydrogen deuterium and tritium

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Radioactivity:
The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of nucleus of atoms is known as radioactivity.
Explanation:
Radioactivity is a self-disrupting activity exhibited by some naturally occurring elements. It has
been found, that the elements with atomic number greater than 83 are unstable and emit
certain type of radiations. Such substances (e.g. Uranium, Radium, and Thorium) are called
Radio-active substances and the radiations emitted from their nuclei are called radioactive
radiations and the phenomenon is known as Radioactivity.
Radioactive Decay:
The phenomenon in which unstable nuclei disintegrated in to stable nuclei with emission of
radiation is called Radioactive decay.
There are three types of radioactive decay:

• Alpha Decay
• Beta Decay
• Gamma Decay
Alpha Decay(𝜶 − 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚):
The phenomenon in which parent nuclei is converted in to daughter nuclei with the emission of
helium nuclei (𝛼 − 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒)is called Alpha decay. In alpha decay charge number (z) decreases
by 2 and mass number (A) decreases by 4.

𝑿𝑨𝒛 → 𝒀𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒛−𝟐 + 𝑯𝒆𝟐

238
92U → 2He4+ 90Th234

Beta Decay (𝜷 − 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚):

The phenomenon in which parent nuclei is converted in to daughter nuclei with the emission of
electron or positron is called beta decay.

There are two types of beta decay

1. +𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 (Positron Emission)

2. – 𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦 (Electron Emission)
+𝜷 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 (Positron Emission):
The phenomenon in which parent nuclei is converted in to daughter nuclei with the emission of
positron is called+𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦. In positron emission a proton transforms itself in a neutron that
is why the charge number (Z) is decreased by 1 and mass number remain unchanged.

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𝑿𝑨𝒛 → 𝒀𝑨𝒛−𝟏 + 𝒆+ + 𝝂

11Na22 →10Ne 22+β++ve

−𝜷 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚 (Electron Emission):

The phenomenon in which parent nuclei is converted in to daughter nuclei with the emission of
electrons are called −𝛽 − 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑦. In electron emission a neutron transforms itself in a proton
that is why the charge number (Z) is increased by 1 and mass number remain unchanged.

𝑿𝑨𝒛 → 𝒀𝑨𝒛+𝟏 + 𝒆− + 𝝂̅

27Co60→ 28Ni60 +β- +¯νe

Gamma Decay(𝜸 − 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚):

After the beta or alpha emission daughter nuclei obtain is in the exited state and comes to
ground state after emission of gamma ray photons. Since, photons are mass fewer neutral
particles that are why the charge and mass number of nuclei remain unaltered.

𝑿𝑨𝒛 → 𝑿𝑨𝒛 + 𝜸

Law of Radioactive Decay:

Statement:
“The rate of decay in a radioactive process is directly proportional to the number of parent
nuclides, present in the unstable nuclides of the given species.”

Mathematical Expression:
If N is the number of unstable nuclide present in a given species then
∆𝑁 ∝ 𝑁
∆𝑁 ∝ ∆𝑡
∆𝑁 ∝ 𝑁∆𝑡
∆𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁∆𝑡
Here 𝜆 is constant of proportionality called decay constant
∆𝑵
= −𝝀𝑵
∆𝒕
Term𝝀𝑵 is called activityA
I-e
𝑨 = 𝝀𝑵

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Exponential form:
Since,
∆𝑵
= −𝝀𝑵
∆𝒕
Applying limit ∆𝑡 → 0 on both sides we get;
∆𝑵
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 −𝝀𝑵
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕→𝟎

𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
Integrating on both sides
𝑁 𝑡
𝑑𝑁
∫ = ∫ −𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑁
𝑁𝑜 0

ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑜 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑥
Since ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 = ln (𝑦)

𝑁
ln ( ) = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
Taking exponential on both side
𝑁
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜
Now in exponential form law of radioactive decay can be written as

𝑵 = 𝑵𝒐 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
Here N is the present number of unstable nuclei in the species after time t and 𝑁𝑜 is the total
number of nuclei present.

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Graphical Representation:

Half Life of Element:

It is the time in which half of radioactive elements decays from parent element to daughter
element. It is denoted by𝑇1 .
2
Mathematically
Exponential form of law of radioactive decay can be written as
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁
After half life 𝑁 = 2𝑜 and 𝑡 = 𝑇1/2
𝑁𝑜
= 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
1
= 𝑒 −𝜆𝑇1/2
2
𝑒 𝜆𝑇1/2 = 2
Talking natural log on both sides
𝜆𝑇1 = 𝑙𝑛2 = 0.693
2
Hence

𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝑻𝟏/𝟐 =
𝝀

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Mass Defect, Binding Energy & Packing Fraction:

Mass Defect:
The mass of the nucleus is always less than the mass of constituent nucleons. This difference in
mass is called mass defect

Mathematically:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠– 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠

∆𝒎 = (𝑵𝒎𝒏 + 𝒁𝒎𝒑 )– 𝒎𝑵

Binding Energy:
The difference in energy between stable nucleus & constituent nucleons is called as binding
energy of nucleus

Mathematically:
𝑩. 𝑬. = ∆𝒎 𝑪𝟐

When mass is in a.m.u than,

𝑩. 𝑬. = ∆𝒎 × 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝑴𝒆𝑽

Packing Fraction:
The binding energy per nucleon is called as packing fraction

Mathematically:
𝑩. 𝑬.
𝑷. 𝑭. =
𝑨

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Nuclear Reactions:
Process in which two nuclei, or else a nucleus of an atom and a subatomic particle (such as a
proton, neutron, or high energy electron) from outside the atom, collide to produce one or
more nuclides that are different from the nuclide(s) that began the process is called a Nuclear
Reaction.
Thus, a nuclear reaction must cause a transformation of at least one nuclide to another.

1. HELIUM INDUCED REACTION

In this reaction Alpha particles obtained from radioactive nuclei are bombarded on
nuclei
Example:
𝟒 𝟏𝟕 𝟏
𝑵𝟏𝟒
𝟕 + 𝑯𝒆𝟐 → 𝑶𝟖 + 𝑯𝟏 (𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏)
2. PROTON INDUCED REACTION
In this reaction protons obtained from radioactive nuclei are bombarded on nuclei
Example:
𝑳𝒊𝟕𝟑 + 𝑯𝟏𝟏 → 𝑯𝒆𝟒𝟐 + 𝑯𝒆𝟒𝟐
3. DEUTERON INDUCED REACTION
In this reaction deuteron nuclei are bombarded on nuclei
Example:
𝑳𝒊𝟕𝟑 + 𝑯𝟐𝟏 → 𝑯𝒆𝟒𝟐 + 𝑯𝒆𝟒𝟐

4. GAMMA INDUCED REACTION

High energy gamma radiation are found to induce nuclear reactions
Example:
𝑨𝒍𝟐𝟕 𝟐 𝟐𝟓 𝟏
𝟏𝟑 + 𝑯𝟏 + 𝜸(𝟓𝟎𝑴𝒆𝑽) → 𝑵𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝟐𝑯𝟏

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Nuclear Fission:
The process in which a heavy nucleus breaks up into two lighter nuclei of nearly equal masses
after bombardment by a slow neutron is known as nuclear fission.

Explanation
When an isotope of uranium of 𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟗𝟐 is bombarded with slow moving neutrons, then fission
reactions takes place. During this process two new elements three neutrons and a large amount
of energy is released. The two nuclei of new elements produced are Barium and Krypton.

𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏 𝟏
𝟗𝟐 + 𝒏𝟎 → 𝑩𝒂 + 𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑𝒏𝟎 + 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅

Barium and Krypton are known as Fission pigments, which are radioactive. A large amount of
heat energy is also liberated, which may be produced.

Liquid Drop Model:

Chain Reaction
Fission reaction is a chain reaction that has been classified into the following two types.
• Controlled Fission Chain Reaction.
• Uncontrolled Fission Chain Reaction.

Controlled Fission Chain Reaction

In a fission reaction for one atom of uranium, three neutrons are produced, which may give rise
to fission reaction in other uranium atoms. If two neutrons out of three are stopped then chain
reaction takes place at uniform rate and a fixed amount of energy is obtained. This is done by
usually Cadmium or graphite rods. In a nuclear reactor-controlled chain reaction takes place.

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Uncontrolled Fission Chain Reaction
If in a fission reaction, the number of neutrons is not controlled, then the reaction will build up
at a very fast rate and in only few seconds, an explosion occurs. In an atom bomb, uncontrolled
fission chain reaction takes place.

NUCLEAR FUSION:
A process in which two light nuclei combine (or fuse together) to
form a heavy nucleus and energy is released is called Nuclear
Fusion. The energy released is called Thermo-Nucleus Fusion Energy.

Explanation
For example, when light nuclei of hydrogen are combined to
form a heavier nucleus of helium energy is liberated.
The final mass is smaller than the initial mass and the deficit of mass is comparatively greater
than in fission.
For this reason, the energy liberated in the process of fission.
It is very difficult to produce fusion reaction due to the fact that when two positively charged
nuclei are bought closer and closer and then fused together. Work has to be done against the
electrostatic force of repulsion. This requires a great deal of energy.
Fusion reaction can produce great amount of energy. The raw material 1 the reaction is
deuteron, which is found in abundance in world oceans as heavy water.
The fusion reaction is possible in sun and stars because of very high temperature. The fusion
reactions are also the basic source of energy in stars including the sun.

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CHAPTER-19 NUMERICALS from Past Papers
1994
Q.8. (c) Find the binding energy of 52Te126 in MeV if the mass of a proton = 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron = 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U. (1061 MeV)
2001
Q.8. (d) Find the binding energy of 52Te126 in MeV if the mass of a proton is 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron is 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U. (1061 MeV)
2006
Q.8. (d) The half-period of 104Po210 is 140 days. By what percent does its activity decrease per
week? (3.465 % per week)
2007
Q.7. (d) Calculate the binding energy of hydrogen atom.
Given that: m = 9.1 x 10–31Kg e = 1.6 x 10–19Coul
Єo = 8.854 x 10–12Coul2/Nm2 h = 6.63 x 0–34J s (–13.6 eV)
2009
Q.8. (d) If the number of atoms per gram of 88Ra236 is 2.666 x 1021 and it decays with a half-life
of 1622 years, find the decay constant and the activity of the sample.
(1.35 x 10–11 sec–1, 3.61 x 1011 disintegration/sec)
2010
Q.2. (xiii) A deuteron (3.3431 x 10–27 kg) is formed when a proton (1.6724 x 10–27 kg) and a
neutron (1.6748 x 10–27) combine; calculate the mass defect and binding energy (in
MeV). (4.1 x 10–30 kg, 2.3MeV)
2012
Find the binding energy of 52Te126 in MeV if the mass of a proton is 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron is 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U. (1061 MeV)
2013
The number of atoms per gram of 88Ra226is 2.666x1021 and it decays with a half-life of
1622 years. Find the activity and decay constant of the sample.
(1.35 x 10–11 sec–1, 3.61 x 1011 disintegration/sec)
2014
Q2 (v)Find the binding energy of 52Te126 in MeV if the mass of a proton is 1.0078U, mass of a
neutron is 1.0086U, mass of a Te atoms = 125.9033U. (1061 MeV)
2015
Q2 (v) Find the binding energy and packing fraction (B.E per nucleon) of 52Te126.
Given that: mp=1.0078U mn=1.0086U mTe=125.9033U 1U=931.5MeV

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Chapter#20

Nuclear Radiation
Alpha Particle:
Introduction:
Alpha particles are helium atom with both of its electron removed. Their mass is approximately
4 times the mass of proton. Due to their heavy mass they have low penetrating power. When
they pass close to an atom, the strong electrostatic force of attraction tears the electron off and
ionize the atom. Their ionization power is greater than β- particles and γ- rays.
As Ionization Source:
As α particle is positively charged (has charge of +2e), when it passes near to an atom it takes
off electron in its outer most shell by electrostatic attractive force between it and the electron,
hence ionizes the atom.

Beta Particles:
Introduction:
Beta particles are fast moving electrons. Their mass is equal to the mass of electron. Their
penetrating power is greater than that of α- particles. When they pass close to an atom, the
strong electrostatic force of repulsion tears the electron off and ionize the atom. Their
ionization power is less then β- particles and greater then γ- rays. Their velocity is greater than
α particles but less than that of γ- rays.
As Ionization Source:
As β particle is negatively charged (has charge of -e), when it passes near to an atom it takes off
electron in its outer most shell by electrostatic repulsive force between it and the electron,
hence ionizes the atom.

Gamma Rays:
Introduction:
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations (frequency range: Greater than ~30 EHz). These are
mass less photons. They have highest penetrating power. They usually ionize an atom by
photoelectric effect or Compton’s effect. They usually ionize an atom by photoelectric effect or
Compton’s effect. Their velocity is equal to the velocity of light, i-e 3x108 m/s.

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As Ionization Source:
γ- Rays can produce ionization in following three ways:

• It may lose all its energy in a single encounter with the electron of an atom
(Photoelectric Effect).
• It may lose only a part of its energy in an encounter (Compton’s Effect).
• Very few of high energy γ- ray’s photons may impinge directly on heavy nuclei. Be
stopped and annihilated giving rise to electron-positron pair (The materialization of
energy).

Proton:
Introduction:
Proton is also a positively charged particle. It has mass 4 times less than an Alpha particle and
charge equal to half of the charge on Alpha particle.
As Ionization Source:
As proton is positively charged (has charge of +1e), when it passes near to an atom it takes off
electron in its outer most shell by electrostatic attractive force between it and the electron,
hence ionizes the atom.
Neutron:
Introduction:
Neutron is also uncharged particle. It has mass 4 times less than an Alpha particle.
As Ionization Source:
Neutrons are neutral particles (having no charge). They can ionize an atom only by direct
impact. When it hits an electron, it knocks it out and from the atom (ionization) with
particularly no change in its own energy.
Wilson Cloud Chamber
Wilson Cloud Chamber is a device used to observe the path of
ionizing particles. It helps to examine the mechanism of ionization
of various ionizing radiations and the product of their interaction
with material inside the chamber.

Construction:
• It consists of a closed cylindrical chamber with transparent
glass top (T).
• On the sides near the top the cylindrical is provided with a
glass window for light (L).
• An inlet (I) for the ionizing particles or radiations.

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• A movable piston on the bottom. The piston can be moved up or down by a lever
attached to it.
Before making the enclosed space above the piston aright, enough quantity of a low boiling
point liquid such as water or alcohol is introduced in the space to produce its saturated vapors.
A small quantity of liquid stays on the piston.

Working:
• The pressure of the liquid is lowered by pulling piston down which results in producing
vapors of the liquid.
• When an ionizing particle enters the tube under this condition it produces ionization
along its track.
• The condensation of vapors takes place on ion in the form of tiny droplets of fog, which
can be photographed.
Results:
𝜶 − 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆:
An α-particle is highly ionizing the ions produced are so numerous that its trade is a thick and
continuous line.
𝜷 − 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆:
β-Particle is much less ionizing its track is therefore, a thin and broken line.
𝜸 – 𝑹𝒂𝒚𝒔:
γ - Rays are photons emitted in a widening cone of some angle. They produce ionization by
photoelectric effect distributed on a wide space. Some of the photoelectrons ejected by them
give tiny line tracks in directions like the β- Particles and scattered dots are produced. The γ -
rays not produce well-defined line track.

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Geiger counter
Geiger counter is a portable device which is widely
used for the detection of ionizing particles or
radiations.
Construction:
It consists of:
• A hollow metal cylinder, one end of which is
closed by an insulating cap.
• At the center of the cap is fixed a stiff straight wire along the axis of the cylinder.
• A thin mica or glass disc closes the other end which also serves as an entrance window
for the ionizing particles or radiations.
• The sealed tube usually contains a special mixture (air, argon, alcohol etc.) at a low
pressure of 50 to 100 millimeters of mercury.
• A potential difference of the order of one thousand volts is applied between the metal
cylinder and difference is only slightly less than, necessary to start a discharge between
the wire and a cylinder.

Working:
When an energetic charged particle or gamma-ray photon enters the tube through a thin
window at one end, some of the gas atoms are ionized. The electrons removed from these
atoms are attracted toward the wire electrode, and in the process, they ionize other atoms in
their path. This sequential ionization results in an avalanche of electrons that produces a
current pulse. After the pulse has been amplified, it can either be used to trigger an electronic
counter or delivered to a loudspeaker that clicks each time a particle is detected. Although a
Geiger counter reliably detects the presence and quantity of radiation, it cannot be used to
measure the energy of the detected radiation.

Solid State Detectors:

Solid state detectors use semiconductor PN-junction diodes. When it
is reversed biased no current is passed through junction diode. But
when energy is provided to the junction that is when radiations or
ionizing particles passed through junction diode current passed
through it. The reverse current passed through junction diode on
ionization of atoms of junction due to ionizing radiations. This results
in producing small voltage. Resistance “R” is connected in series with
diode & battery. Potential is amplified by amplifier & is connected with counting device to
register the presence of radiations.

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