Heat and Mass Transfer Lab

Lab Report no. 6

To Demonstrate the relationship between power input and
surface temperature in free and forced convective heat transfer
over Rectangular Fins

Introduction
Newton’s law of cooling is used to describe convective heat transfer. The most critical
parameter in convective heat transfer is the convective heat transfer coefficient as it
varies with various parameters such as shape, temperature, air speed, etc.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate convection over Fins

2. To demonstrate Newton’s Law of Cooling.

3. To study the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient in free and forced
heat transfer.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 1

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 4

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Free Convection
Free convection is the convective heat transfer carried out by natural movement of
gases. The convective heat transfer coefficient for this type of convection is relatively
lower.

Forced Convection
Forced convection is the convective heat transfer carried out by mechanical move-
ment of gases. The convective heat transfer coefficient for this type of convection is
relatively higher.5 showcases the difference between free and forced convection

Figure 5: Free and Forced Convection

4
Fins
Fins are surfaces made of highly conductive material that extend from a base plate.
Fins increase the heat transfer rate of a body by using convective heat transfer. Fins
find numerous applications in heat transfer and are commonly used in heat exchangers
and heat engines. A very importnt use of fins nowadays is in electronics where they
are used to maintain the temperature of electronics. Rectangular fins are shown in 6

Figure 6: Rectangular fins

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s Law of cooling is used to evaluate the convective heat transfer. Its mathe-
matical form is as
q = hATs − T∞ (1)
here q is heat, Ts is the surface temperate and Tinf is the ambient temperature. A
is the area of the rectangular fin here.

Apparatus
1. Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

2. Temperature Measurement Device (Thermocouple)

3. Rectangular Fins

5
 4. Airflow Channel

5. Insulation

Figure 7: Experimental Apparatus

Experimental Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus by attaching temperature sensors to it.

2. Set up the heat source to heat the Rectangular Fin Base plate.

3. Note down the ambient air temperature using the thermocouple.

4. Note down the temperature of the plate using the thermocouple.

5. Use this temperature to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient h

Observations and Calculation

Area of Plate = A = 0.011
Ambient air Temperature = T∞ = 27
Observations are tabulated below in table 1

6
Table 1: Experimental observation of Rectangular fin temperature against various
power sources
Power Supplied (Watts) Temperature of the plate ( C )
5 32 30 29 29
10 33 31 29 29
15 34 32 31 29
20 36 33 31 30
Air Speed (m/s) 0 0.5 1 1.3

A sample calculation is as follows:

q = hA(Ts − T∞ )
q
h = AδT
5
h = 0.011∗5
h = 90.90 mW2 K

Results
The results for convective heat transfer coefficients are tabulated below in Table 2,

Table 2: Heat transfer coefficient at different air speeds for rectangular fins
W
Power Supplied (Watts) Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient m2 K

5 90.90 151.5152 227.2727 227.27

10 151.51 227.27 454.54 454.54
15 194.81 272.72 340.90 681.81
20 202.02 303.03 454.54 606.06
Air Speed (m/s) 0 0.5 1 1.3

7
1 *Discussion
The convective heat transfer coefficient is discussed with respect to two variables; Fin
temperature and air speed. The mean temperature of the fin is also discussed with
respect to the power input
Convective heat transfer coefficient varies inversely with the surface temperature of
the fin plates. This result is in accordance with the laws of heat transfer since a larger
convective heat transfer coefficient means that more heat is being transferred from
the rectangular fins surface and therefore, the surface temperature of the rectangular
fin is closer to ambient temperature. This relationship is more accurately described
by 8

Figure 8: Convective heat transfer plotted against plate surface temperature

Convective heat transfer coefficient is greater for forced than it is for free convec-
tion and this is accurately represented by 9, as the air speed increases so does the
convective heat transfer coefficient

8
 Figure 9: Convective heat transfer plotted against air speed

2 *Conclusion
This experiment investigates the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with
various parameters. From the results and their subsequent discussion it is evident
that the heat transfer coefficient is sensitive to changes in various parameters and
therefore, for a specific case multiple parameters need to be taken into account to
accurately determine the convective heat transfer coefficient

9
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 7
To Demonstrate the relationship between power input and
surface temperature in free and forced convective heat transfer
over Pin Fins

Introduction
Newton’s law of cooling is used to describe convective heat transfer. The most critical
parameter in convective heat transfer is the convective heat transfer coefficient as it
varies with various parameters such as shape, temperature, air speed, etc.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate convection over Fins

2. To demonstrate Newton’s Law of Cooling.

3. To study the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient in free and forced
heat transfer.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 1

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 4

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Free Convection
Free convection is the convective heat transfer carried out by natural movement of
gases. The convective heat transfer coefficient for this type of convection is relatively
lower.

Forced Convection
Forced convection is the convective heat transfer carried out by mechanical move-
ment of gases. The convective heat transfer coefficient for this type of convection is
relatively higher.8 showcases the difference between free and forced convection

Figure 5: Free and Forced Convection

4
Fins
Fins are surfaces made of highly conductive material that extend from a base plate.
Fins increase the heat transfer rate of a body by using convective heat transfer. Fins
find numerous applications in heat transfer and are commonly used in heat exchangers
and heat engines. A very importnt use of fins nowadays is in electronics where they
are used to maintain the temperature of electronics. Rectangular fins are shown in
??

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection

A relatively new type of fins currently being used are pin fins. Such fins have small
cylinderical structures extruded on a base plate. Pin fins have better heat transfer
capabilities due to greater exposed surface area per volume of fin compared to rectan-
gular fins. Pin fins are however, hard to manufacture and are only used in specialized
applications such as thermal management of densely packed electronics and CPU
Heat Sinks, etc.

5
 Figure 7: Free and Forced Convection

Figure 8: Free and Forced Convection

Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s Law of cooling is used to evaluate the convective heat transfer. Its mathe-
matical form is as
q = hATs − T∞ (1)
here q is heat, Ts is the surface temperate and Tinf is the ambient temperature. A
is the area of the rectangular fin here.

6
Apparatus
1. Digital Control Unit (Heat Supply)

2. Temperature Measurement Device (Thermocouple)

3. Pin Fins

4. Airflow Channel

5. Insulation

Figure 9: Experimental Apparatus

Experimental Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus by attaching temperature sensors to it.

2. Set up the heat source to heat the PIn Fins.

3. Note down the ambient air temperature using the thermocouple.

4. Note down the temperature of the plate using the thermocouple.

5. Use this temperature to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient h

7
Observations and Calculation
Area of Plate = A = 0.011
Ambient air Temperature = T∞ = 27
Observations are tabulated below in table 1

Table 1: Experimental observation of Pin fin temperature against various power

sources
Power Supplied (Watts) Temperature of the plate ( C )
5 30 29 28 28
10 31 30 29 28
15 32 30 29 28
20 35 33 31 29
Air Speed (m/s) 0 0.5 1 1.3

A sample calculation is as follows:

q = hA(Ts − T∞ )
q
h = AδT
5
h = 0.011∗5
h = 151 mW2 K

Results
The results for convective heat transfer coefficients are tabulated below in Table 2,

8
 Table 2: Heat transfer coefficient at different air speeds
W
Power Supplied (Watts) Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient m2 K

5 151 227 454 454

10 227 303 454 909
15 272 454 681 1363
20 227 303 454 909
Air Speed (m/s) 0 0.5 1 1.3

Discussion
The convective heat transfer coefficient is discussed with respect to two variables; Fin
temperature and air speed. The mean temperature of the pin fin is also discussed
with respect to the power input
Convective heat transfer coefficient varies inversely with the surface temperature of
the fin pins. This result is in accordance with the laws of heat transfer since a larger
convective heat transfer coefficient means that more heat is being transferred from
the pin fins surface and therefore, the surface temperature of the pin fin is closer to
ambient temperature. This relationship is more accurately described by 10

9
 Figure 10: Convective heat transfer plotted against pin surface temperature

Convective heat transfer coefficient is greater for forced than it is for free convec-
tion and this is accurately represented by 11, as the air speed increases so does the
convective heat transfer coefficient

10
 Figure 11: Convective heat transfer plotted against air speed

Lastly, The mean temperature of the pin fin surface is directly proportional to the
heat supplied to the plate. The greater the heat supplied to the plate, greater the
temperature of the plate and greater the rate of heat transfer should be to dissipate
it. This relationship is shown in 12

11
 Figure 12: mean plate temperature plotted against power input

a comparison between convective heat transfer coefficients of plate, rectangular fin

and pin fins is tabulated in ??

Power Supplied (W) Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/mˆ2K)

5 64.93506494 90.9091 151.515 151.5152 151.5152 227.2727 227.2727 227.2727 454.5455
10 101.010101 151.515 227.273 227.2727 181.8182 303.0303 454.5455 303.0303 454.5455
15 113.6363636 194.805 272.727 272.7273 170.4545 454.5455 340.9091 272.7273 681.8182
Air Speed (m/s) 0 0.5 1

From the above table it is evident that pin fins have overall superiority with regards
to either power or air speed. Generally the heat transfer coefficient of pin fins is the
greatest. Rectangular fins are followed by simple flat plate in terms of convective
heat transfer coefficient. Pin fins have the greatest exposed surface area per volume
of material when compared with both rectangular fins and simple flat plate. It is no
surprise therefore that they have the greatest convective heat transfer coefficient of
all the three. Graphs shown in 13 and 14 further solidify this.

12
Figure 13: plot of convective heat transfer coefficient against air speed while keeping
power constant

13
Figure 14: plot of convective heat transfer coefficient against power while keeping air
speed constant

Conclusion
This experiment investigates the variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with
various parameters. From the results and their subsequent discussion it is evident
that the heat transfer coefficient is sensitive to changes in various parameters and
therefore, for a specific case multiple parameters need to be taken into account to
accurately determine the convective heat transfer coefficient. Via comparison of all
the heat transfer coefficients calculated with respect to air speed and heat supplied,
pin fins had the greatest heat transfer coefficient and therefreo, the greatest ability
to dissipate heat via convection.

14
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 8
To perform an energy balance and calculate overall efficiency
of concentric tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at
different flow rates

Introduction

Heat exchangers are important heat transfer devices and find

various uses in day to day life. Air conditioners, refrigeratores,
car radiators all use heat exchangers. A parallel flow heat
exchanger is one in which the flow of cold and hot fluid is in a
single direction.

Objectives

The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate heat transfer in a parallel heat

exchanger
2. To calculate the efficiency of a parallel flow heat exchanger.

1
Theory

Heat

Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only

when a thermal gradient exists between them. The direction
of heat transfer is such that it transfers from bodies at higher
temperature to bodies at lower temperature

Temperature Gradient

Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain

direction is defined as the temperature gradient in that
direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction is
that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a
temperature gradient exists between them. Temperature
gradient is graphically depicted in figure 1

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction

Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat

transfers between atoms or molecules of a substance via
collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
2
 phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2.
Heat travels throughout the metal rod which is exposed to fire
at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide

with neighboring atoms transferring thermal energy they have
in the process. The heat energy propagates like this
throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established
a temperature gradient exists across the medium. In case of
non-metals atoms and molecules are responsible for the
phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in
conductors, hence; conduction is greater them. Since particles
of solid medium are closely packed, the dominant mode of
heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of
conduction is that the temperature gradient is uniform with

3
respect to time and that the length of the material is constant
however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality,
both length and temperature gradient are time variant.
Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides as thermal
equilibrium is reached.

Convection

Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when

the bulk velocity of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat
transfer phenomenon cause by the perceptible motion of fluid.
The most common example of convective heat transfer would
be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another
phenomenon that exists due to convection is the boiling of
water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular bulk
motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

4
Radiation

Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies

via electromagnetic waves. This form of heat transfer requires
no medium and can even take place in a vacuum. A good
instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure
6

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Heat Exchanger

Heat exchangers are devices used to efficiently transmit heat

from one fluid to another. Heat exchangers are used in various
different applications and are of great importance. Air
conditioner, refrigerators, car engines and radiators would be
incompete without heat exchangers. Heat excahngers can be
categorized on various different basis. One of these categories
is theflow configuration inside a heat exchanger. Based on flow
configurations heat exchangers can be divided into the
5
 following categories

Cross Flow

Cross flow heat exchangers have the fkuids flowing in direction

opposite to each other. If one fluid is moving from left to right
the other fluid will be moving from right to left or vice versa

Counter flow

Counter flow heat exchangers have the fluids moving at 90

degrees to each other. An example of such a type of heat
exchanger would be the shell and tube heat exchanger

Parallel flow

Parallel flow heat exchangers are the most basic type of heat
exchangers. In this type of heat exchanger both the fluids are
moving in the same direction with respect to each other. The
heat exchangers have the lowest efficiency and are generally
avoided.
The different types of flow configurations are summarized in
the figure below.

Figure 5: Various types of heat exchanger configurations. From left to right: cross-
flow, parallelflow, counterflow

6
Other types of heat exchangers can be categorized based on
their configuration. These would include

1. shell and tube heat exchanger

2. tube in tube heat exchanger
3. Double pipe heat exchanger
4. Direct and indirect heat exchanger
5. Plate heat exchanger
6. Pillow heat exchanger
7. Finned heat exchanger
8. Phase change heat exchanger

Figure 6: Shell and Tube heat exchanger

Apparatus

1. Concentric tube heat exchanger

7
 Figure 7: Experimental Apparatus

Experimental Procedure

1. Turn on the apparatus and leave it for some time so that

tank temperature gets stabilized.
2. Now start by reading the manual provided on the device
and setup the device for parallel flow by moving the taps
provided.
3. Adjust the water flow rate to an arbitrary value.
4. Turn on the hot and cold water taps for beginning the pro-
cess.
5. Now wait for further 10 to 15 mins for the water flow to get
stabilized.

8
 6. Now take the readings from labelled thermometer for var-
ious data points which will be calculated in the next part
of this document.
7. You can change the volume flow rates to take readings for
different tank temperatures.

Observations and Calculation

Observations are tabulated below in table 1

Table 1: temperate at various points along the heat exchanger

Flow Rate (L/min) Temperature (°C)
Hot Water Cold Water T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
4 2.5 47 41 24 32 44 28
4 2.2 45 39 26 32 43 28
4 1.8 44 38 26 34 42 29

A sample calculation is as follows:

Q = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
here T will be T1 and T2 for Qa and T3 and T4 for Qe
Qa = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
Qe = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
Qa = 995 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 4.18 ∗ 12
Qe = 995 ∗ 1 ∗ 4.18 ∗ 8
9
 Qa = 998
Qe = 991
ef f = 60.4

Results

The results for are tabulated below in Table 2,

Table 2: Overall efficiency of the parallel flow heat exchanger

Qe (W) Qa (W) E
1672 1393.333 83.33333
1672 919.6 55
1672 1003.2 60

Discussion

The heat exchanger under current study is a parallel flow heat

exchanger. In a parallel flow heat excahnger the flows of heat
and cold fluid are both parallel to each other. Their
temperatures therefore, do not converge throughout the length
of the heat exchanger to a single point. Heat exchanger
efficiencies nowadays can range as high as 90% or even higher.
The efficiency obtained via the use of parallel flow heat are
10
 generally lesser than those obtain by cross flow heat
exchangers. Maximum efficiency recorded was 83%. Variation
of temperature inside the heat exchanger with respect to unit
length is showcased in the figure below.

Figure 8: Temperature along unit length of the heat exchanger tube

Conclusion

Parallel flow heat exchangers are important devices that found

numerous application in industry. Maximum efficiency
achieved in this experiment was recorded to 83 % for the
parallel flow heat exchanger which is an excellent efficiency for

11
a parallel flow heat exchanger.

12
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 9
To perform an energy balance and calculate overall efficiency
of concentric tube heat exchanger in cross flow conditions at
different flow rates

Introduction
Heat exchangers are important heat transfer devices and find various uses in day
to day life. Air conditioners, refrigeratore, car radiators all use heat exchangers. A
cross flow heat exchanger is one in which the flow of cold and hot fluid is in a single
direction.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate heat transfer in a parallel heat exchanger

2. To calculate the efficiency of a parallel flow heat exchanger.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 1

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 4

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are devices used to efficiently transmit heat from one fluid to another.
Heat exchangers are used in various different applications and are of great importance.
Air conditioner, refrigerators, car engines and radiators would be incompete without
heat exchangers. Heat excahngers can be categorized on various different basis. One
of these categories is theflow configuration inside a heat exchanger. Based on flow
configurations heat exchangers can be divided into the following categories

Cross Flow

Cross flow heat exchangers have the fkuids flowing in direction opposite to each other.
If one fluid is moving from left to right the other fluid will be moving from right to
left or vice versa

Counter flow

Counter flow heat exchangers have the fluids moving at 90 degrees to each other. An
example of such a type of heat exchanger would be the shell and tube heat exchanger

4
Parallel flow

Parallel flow heat exchangers are the most basic type of heat exchangers. In this type
of heat exchanger both the fluids are moving in the same direction with respect to
each other. The heat exchangers have the lowest efficiency and are generally avoided.
The different type of flow configurations are visual

Figure 5: Various types of heat exchanger configurations. From left to right: cross-
flow, parallelflow, counterflow

Other types of heat exchangers can be categorized based on their configuration. These
would include

1. shell and tube heat exchanger

2. tube in tube heat exchanger

3. Double pipe heat exchanger

4. Direct and indirect heat exchanger

5. Plate heat exchanger

6. Pillow heat exchanger

7. Finned heat exchanger

8. Phase change heat exchanger

Figure 6: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

5
Apparatus
1. Concentric tube heat exchanger

Figure 7: Experimental Apparatus

Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the apparatus and leave it for some time so that tank temperature gets
stabilized.
2. Now start by reading the manual provided on the device and setup the device
for parallel flow by moving the taps provided.
3. Adjust the water flow rate to an arbitrary value.
4. Turn on the hot and cold water taps for beginning the process.
5. Now wait for further 10 to 15 mins for the water flow to get stabilized.
6. Now take the readings from labelled thermometer for various data points which
will be calculated in the next part of this document.

6
 7. You can change the volume flow rates to take readings for different tank tem-
peratures.

Observations and Calculation

Observations are tabulated below in table 1

Table 1: Temperature observed along various points of the heat exchanger

Flow Rate (L/min) Temperature (°C)
Hot Water Cold Water T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
4 2.5 47 41 24 32 44 28
4 2.2 45 39 26 32 43 28
4 1.8 44 38 26 34 42 29

A sample calculation is as follows:

Q = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
here T will be T1 and T2 for Qa and T3 and T4 for Qe Qa = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
Qe = ṁ ∗ cp ∗ ∆T
Qa = 154 ∗ 1.5 ∗ 4.18 ∗ 12
Qe = 109 ∗ 1 ∗ 4.18 ∗ 8
Qa = 334
Qe = 209
ef f = 72.19

Results
The results for convective heat transfer coefficients are tabulated below in Table 2,

7
 Table 2: Overall Efficiency of the heat exchanger

Qe (W) Qa (W) E
668.8 487.667 72.91667
919.6 696.667 75.75758
724.5333 627 86.53846

Discussion
The heat exchanger under current study is a cross flow heat exchanger. In a cross
flow heat excahnger the flows of heat and cold fluid are both opposite to each other.
Heat exchanger efficiencies nowadays can range as high as 90% or even higher. The
efficiency obtained via the use of parallel flow heat exchanger is acceptable. Maximum
efficiency recorded was 86.5%. This efficiency is greater than the maximum recorded
efficiency of the parallel flow heat exchanger. The overall efficiency of the crossflow
heat exchanger was also seen to be better than the parallel flow heat exchanger.
Temperature gradient of the heat exchanger fluids has been plotted in the figure
below

8
 Figure 8: Temperature along unit length of the heat exchanger tube

Conclusion
Cross flow heat exchangers are important devices that found numerous application
in industry. Maximum efficiency achieved in this experiment was recorded to 86 %
for the parallel flow heat exchanger which is an excellent efficiency for a parallel flow
heat exchanger. The overall efficiency as well as the maximum efficiency of the cross
flow heat exchanger was found to be better than the efficiency of the parallel flow
heat exchanger

9
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 10
Visual Demonstration of Convective, Nucleate and Film
Boiling

Introduction
The theme of this experiment is to study the various forms of boiling. These forms of
boiling arise due to the phase, density and surface tension difference that is brought
upon by the boiling. The procedure of boiling starts with convective boiling, in
which convection currents create circulation of hot and cold fluid. This is followed
by nucleate boiling in which small bubbles of steam escape the fluid and break away
from its surface. Film boiling occurs at extremely high temperatures when the boiling
process produces a layer of steam between the fluid and the heat source and the heat
cannot be transfered effectively due to there being a layer of steam blocking itk.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate heat transfer in a parallel heat exchanger

2. To calculate the efficiency of a parallel flow heat exchanger.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 6

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 4

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Boiling Regimes
Whether the boiling phenomenon corresponds to pool boiling or forced circulation
boiling, there are three definite regimes of boiling associated with progressively in-
creasing heat flux. A rise in the slope of the curve indicates an increasing heat flux
with increasing temperature excess and the boiling regime is stable. When the slope
decreases, the boiling regime is unstable and must be avoided. The figure depicting
the various regimes of boiling is shown below

Figure 5: The various regions of Boiling depicted graphically

4
interface boiling
The boiling takes place in a thin layer of liquid which adjoins the heated surface. The
liquid in the immediate vicinity of the wall becomes superheated, i.e., temperature of
the liquid exceeds the saturation temperature at the given pressure. The superheated
liquid rises to the liquid-vapor interface where evaporation takes place. The fluid
motion is determined primarily by free convection effects. The heat transfer rate
increases, but gradually, with growth in a temperature excess.

Nucleate boiling
When the liquid is overheated in relation to saturation temperature, vapor bubbles
are formed at certain favorable spots called the nucleation or active sites; these may
be the wall surface irregularities, air bubbles and the particles of dust. The bubbles
grow to certain size influenced by pressure, temperature and surface tension at the
liquid-vapor interface. The vaeious stages of nucleate boiling is accurately depicted
by the figure below

Figure 6: The various stages of Nucleate boiling labelled from 1 to 8

Film Boiling
The bubble formation is very rapid; the bubbles blanket the heating surface and
prevent the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. Eventually the bubbles
coalesce and form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Insulating effect
of the vapour film (its low thermal conductivity) overshadows the beneficial effect
of liquid agitation and consequently the heat flux drops with growth in temperature
excess. Within the temperature range 50 to 150, conditions oscillate between nucleate
and film boiling and this phase is referred to as transition boiling, unstable film boiling
or partial film boiling. Eventually the temperature differences are so large that radiant
heat-flux becomes significant, rather controlling factor and the heat flux curve begins

5
to rise upward with increasing temperature excess. That marks the region of stable
film boiling.

Critical Heat Flux

Critical Heat Flux – Burnout Point: The maximum heat flux is called the critical heat
flux and the corresponding temperature excess is termed as the critical temperature
difference. For water evaporating at atmospheric pressure, the burnout occurs at
temperature excess slightly above 55 K and has heat flux of the order of 1.58 ×
106 W/m2. The boiling process remains in the unstable state beyond the burnout
point A until situation corresponds to point B on the boiling curve. An increase
in the temperature excess beyond burnout is accompanied by decrease in the heat
transfer capability of the surface. The result is a continued increase in the surface
temperature. At point B an equilibrium is established between the energy input
into the surface and the heat flux away from the surface. The boiling conditions get
stabilized but then the surface temperature has already become very large. And if
the surface temperature exceeds the temperature limit of the wall material, burnout
(structural damage and failure) of the wall occurs.

Apparatus
1. Boiling heat transfer unit H655

Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the main supply to the apparatus

2. Slightly increase the value of power after waiting for a few minutes.

3. Increase the power and visualize the physical phenomena of boiling.

4. Identify the various regions of boiling and the transition between them

6
 Figure 7: Experimental Apparatus

Results and Discussion

The different regions of boiling can be distinguished from one another from the phys-
ical response of the system. The process of boiling starts with convective boiling.
There are no bubbles but heat is displaced throughout the fluid by currents. As the
process of boiling furthers the region of nucleate boiling is encountered. In film boil-
ing a film of vapor is formed on top of the fluid which halts further heat from moving
towards the fluid by convection.

Conclusion
Study of the various phases of boiling allows us to better identify boiling regions and
optimize the process of heat transfer by phase change or specifically, by boiling. By
studying the various phases of boiling we can change the correct phase or avoid the
wrong phase of boiling for us. The various phases of boiling also show that a higher
temperature does not necessitate a higher rate of boiling.

7
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 11
To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient at constant
pressure for the various phases of boiling.

Introduction
The theme of this experiment is to study the various forms of boiling. These forms of
boiling arise due to the phase, density and surface tension difference that is brought
upon by the boiling. The procedure of boiling starts with convective boiling, in
which convection currents create circulation of hot and cold fluid. This is followed
by nucleate boiling in which small bubbles of steam escape the fluid and break away
from its surface. Film boiling occurs at extremely high temperatures when the boiling
process produces a layer of steam between the fluid and the heat source and the heat
cannot be transfered effectively due to there being a layer of steam blocking itk.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate heat transfer in a parallel heat exchanger

2. To calculate the efficiency of a parallel flow heat exchanger.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 8

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 4

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Boiling Regimes
Whether the boiling phenomenon corresponds to pool boiling or forced circulation
boiling, there are three definite regimes of boiling associated with progressively in-
creasing heat flux. A rise in the slope of the curve indicates an increasing heat flux
with increasing temperature excess and the boiling regime is stable. When the slope
decreases, the boiling regime is unstable and must be avoided. The figure depicting
the various regimes of boiling is shown below

Figure 5: The various regions of Boiling depicted graphically

4
interface boiling
The boiling takes place in a thin layer of liquid which adjoins the heated surface. The
liquid in the immediate vicinity of the wall becomes superheated, i.e., temperature of
the liquid exceeds the saturation temperature at the given pressure. The superheated
liquid rises to the liquid-vapor interface where evaporation takes place. The fluid
motion is determined primarily by free convection effects. The heat transfer rate
increases, but gradually, with growth in a temperature excess.

Nucleate boiling
When the liquid is overheated in relation to saturation temperature, vapor bubbles
are formed at certain favorable spots called the nucleation or active sites; these may
be the wall surface irregularities, air bubbles and the particles of dust. The bubbles
grow to certain size influenced by pressure, temperature and surface tension at the
liquid-vapor interface. The vaeious stages of nucleate boiling is accurately depicted
by the figure below

Figure 6: The various stages of Nucleate boiling labelled from 1 to 8

Film Boiling
The bubble formation is very rapid; the bubbles blanket the heating surface and
prevent the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. Eventually the bubbles
coalesce and form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Insulating effect
of the vapour film (its low thermal conductivity) overshadows the beneficial effect
of liquid agitation and consequently the heat flux drops with growth in temperature
excess. and this phase is referred to as transition boiling, unstable film boiling or
partial film boiling. Eventually the temperature differences are so large that radiant
heat-flux becomes significant, rather controlling factor and the heat flux curve begins

5
to rise upward with increasing temperature excess. That marks the region of stable
film boiling.

Critical Heat Flux

Critical Heat Flux – Burnout Point: The maximum heat flux is called the critical heat
flux and the corresponding temperature excess is termed as the critical temperature
difference. For water evaporating at atmospheric pressure, the burnout occurs at
temperature excess slightly above 55 K and has heat flux of the order of 1.58 ×
106 W/m2. The boiling process remains in the unstable state beyond the burnout
point A until situation corresponds to point B on the boiling curve. An increase
in the temperature excess beyond burnout is accompanied by decrease in the heat
transfer capability of the surface. The result is a continued increase in the surface
temperature. At point B an equilibrium is established between the energy input
into the surface and the heat flux away from the surface. The boiling conditions get
stabilized but then the surface temperature has already become very large. And if
the surface temperature exceeds the temperature limit of the wall material, burnout
(structural damage and failure) of the wall occurs.

Apparatus
1. Boiling heat transfer unit H655

Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the main supply to the apparatus
2. Slightly increase the value of power after waiting for a few minutes.
3. Increase the power and visualize the physical phenomena of boiling.
4. Identify the various regions of boiling and the transition between them

Experimental results
Results obtained from this experiment are tabulated in the tables below

6
 Figure 7: Experimental Apparatus

Table 1: for 20 psi pressure

Heat input flow rate LT MT Flux del T h
146 2 34 53 7684.211 19 404.4321
205 10.5 33 55 10789.47 22 490.4306
266 7 32 56 14000 24 583.3333
282 7.5 34 58 14842.11 24 618.4211

Discussion
The different regions of boiling can be distinguished from one another from the phys-
ical response of the system. The process of boiling starts with convective boiling.
There are no bubbles but heat is displaced throughout the fluid by currents. As the
process of boiling furthers the region of nucleate boiling is encountered. In film boil-
ing a film of vapor is formed on top of the fluid which halts further heat from moving
towards the fluid by convection.
The graphs obtained for the values above terminate before entering the nucleate
boiling region. They only cover both the film boiling region and part of the nucleate
boiling region. If further readings had been taken it would have been possible to
reach point A.

7
 Table 2: for 40 psi pressure
Heat input (W) flow rate (L/min) LT (deg C) MT (deg C) Flux (W/m2 ) del T (deg C) h (W/m2 K)
115 1 39 56 6052.632 17 356.0372
155 1 38 57 8157.895 19 429.3629
200 4 40 61.5 10526.32 21.5 489.5961
255 2 38 61 13421.05 23 583.524

Figure 8: Boiling heat transfer graph obtained for pressure 20 and 40 psi

Conclusion
Study of the various phases of boiling allows us to better identify boiling regions and
optimize the process of heat transfer by phase change or specifically, by boiling. By
studying the various phases of boiling we can change the correct phase or avoid the
wrong phase of boiling for us. The various phases of boiling also show that a higher
temperature does not necessitate a higher rate of boiling.

8
 Heat and Mass Transfer Lab
Lab Report no. 12
Investigation of Radiation Intensity through Sensor Distance
Variation

Introduction
Radiation plays an important role not only in science and engineering but in our ev-
eryday life. common house heaters are usually radiators, and the load of fenestration
plays an important role in describing the maximum cooling load of a house. Learning
the effect of distance from radiation source is of paramount importance since home
heaters have an effective range and knowing the intensity at that range is important
in ensuring that a heater can heat up a whole room.

Objectives
The objectives of this experiment performance are

1. To observe and investigate heat transfer in a parallel heat exchanger

2. To calculate the efficiency of a parallel flow heat exchanger.

Theory

Heat
Heat is a form of energy transferred between two bodies only when a thermal gradient
exists between them. The direction of heat transfer is such that it transfers from
bodies at higher temperature to bodies at lower temperature

1
Temperature Gradient
Increment or decrement of temperature along a certain direction is defined as the
temperature gradient in that direction. A consequence of Fourier’s Law of conduction
is that heat transfer between two bodies occurs only when a temperature gradient
exists between them. Temperature gradient is graphically depicted in figure 1

Figure 1: Temperature gradient in a bar heated at one end

Conduction
Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which heat transfers between atoms or
molecules of a substance via collision brought upon by their internal energy. The
phenomenon of conduction is better showcased via figure 2. Heat travels throughout
the metal rod which is exposed to fire at one end

Figure 2: The phenomenon of Conduction in a metal rod

Heat is transferred when adjacent atoms vibrate and collide with neighboring atoms
transferring thermal energy they have in the process. The heat energy propagates
like this throughout the medium. Before an equilibrium is established a temperature

2
gradient exists across the medium. In case of non-metals atoms and molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon but in the case of conductors, free electrons are
the majority heat carriers. There exists a pool of electrons in conductors, hence;
conduction is greater them. Since particles of solid medium are closely packed, the
dominant mode of heat transfer within a solid material is conduction.
A common assumption used in the steady state analysis of conduction is that the tem-
perature gradient is uniform with respect to time and that the length of the material
is constant however both of these assumption are ideal and in reality, both length and
temperature gradient are time variant. Ultimately the temperature gradient subsides
as thermal equilibrium is reached.

Convection
Convective heat transfer occurs between fluids and solids when the bulk velocity
of fluids is non zero. It is a macroscopic heat transfer phenomenon cause by the
perceptible motion of fluid. The most common example of convective heat transfer
would be the phenomenon of evaporative cooling. Another phenomenon that exists
due to convection is the boiling of water in a kettle. Heat is transported via molecular
bulk motion as represented in figure 3

Figure 3: The phenomenon of Convection in a tea kettle

Radiation
Radiative heat transfer is the heat transfer between two bodies via electromagnetic
waves. This form of heat transfer requires no medium and can even take place in

3
a vacuum. A good instance of radiative heat transfer would be solar energy. Heat
transfer due to radiations by a campfire is showcased in figure 5

Figure 4: Radiative heat transfer due to a camp fire

Radiation intensity
Radiation intensity can be defined as the amount of radiation being received per unit
area. Greater the radiation intensity greater is the amount of heat radiation being re-
ceived per unit area. The intensity of the radiation depends on the physical properties
of the material such as its shape and its emsissivity. The laws for radiation intensity
are governed by the stefan Boltzmann law which states that Radiation intensity is
the fourth power of temperature of the radiating body

Sensor
A sensor is a measuremment device used to measure a certain quantity. Sensor may be
electrical or mechancial or they may be electromechanical. Sensor play an important
role in everyday life and can be found in almost any electronic device or gadget these
days. Modern sensors are equipped with electronics and can transmit results direct
to a computer screen or store them in a hard drive memory. Modern sensors have
built in filters and can filter data with ease reducing the error in them and increasing
their accuracy.

4
Apparatus
1. Radiation heat unit

2. Sensor

Experimental Procedure
1. Turn on the main supply to the apparatus.

2. Wait for the heat source to get to steady state.

3. measure the intensity of the heat source with the sensor

4. move the sensor away from the source and take another reading. Repeat to
complete the experiment.

Results and Discussion

The results obtained are tabulated below

Table 1: Radiation intensity variation with distance (Values of the radiation intensity
have been scaled by a factor of 20)
distance (cm) Radiation intensity (W/m2 )
5 1850
10 1387
15 1102
20 791
25 680
30 555
35 489

As the distance is increased the radiation intensity decreases. However, the radiation
intensity does not decrease linearly but decreases as a logarithmic function of distance.
This can be better explained by the figure below.

5
 Figure 5: variation of radiation intensity with distance

It is evident from the graph that the relationship is not linear but logarithmic and
the value approaches a set minimum at some point from where on if the distance to
the source is increased the temperature of the body or the radiation intensity falling
on it will remain unchanged.

Conclusion
The importance of understanding the relationship between radiation intensity and
distance is of paramount importance. The radiation intensity varies with the loga-
rithm of distance, and as the distance d is increased from the radiative source the
radiation intensity is decreased logarithmically. Variation of Radiation intensity with
distance is of prime importance for application such as heaters whose effective range
needs to assessed precisely to know whether it would be able to heat up the room it
has been set in or not.