JTO(T) to SDE(T) Broadband Module

Chapter-17
Local Area Network LAN
Course Contents
 Different topologies of Computers connectivity
 Various Network types
 Various network connecting devices
 LAN Architecture

Objectives
After studying this module on Local Networking and the various network connecting
devices, participants are able to join and understand the networking devices

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2.1 Introduction
Networking means interconnection of computers. These computers can be linked
together for different purposes and using a variety of different cabling types.
The basic reasons why computers need to be networked are :
 To share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines etc.)
 To share application software (MS Office, Adobe Publisher etc.)
 To increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users)
As long as all user computers are connected via a network, they can share their files,
exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and print documents all from any point of the
network.
Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LAN). A LAN is a network
allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical characteristics of a LAN
are :
 Physically limited distance (< 2km)
 High bandwidth (> 1mbps)
 Inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
 Data and hardware sharing between users owned by the user
The factors that determine the nature of a LAN are :
1. Topology
2. Transmission medium
3. Medium access control technique
2.2 LAN Architecture

The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the architecture of a LAN,
wherein each layer represents the basic functions of a LAN.
2.2.1 Protocol Architecture
The Protocols defined for LAN transmission address issues relating to the
transmission of blocks of data over the network. In the context of OSI model, higher layer
protocols (layer 3 or 4 and above) are independent of network architecture and are not
applicable to LAN. Therefore LAN protocols are concerned primarily with the lower layers of
the OSI model.

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A protocol establishes the rules and encoding specifications for sending data. This
defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the data should
take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination.
Protocols also define procedures for determining the type of error checking that will be
used, the data compression method, if one is needed, how the sending device will indicate
that it has finished sending a message, how the receiving device will indicate that it has
received a message, and the handling of lost or damaged transmissions or “packets”.
Figure 1 relates the LAN protocols to the OSI model. This architecture has been
developed by the IEEE 802 committee

OSI Reference Model

Application

IEEE 802
Presentation Reference
Model )LLC Service
Session Access Point
~ Upper
layer
~ (LSAP

Transport protocols

Network
() () ()
Logical Link
Control Scope of
Data Link IEEE 802
Medium Standards
access control

Physical Physical

Medium Medium

Figure 1: IEEE 802 Protocol Layers compared to OSI

The lowest layer of the IEEE 802 reference model corresponds to the physical layer
of the OSI model, and includes the following functions:

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Encoding/ decoding of signals
Preamble generation/ removal (for synchronization)
Bit transmission/ reception
The physical layer of the 802 model also includes a specification for the transmission
medium and the topology.
The functions associated with providing service to the LAN users comprise:
1. MAC 2. LLC
Functions of MAC are:-
 Assembling data into a frame with address and error-detection fields for onward
transmission.
 Disassemble frame, perform address recognition and error detection during
reception.
 Supervise and control the access to the LAN transmission medium.
Functions of LLC are:-
 Provide an interface to the higher layers and perform flow control and error control.
The separation is done for the following reasons:
 The logic and mechanism required to manage access to a shared- access medium is
not found in the conventional layer-2 data link control.
 For the same LLC, different MAC options may be provided.
Different standards are illustrated in Table 1. Most of the standards were developed
by a committee known as IEEE 802, All of these standards have subsequently been
adopted as international standards by the ISO

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Table 1 IEEE802.2 Standard

LAN Topologies

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers,

and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which
is the method used to pass information between workstations

The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, and star. The bus is a special
case of the tree, with only one trunk and no branches.

Bus Topology: Sometimes referred to as linear-bus topology, Bus is a simple design

that utilizes a single length of cable, also known as the medium, with directly attached LAN
stations through TAP. All stations share this cable segment. Every station on this segment
sees transmissions from every other station on the cable segment; this is known as a

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broadcast medium. The LAN attachment stations are definite endpoints to the cable
segment and are known as bus network termination points to avoid reflection.
a) Bus Network Topology.

Figure 2: Bus Network Topology

Working principle:
Stations transmit data in small blocks, known as frames. Each frame consists of a
portion of data that a station wishes to transmit, plus a frame header that contains control
information. Each station on the bus is assigned a unique address, or identifier, and the
destination address for a frame is included in its header.
This is illustrated in the below given figure.

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Figure 3: Frame Transmission on a Bus LAN

b) Tree Topology: The tree topology is a logical extension of the bus topology
and could be described as multiple interconnected bus networks. The physical (cable) plant
is known as a branching tree with all stations attached to it with no closed loops . The tree
begins at the root, the pinnacle point, and expands to the network endpoints. This topology
allows a network to expand dynamically with only one active data path between any two
network endpoints.
Advantages of a Tree Topology
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
 Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Figure 4: Tree topology

c) Ring Topology : In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can
take down the entire network.

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To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring
technology

Figure 5:Ring topology

In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to
point links in a closed loop. Each station is attached to the network at a repeater and can
transmit data onto the network through that repeater.
As a frame circulates past all other stations, the destination station recognises its
address and copies the frame into a local buffer as it goes by. The frame continues to
circulate until it reaches the source station, where it is ultimately removed
Because multiple stations share the ring , medium access control is needed to
determine when each station may insert frames.
C
C

B
A
B A

A A
(a) C transmits a frame (c) A copies the frame
addressed to A as it goes by

C
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Figure-6 Frame Transmission on a Ring LAN

d) Star Topology
In the Star type topology, each station is directly connected to a common central
node. Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via
two point-to point links, one for transmission in each direction.
There are two alternatives for the operation of the central node :
One method is for the central node to operate in a broadcast fashion.
Another method is for the central node to act as a frame switching device. An
incoming frame is buffered in the node and then retransmitted on an outgoing link to the
destination station.

Figure 7: Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology
 Easy to install and wire.
 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
 Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

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 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the
concentrators.
 The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk.
2.3 Medium Access Control
Some means of controlling access to the transmission medium is needed to provide
for an orderly and efficient use of network’s transmission capacity. This is the function of
medium access control (MAC) protocol.
There are two areas for MAC
Where and
How to implement MAC in a LAN.
Where refers to whether control is in a centralized or distributed fashion.
In a centralized scheme, a controller is designated that has the authority to grant
access to the network. A station wishing to transmit must wait until it receives permissions
from the controller.
In a decentralized network, each station collectively performs a medium access
control function to dynamically determine the order in which stations transmit
how, is determined by the topology and is a trade-off among competing factors such
as- including cost, performance, and complexity
Access control techniques could follow the same approach used in circuit switching,
viz. frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and synchronous time-division multiplexing
(TDM). It is desirable to allocate capacity in an asynchronous (dynamic) fashion,. The
asynchronous approach can be further subdivided into three categories: round robin,
reservation and contention.

2.3.1 Round Robin

With Round robin, each station in turn is given an opportunity to transmit. During
that period, the station may decline to transmit or may transmit subject to a specified upper
bound, usually expressed as a maximum amount of data transmitted or time for this
opportunity. In any case, the station, when it is finished, relinquishes its turn, and the right
to transmit passes to the next station in logical sequence.
Control of this sequence may be centralized or distributed. Polling is an example of a
centralized technique.

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2.3.2 Reservation
For stream traffic, reservation techniques are well suited. In general, for these
techniques, time on the medium is divided into slots, similar to synchronous TDM. A station
wanting to transmit, reserves future slots for an extended or even an indefinite period.
Again, reservations may be made in a centralized or distributed manner.
2.3.3 Contention
For bursty traffic, contention techniques are more appropriate. With these
techniques, no control is required to determine whose turn it is; all stations contend for
time. These techniques are by nature distributed. Their principal advantage is that they are
simple to implement and, under light to moderate load, quite efficient. For some of these
techniques, however, performance tends to collapse under heavy load

Standardized Medium Access Control Techniques

Table 2

Bus Topology Ring Topology Switched

Topology

Round Robin Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) Token Ring Request/

(IEEE 802.5 & FDDI) Priority
Polling (IEEE 802.11)
(IEEE 802.12)

Reservation DQDB (IEEE 802.6) - -

Contention CSMA/CD (IEEE 802.3) - CSMA/CD

(IEEE 802.3)
CSMA (IEEE 802.11)

2.4 MAC Frame Format

The MAC layer receives a block of data from the LLC layer and is responsible for
performing functions related to medium access and for transmitting the data. MAC
implements these functions, by making use of protocol data unit at its layer; in this case, the
PDU is referred to as a MAC frame.

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The exact format of the MAC frame differs for the various MAC protocols in use. In
general, all of the MAC frames have a format similar to that of Figure 6. The fields of this
frame are :
a) MAC control : This field contains any protocol control information needed for the
functioning of the MAC protocol. For example, a priority level could be indicated
here.
b) Destination MAC Address : The destination physical attachment point on the LAN
for this frame.
c) Source MAC address : The source physical attachment point on the LAN for this
frame.
MAC
MAC Destination Source MAC
Frame LLC PDU CRC
control MAC Address
Address

1 octet 1 or 2 Variable

LLC
PDU DSAP SSAP LLC control Information

I/G DSAP value C/R SSAP

value

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Figure 8: LLC PDU with generic MAC Frame format
d) LLC : The LLC Data from the next higher layer.
e) CRC : The cyclic redundancy check field ( also known as the frame check
sequence, FCS, field). This is an error-detecting code, as we have seen in HDLC and other
data link control protocols
The MAC layer is responsible for detecting errors and discarding any frames that are
in error. The LLC layer optionally keeps track of which frames have been successfully
received and retransmits unsuccessful frames.
2.4.1 LLC Services
LLC specifies the mechanism for addressing stations across the medium and for
controlling the exchange of data between two users. The operation and format of this
standard is based on HDLC. Three services are provided as alternatives for devices using
LLC:
a) Unacknowledged connection-less service. This service is a datagram-style service. It
is a very simple service that does not involve any of the flow control and error
control mechanisms. Thus the delivery of a data is not guaranteed. However, in most
devices, there will be some higher layer of software that deals with reliability issues.
b) Connection-mode service. This service is similar to that offered by HDLC. A logical
connection is set up between the two users exchanging data, and flow control and
error control are provided.
c) Acknowledged connection-less service. This is a cross between the previous two
services. It provides that datagram are to be acknowledged, but no prior logical
connection is set up.
2.5 Ethernet And Fast Ethernet (CSMA/ CD)
The most commonly used medium access control technique for bus/ tree and star
topologies is carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). The Ethernet
specification performs the same functions as the OSI physical and Data Link Layer of data
communications. This design is the basis of IEEE’s 802.3 specification.
2.5.1 Ethernet Features
Ethernet media is passive which means it draws power from the computer and thus
will not fail unless the media is physically cut or improperly terminated.
The following list summarizes Ethernet features :
Traditional topology Linear Bus
Other Topologies Star Bus
Type of Architecture Baseband

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Access Method CSMA/ CD
Specifications IEEE 802.3
Transfer Speed 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps
Cable Types Thicknet, Thinnet, UTP
IEEE 802.3 Medium Access Control
2.5.2 Description of CSMA/ CD
CSMA, although more efficient, still has one glaring inefficiency, when two frames
collide, the medium remains unusable for the duration of transmission of both damaged
frames. For long frames, compared to propagation time, the amount of wasted capacity can
be considerable. This waste can be reduced if a station continues to listen to the medium
while transmitting.
This leads to the following rules for CSMA/ CD :
If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise, go to step 2.
If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is idle, then transmit
immediately. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief jamming signal to
assure that all stations know that there has been a collision and then cease transmission.
After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of time, then attempt
to transmit again. (Repeat from step 1.)
Figure below illustrates the techniques for a baseband bus. At time t0, station A
begins transmitting a packet addressed to D. At t1, both B and C are ready to transmit. B
senses a transmission and so defers. C, however, is still unaware of A’s transmission and
begins its own transmission. When A’s transmission reaches C, at t2, C detects the collision
and cases transmission. The effect of the collision propagates back to A, where it is detected
some time later, t3, at which time A ceases transmission.
With CSMA/CD, the amount of wasted capacity is reduced to the time it takes to
detect a collision. Question : how long does that take? Let us consider the first case of a
baseband bus and consider the two stations as far apart as possible. For example, in the
above figure, suppose that station A begins a transmission and that just before that
transmission reaches D, D is ready to transmit. Because D is not yet aware of A’s
transmission, it begins to transmit. A collision occurs almost immediately and is recognized
by D. However, the collision must propagate all the way back to A before A is aware of the
collision.t0 By this line of reasoning, we conclude that the amount of time that it takes to
detect a collision is no greater than twice the end-to-end propagation delay
A B C D

t1

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Figure 9: CSMA/ CD operation

2.6 BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS
There are a number of components which are used to build networks. An
understanding of these is essential in order to support networks.

2.6.1 Network Adapter Cards

A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing the connection to the
network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and support a wide
variety of cable media and bus types such as - ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, PCMCIA.

New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure the
resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP (plug and Play), which automatically
configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying the installation. With
an operating system like Windows 95, auto-detection of new hardware makes network
connections simple and quick.
2.6.2 Cabling
Cables are used to interconnect computers and network components together.
There are 3 main cable types used today :
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial
 Fibre optic
The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors like:
 cost
 distance
 number of computers involved
 speed
 bandwidth i.e. how fast data is to be transferred

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2.6.3 Repeaters
Repeaters extend the network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received
from one segment and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance
limitations of network cabling to be extended. There are limits on the number of repeaters
which can be used. The repeater counts as a single node in the maximum node count
associated with the Ethernet standard (30 for thin coax).
Repeaters also allow isolation of segments in the event of failures or fault
conditions. Disconnecting one side of a repeater effectively isolates the associated
segments from the network.
Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network distance limitations. It
does not give you any more bandwidth or allow you to transmit data faster.

a) Use of Repeaters in a Network

It should be noted that, the network number assigned to the main network segment
and the network number assigned to the other side of the repeater are the same. In
addition, the traffic generated on one segment is propagated onto the other segment. This
causes a rise in the total amount of traffic, so if the network segments are already heavily
loaded, it's not a good idea to use a repeater.
A repeater works at the Physical Layer by simply repeating all data from one
segment to another.
b) Summary of Repeater features :
 increases traffic on segments
 have distance limitations
 limitations on the number of repeaters that can be used
 propagate errors in the network
 cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
 cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
 no traffic isolation or filtering is possible
2.6.4 HUBS
There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or combiners that
group workstations into a single segment, whereas active hubs include a repeater function
and are thus capable of supporting many more connections.

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Nowadays, with the advent of 10BaseT, hub concentrators are being very popular.
These are very sophisticated and offer significant features which make them radically
different from the older hubs which were available during the 1980's. These 10BaseT hubs
provide each client with exclusive access to the full bandwidth, unlike bus networks where
the bandwidth is shared. Each workstation plugs into a separate port, which runs at 10
Mbps and is for the exclusive use of that workstation, thus there is no contention to worry
about like in Ethernet.
In standard Ethernet, all stations are connected to the same network segment in bus
configuration. Traffic on the bus is controlled using CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
protocol, and all stations share the available bandwidth.

BACKPLANE

PORT 1 PORT 2 PORT 3 PORT 4

Figure 10 : HUB

a) Connecting Workstations to a Hub

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10BaseT Hubs dedicate the entire bandwidth to each port (workstation). The W/S
attach to the Hub using UTP. The Hub provides a number of ports, which are logically
combined using a single backplane, which often runs at a much higher data rate than that of
the ports.
Ports can also be buffered, to allow packets to be held in case the hub or port is
busy. And, because each workstation has its own port, it does not contend with other
workstations for access, having the entire bandwidth available for its exclusive use.
The ports on a hub all appear as one Ethernet segment. In addition, hubs can be
stacked or cascaded (using master/ slave configurations) together, to add more ports per
segment. As hubs do not count as repeaters, this is a better solution for adding more
workstations than the use of a repeater.
Hub options also include an SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) agent.
This allows the use of network management software to remotely administer and configure
the hub.
Advantages of the newer 10 BaseT hubs are :
 Each port has exclusive access to its bandwidth (no CSMA/ CD)
 Hubs may be cascaded to add additional ports
 SNMP managed hubs offer good management tools and statistics
 Utilise existing cabling and other network components
 Becoming a low cost solution

2.7 Switch
A switch is a networking component used to connect workgroup hubs to form a
larger network or to connect computers that have high bandwidth needs.
Switch working
When a signal enters a port of the switch, the switch looks at the destination
address of the frame and internally establishes a logical connection with the port connected
to the destination node.
Each port on the switch corresponds to an individual collision domain, and network
congestion is avoided. Thus, if a 10-Mbps Ethernet switch has 10 ports, each port effectively
gets the entire bandwidth of 10 Mbps-to the frame, the switch's port appears to provide a
dedicated connection to the destination node. Ethernet switches are capable of establishing
multiple internal logical connections simultaneously, while routers generally process
packets on a first-come, first-served.

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There are two main types of switches, based on their layer of operation.
 Layer 2.
 Layer 3
Layer-2 switches operate at the data-link layer of the OSI model and are based on
bridging technologies. They establish logical connections between ports based on MAC
addresses.
Use layer-2 switches for segmenting existing network into smaller collision domains
to improve performance.
Layer-3 switches operate at the layer 3 of the OSI model and are based on routing
technologies. They establish logical connections between ports based on network
addresses. Layer-3 switches are sometimes called routing switches or multilayer switches.
Use these for connecting different networks into an internetwork.
There are three types of switches, based on their functioning:
 Cut-through transmission
 Store and forward
 Fragment Free
2.7.1 Cut-through transmission: It allows the packets to be forwarded as soon as they are
received. The method is prompt and quick but the possibility of error checking gets
overlooked in such kind of packet data transmission.
2.7.2 Store and forward: In this switching environment the entire packet are received and
‘checked’ before being forwarded ahead. The errors are thus eliminated before being
propagated further. The downside of this process is that error checking takes relatively
longer time consequently making it a bit slower in processing and delivering.
2.7.3 Fragment Free: In a fragment free switching environment, a greater part of the packet
is examined so that the switch can determine whether the packet has been caught up in a
collision. After the collision status is determined, the packet is forwarded.
2.8 Bridges
Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. Most bridges today support filtering and
forwarding, as well as Spanning Tree Algorithm. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the
standard for bridges.
During initialization, the bridge learns about the network and the routes. Packets are
passed onto other network segments based on the MAC layer. Each time the bridge is
presented with a frame, the source address is stored. The bridge builds up a table which
identifies the segment to which the device is located on. This internal table is then used to

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determine which segment incoming frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table is
important, especially if the network has a large number of workstations/ servers.

Network Segment A Network Segment B

BRIDGE

Figure 11: Bridge connectivity

2.8.1 Use of Bridge in a Network

The diagram above shows two separate network segments connected via a bridge.
Note that each segment must have a unique network address number in order for the
bridge to be able to forward packets from one segment to the other.

The advantages of bridges are

 increase the number of attached workstations and network segments

 since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments which
use different MAC protocols
 since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level protocols
 by subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased and the
network becomes easier to maintain
 used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged
 help in localizing the network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as
required (unlike repeaters)
2.8.2 How Bridges Work

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Bridges work at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. Bridges work at the Media
Access Control sub layer and are sometimes referred to as Media Access Control layer
bridges.
a) A Media Access Control layer bridge :
Listens to all traffic. Checks the source and destination addresses of each packet.
Builds a routing table as information becomes available.
b) Creating the Routing Table
Bridges build their routing tables bases on the addresses of computers that have
transmitted data on the network. Specifically, bridges use source addresses – the address of
the device initiates the transmission – to create routing table.
If a bridge knows the location of the destination node, it forwards the packet to it. If
it does not know the destination, it forwards the packet to all segments.
c) Segmenting Network Traffic
A bridge can segment traffic because of it’s routing table.
A large network is not limited to one bridge. Multiple bridges can be used to
combine several small networks into one large network.
2.8.3 Implementing Bridges
A bridge can be either a stand-alone, separate piece of equipment (an external
bridge) or it can be installed in a server. If the network operating system supports it, one or
more network cards (an internal bridge) can be installed.
Network administrators like bridges because they are:
Simple to install and transparent to users.
Flexible and adaptable.
Relatively inexpensive.
2.8.4 Transparent Bridges
(Also known as spanning tree, IEEE 802.1 D) make all routing decisions. The bridge is
said to be transparent (invisible) to the workstations. The bridge will automatically initialize
itself and configure its own routing information after it has been enabled.
2.8.5 Summary of Bridge features :
 operate at the MAC layer (layer 2 of the OSI model)
 can reduce traffic on other segments
 broadcasts are forwarded to every segment

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 most allow remote access and configuration

 often SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) enabled
 loops can be used (redundant paths) if using spanning tree algorithm
 small delays may be introduced
 fault tolerant by isolating fault segments and reconfiguring paths in the event of
failure
 not efficient with complex networks
 redundant paths to other networks are not used (would be useful if the major
path being used
 was overloaded)
 shortest path is not always chosen by the spanning tree algorithm

2.9 Routers
In an environment consisting of several network segments with differing protocols
and architectures, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication among all
of the segments. A network this complex needs a device which not only knows the address of
each segment, but also determine the best path for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic
to the local segment. Such a device is called a router.
Routers work at the Network layer of the OSI model. This means they can switch and
route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks. Routers read complex network addressing
information in the packet and, because they function at a higher layer in the OSI model than
bridges, they have access to additional information.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge :
 Filtering and isolating traffic
 Connecting network segments
 Routers have access to more information in the packet than bridges, and use this
information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex network situation
because they provide better traffic management than bridges and do not pass broadcast
traffic. Routers can share status and routing information with one another and use this
information to bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.

2.9.1 How Routers Work

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The routing table found in routes contain network addresses. However, host addresses
may be kept depending on the protocol the network is running. A router uses a table to
determine the destination address for incoming data. The table lists the following information
:
 All known network addresses
 How to connect to other networks
 The possible path between those routers
 The cost of sending data over those paths
 The router selects the best route for the data based on cost & available paths.
Note : Remember that routing tables were also discussed with bridges. The routing table
maintained by a bridge contains Media Access Control sublayer addresses for each node,
while the routing table maintained by a router contains network numbers. Even though
manufacturers of these two different types of equipment have chosen to use the term routing
table, it has a different meaning for bridge than it does for routers.
Routers require specific addresses. They only understand network numbers which
allow them to talk to other routers and local network adapter card addresses. Routers do not
talk to remote computers.
When router receives packets destined for a remote network, they send them
to the router that manages the destination network. In some ways this is an advantage
because it means routers can :
 Segment large networks into smaller ones.
 Act as safety barrier between segments.
 Prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts are not forwarded.
Because routers must perform complex functions on each packet, routers are slower
than most bridges. As packets are passed from router to router, Data Link layer source and
destination addresses are stripped off and then recreated. This enables a router to route a
packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet network to a server on a TCP/IP Token Ring Network.
Because the routers only read addresses network packets, they will not allow bad data
to get passed on to the network. Because they do not pass the bad data or broadcast data
storms, router put little stress on networks.
Routers do not look at the destination node address; they only look at the network
address. Routers will only pass information if the network address is known. This ability to
control the data passing through the router reduces the amount of traffic between networks
and allows router to use these links more efficiently than bridges.
Using the router addressing scheme, administrators can break one large network into
many separate networks, and because routers do not pass or even handle every packet, they

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act as a safety barrier between network segments. This can greatly reduce the amount of
traffic on the network and the wait time experienced by users.
2.9.2 Routable Protocols
Not all protocols work with routers. The one that are routable include :
 DECnet
 IP
 IPX
 OSI
 XNS
 DDP (AppleTalk)
Protocols which are not routable include:
LAT (local area transport, a protocol from Digital Equipment Corporation.)
NetBEUI
There are routers available which can accommodate multiple protocols such as IP and
DECnet in the same network.
Packets are only passed to the network segment they are destined for.
They work similar to bridges and switches in that they filter out unnecessary network
traffic and remove it from network segments. Routers generally work at the protocol level.
Routers were devised in order to separate networks logically. For instance, a TCP/ IP
router can segment the network based on groups of TCP/IP addresses. Filtering at this level
(on TCP/IP addresses, also known as level 3 switching) will take longer than that of a bridge
or switch which only looks at the MAC layer.
Most routers can also perform bridging functions. A major feature of routers, because
they can filter packets at a protocol level, is to act as a firewall. This is essentially a barrier,
which prevents unwanted (unauthorised) packets either entering or leaving designated areas
of the network.
Typically, an organization which connects to the Internet will install a router as the
main gateway link between their network and the outside world. By configuring the router
with access lists (which define what protocols and what hosts have access) this enforces
security by restricted (or allowing) access to either internal or external hosts.
A router works at the Network Layer or higher, by looking at information embedded
within the data field, like a TCP/IP address, then forwards the frame to the appropriate
segment upon which the destination computer resides.
2.9.3 Summary of Router features :

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 use dynamic routing
 operate at the protocol level
 remote administration and configuration via SNMP
 support complex networks
 the more filtering done, the lower the performance
 provides security
 segment the networks logically
 broadcast storms can be isolated
 often provide bridge functions also
 more complex routing protocols used (such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF)

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