THE CRADLE HIGH SCHOOL, BENIN

YEAR 10 CHEMISTRY EASTER NOTE

SCHEME OF WORK (2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION)

WEEK(S) TOPIC(S)
1–3 Kinetic Theory of Matter (Gas Laws)
4&5 Carbon and its compounds
6 MID-TERM ASSESSMENT
7 MID-TERM BREAK
8&9 The Nature of Matter (Standard
Separation Techniques for
Mixtures).
10 Acids, Bases/Alkalis and Salts
11 REVISION
12 EXAMINATION
WEEK 1 - 3:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. State the meaning of Kinetic Theory. Give and define the gas laws.

2. Give and do the derivation of the gas laws.

3. Do calculations on gas laws

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER:

The kinetic theory of matter states that all matter is made of small particles
that are in random motion and that have space between them. This means
that, whatever phase or state matter is in, it is made of separate, moving
particles.

This theory sounds pretty simple, but it actually explains a lot about the
physical properties of matter and how it behaves. One might be surprised
to learn that the particles of a solid are actually moving, just not enough for
one to see or observe it. This type of vibrational movement is why a solid
will not change shape no matter what kind of container it is put into.
Know that liquid particles have more energy than solid particles. The extra
energy in this state allows the particles to move around more freely, and
they spread out more than those of a solid, putting more space between
their particles. This is why a liquid will take the shape of its container up to
its surface

And since gases have even more energy than liquids, their particles move
around a lot more, too. This is why a gas will expand to fill its entire
container, not just to its surface like a liquid. Not only do the particles of a
solid not move very much, but they're also held very close to each other by
strong attractive forces. These forces are what hold the particles in place
and are what give a solid its fixed size and shape.
On the other hand, the particles of a gas are so far apart that the attractive
forces between them are assumed to be negligible. The particles of a gas
are viewed as independent from each other, meaning that the gas is the
opposite of a solid and has neither a fixed size nor shape.
Since the movement of liquid particles is in between a solid and a gas, the
attractive forces between its particles are also in a middle range of the
other two phases. Liquid particles have more freedom than solid particles,
which is why a liquid can flow freely.
More so, gases can be studied by considering the small scale action of
individual molecules or by considering the large scale action of the gas as a
whole. We can directly measure, or sense, the large scale action of the gas.
But to study the action of the molecules, we must use a theoretical model.
The model, called the kinetic theory of gases, assumes that the molecules
are very small relative to the distance between molecules. The molecules
are in constant, random motion and frequently colliding with each other
and with the walls of their containing vessels.
The individual molecules possess the standard physical properties of mass,
momentum, and energy. The density of a gas is simply the sum of the
mass of the molecules divided by the volume which the gas occupies. The
pressure of a gas is a measure of the linear momentum of the molecules.
As the gas molecules collide with the walls of their vessels, the molecules
impart momentum to the walls, producing a force that can be measured.
The force divided by the area is defined to be the pressure. The
temperature of a gas is a measure of the mean kinetic energy of the gas.
The molecules are in constant random motion, and there is an energy
(mass x square of the velocity) associated with that motion. The higher the
temperature, the greater the motion.
In a solid, the location of the molecules relative to each other remains
almost constant. But in a gas, the molecules can move around and interact
with each other and with their surroundings in different ways.
As mentioned above, there is always a random component of molecular
motion. The entire fluid can be made to move as well in an ordered motion
(flow). The ordered motion is superimposed, or added to, the normal
random motion of the molecules. At the molecular level, there is no
distinction between the random component and the ordered component.
We measure the pressure produced by the random component as the
static pressure. The pressure produced by the ordered motion is called
DYNAMIC PRESSURE. And BERNOULLI'S EQUATION tells us that the sum
of the static and dynamic pressure is the total pressure which we can also
measure.

GAS LAWS:
Gas Laws are set or group of laws or principles that govern the behaviours
of gases.

SOME TYPES OF GAS LAWS:

1. Boyle's law (by Robert Boyle).
2. Charles' law (by Jacques Charles)
3. Combined gas law or General gas law
4. Graham's law of diffusion
5. Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes (by Joseph -Luois Gay-Lussac).
6. Avogadro's Hypothesis or Hypothesis (by Amedeo Avogadro).
7. Ideal gas law or Ideal gas equation or Equation of state
8. Dalton's law of partial pressure (by John Dalton), etc.

BOYLE'S LAW:
Boyle's law states that the volume of a given or a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its pressure provided the temperature remains
constant.
That is, v & 1/p (T = a constant)
Or
Boyle's law states that the pressure of a given or a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its volume provided the temperature remains
constant.
That is, P & 1/V (T = a constant).
=> V = k/P
V1 = k1/P1
Then, K1 = P1V1
And also, K2 = P2V2
If k1 = k2
Then, P1V1 = P2V2 (Boyle's law equation for calculations).

NOTE : Boyle's law is a volume - pressure law.

 Photograph of Robert Boyle

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
1. A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atmospheres. If
the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atmospheres without a change in
temperature, what would be the volume of the balloon?
Solution
V1 = 2.0L
V2 = ?
P1 = 3atm
P2 = 0.5atm
Using P1V1= P2V2
V2 = P1V1/P2
= 3atm X 2.0L/0.5
= 6X5
V2 = 30 L ans.

2. At a constant temperature, a gas has volume of 10cm3 at pressure of

100mmHg. If the volume of the gas is doubled, what will be its new
pressure?
Solution
V1 = 10cm3
V2 = 2 x 10 = 20cm3
P1 = 100cm3
P2 = ?
Using P1V1= P2V2
P2 = P1V1/V2
= 10 X 100/20
= 50cm3 ans.

CHARLES' LAW:
Charles' law states that the volume of a given or a fixed mass of a gas is
directly to its absolute or kelvin temperature provided the pressure remains
constant.
That is, V & T (P = a constant).
V = kT
k1 = V1/T1
And also, k2 = V2/T2
If k1 = k2
Then V1/T1 = V2/T2 (Charles' law equation for calculations).

NOTE: Charles' law is a volume-temperature law.

 Photographs of Jacques Charles
Q1. Calculate the decrease in temperature (in Celsius) when 2.00 L at 21.0
°C is compressed to 1.00 L.
Solution
V1 = 2L
V2 = 1L
T1 = 0°C
T2 = ?
Using V1/T1 = V2/T2
T2 = V2T1/V1
= 1 X 0/2
T2 = 0°C ans.
COMBINED GAS LAW/GENERAL GAS LAW/GENERAL GAS EQUATION:
Combined gas law states that the volume of a given or a fixed mass of a
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure and directly proportional to its
absolute or kelvin temperature.
That is, V & T/P.
V = kT/P
k = PV/T
If k1 = P1V1/T1
And k2 = P2V2/T2
So, if k1 = k2
Then P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 (Combined gas law for calculations)
NOTE: that the combined gas law is made up of Boyle's law and Charles'
law. That is, combined gas law is a volume-pressure-temperature law.

GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION:

Graham's law of diffusion states that the rate (r) of diffusion of a gas is
inversely proportional to the square root of its density or vapour density (d)
provided the pressure and temperature remain constant.
That is, r & 1/√d
r = k/√d
k = r√d
k1 = r1√d1
k2 = r2√d2
If k1 = k2
Then r1√d1 = r2√d2
r1/r2 = √d2/√d1
 = √d2/d1
= √M2/M1 (Graham's law for calculations).

Photographs of Thomas Graham

GAY-LUSSAC'S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES:

Gay Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes states that when gases react,
they do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another, and to the
volume of the product(s) formed if gaseous, provided the temperature and
pressure remain constant.
Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes helps to explain the experimental
facts about how gaseous atoms combine. Below are some examples of
chemical reactions that demonstrate the law :
a). N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
 1 vol. 3 vols. 2 vols.
From the above equation, it implies that, 1 volume of nitrogen (N2)
combines with 3 volumes of hydrogen (H2) to form 2 volumes of ammonia
(NH3).
b). 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
2 vols. 1 vol. 2 vols.
The above equation means 2 volumes of hydrogen (H2) combine with 1
volume of oxygen (O2) to form 2 volumes of steam (H2O).
C). Cl2(g) + H2(g) → 2HCl(g)
1 vol. 1 vol. 2 vols.
The equation above implies that 1 volume of chlorine gas (Cl2) combines
with 1 volume of hydrogen (H2) to form 2 volumes of hydrochloric acid
(HCl).
Consider the chemical equation of the chemical reaction given below:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g).
i). Calculate the volume of steam/vapour produced from 20cm3 of
hydrogen and 20cm3 of oxygen mixed together.
SOLUTION: 2H2(g) + O2(g) --------> 2H2O(g)
2vols 1vol 2vols
20cm3 10cm3 20cm3
Therefore, the volume of steam/vapour produced = 20cm3 ans.
Note also, that the volume of the residual gases
= volume of excess oxygen + volume of steam/vapour produced
= 10cm3 + 20cm3
= 30cm3 ans.
 Photographs of Gay Lussac

ii). State the name of the gas that was in excess and the volume.
SOLUTION: Oxygen gas was in excess and by 20cm3 -10cm3 = 10cm3 ans.

AVOGADRO'S LAW:
Avogadro's Law: This states that at constant temperature and pressure,
equal volumes (v) of different or all gases contain an equal number of
molecules(n).
The specific number of molecules in one gram-mole of a substance,
defined as the molecular weight in grams, is 6.02 x 10^23, a quantity called
Avogadro’s number (NA), or the Avogadro's constant (L). For example, the
molecular weight of hydrogen is 2.00, so that one gram-mole of hydrogen
has a mass of 2.00 grams and contains 6.02 × 10^23 molecules.
Avogadro's law is at times referred to as AVOGADRO'S HYPOTHESIS or
AVOGADRO'S PRINCIPLE or AVOGADRO-AMPERE'S HYPOTHESIS.
That is, V & n
V = kn
k = V/n
For k1 = V1/n1
Also, k2 = V2/n2
If k1 = k2
Then, V1/n1 = V2/n2 (Avogadro's law for calculations).
Or V1/m1 = V2/m2.
Avogadro's number (NA) has a numerical value = 6.02 x 10^23.
Avogadro's Constant (L) is equivalent to Avogadro's Number (NA).
It might interest you at this point, to know that the Avogadro's
Hypothesis/law was given by Amadeo Avogadro, an Italian physicist who
stated, in 1811, that the volume of any gas is proportional to the number of
molecules of the gas (measured in Moles – symbol mol). In other words if
the amount of gas increases, so does its volume.
NOTE : Avogadro's law is a volume -number of molecules law.
The above picture/photograph is Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro,
who gave the Avogadro's law.

BELOW ARE SOME IMPLICATIONS/CONSEQUENCES OF AVOGADRO'S

LAW BEING TRUE:
The molar volume (Mv)/molar gas volume (GMv) of all ideal/perfect gases
at 0°C (273k) and 1 atm (760mmHg) pressure is 22.4l/22.4dm3.
1. If pressure and temperature of a gas are constant, when the amount of
gas increases, the volume increases.
2. If pressure and temperature of a gas are constant, when the amount of
gas decreases, the volume decreases.
LIMITATIONS OF AVOGADRO'S LAW:
1. Although Avogadro's law is perfectly applicable to perfect/ideal gases, it
provides only approximate relationships at best. Furthermore, the deviation
of real gases from ideal behavior increases at high pressure and low
temperatures.
2. It is important to understand that gases with molecules composed of
relatively low molecular weights (such as hydrogen and helium) obey the
Avogadro's law to a greater extent than heavier molecules.
APPLICATIONS/USES AVOGADRO'S LAW:
1. It explains Gay-Lussac’s law
2. It determines the atomicity of the gases
3. It determines the molecular formula of a gaseous compound
4. It gives the relationship between gram molecular mass and gram
molecular volume of gas
5. It determines the relationship between molecular mass and vapor
density of a gas

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Q1: Given that 5.00 L of a gas contains 0.965mol of molecules. What will be
the new volume of the gas if the quantity is increased to 1.80 mol,
assuming pressure and temperature are held constant?
SOLUTION: V1/n2 = V2/n
5/1.8 = V2/0.965
V2 = 5 x 0.965/1.8
= 9.33L ans.

Q2: 2.4 moles of a helium gas fills up an empty balloon to the volume of
the 2.5 dm3. What would be the volume of the balloon if an additional 1.6
moles of a helium gas is added? (Assume that the temperature and
pressure are kept constant).
SOLUTION : n1 = 2.4 mol, n2 = 2.4 mol +1.6 mol = 4.0 mol, V1 = 2.5 dm3,
V2 =?
Using V1/n1 = V2/n2
V2 = (V1 x n2)/n1
 Hence, the final volume of the balloon (V2) = (2.5 x 4)/2.4
= 10/2.4
= 4.17 dm3 ans.

EVERYDAY EXAMPLES OF AVOGADRO'S LAW:

1. RESPIRATION: When we respire, we breathe in oxygen. The more we
breathe, the more our lungs will expand.
2. DEFLATION: When the air is released from an inflated tyre, the number of
moles decreases. The shape of the tyre also changes since its volume
decreases.
The process of respiration is a perfect example of Avogadro's Law. When a
person inhales, an increase in the molar amount of air in the lungs is
accompanied by an increase in lung volume (lung expansion). A figure
detailing the change in volume caused by an increase in the number of gas
molecules is shown below.
Another common example of Avogadro's Law is the deflation of car tires.
When the air trapped inside the tyre escapes, the number of moles of air
present in the tyre is reduced. This reduces the volume occupied by the gas,
causing the tyre to lose its shape and deflate.

ASSIGNMENT:
Q1. 5.40 L sample at 25°C and 2.50 atm of pressure contains 0.7 mole of a
gas. If an additional 0.26 mole of gas at the same pressure and
temperature is added, calculate the final volume of the gas.
Q2. 2.00 moles of helium gas fill up an empty balloon to a volume of 2.53L.
What would be the volume of the balloon if an additional 1.56 moles of
helium gas is added at constant temperature and pressure?
Q3. 40 g of nitrogen gas is kept in a 2.56L container. The gas exerts a
pressure of 2.3 atm on the container. If the pressure is kept constant, what
is the final amount of gas in grams present in the container if gas is added
until the volume has increased to 4.0 L?
Q4. 5.00 L of a gas is known to contain 0.965 mol. If the amount of gas is
increased to 1.80 mol, what new volume will result (at an unchanged
temperature and pressure)?
Q5. A cylinder with a moveable piston contains 2.00 g of helium, He, at
room temperature. More helium was added to the cylinder and the volume
was adjusted so that the gas pressure remained the same. How many
grams of helium were added to the cylinder if the volume was changed
from 2.00 L to 2.70 L? (The temperature was held constant.
Q6. A balloon contains a certain mass of neon gas. The temperature is kept
constant, and the same mass of argon gas is added to the balloon. What
happens?
Q7. A flexible container at an initial volume of 5.120 L contains 8.500 mol
of gas. More gas is then added to the container until it reaches a final
volume of 18.10 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the gas
remain constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the
container.
Q8. If 0.00810 mol neon gas at a particular temperature and pressure
occupies a volume of 214 mL, what volume would 0.00684 mol neon gas
occupy under the same conditions?

Q9. A flexible container at an initial volume of 6.13 L contains 7.51 mol of

gas. More gas is then added to the container until it reaches a final volume
of 13.5 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the gas remain
constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the container.
Q10. A container with a volume of 25.47 L holds 1.050 mol of oxygen gas
(O2) whose molar mass is 31.9988 g/mol. What is the volume if 7.210 g of
oxygen gas is removed from the container, assuming the pressure and
temperature remain constant?
Q11. What volume (in L) will 5.5 g of oxygen gas occupy if 2.2 g of the
oxygen gas occupies 3.0 L? (Under constant pressure and temperature.)
Q12. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 2.00 g of helium, He, at
room temperature. More helium was added to the cylinder and the volume
was adjusted so that the gas pressure remained the same. How many
grams of helium were added to the cylinder if the volume was changed
from 2.00 L to 2.50 L? (The temperature was held constant).
Q13. A flexible container at an initial volume of 6.13 L contains 8.51 mol of
gas. More gas is then added to the container until it reaches a final volume
of 15.5 L. Assuming the pressure and temperature of the gas remain
constant, calculate the number of moles of gas added to the container.
Q14. At a certain temperature and pressure, one mole of a diatomic H2 gas
occupies a volume of 20 L. What would be the volume of one mole of H
atoms under those same conditions?

IDEAL GAS LAW/IDEAL GAS EQUATION/VAN-DER-WAALS FORCES:

Ideal Gas Law: States that the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure and directly proportional to the product of the
amount/number of molecules and absolute temperature.
The mathematical expression for Ideal gas law is given as: V & nT/P
=> V = nRT/P
PV = nRT
Note: that the Ideal gas law is derived from three (3) other gas laws or that
it is a combination of other three (3) gas laws, namely:
1. Boyle's law = V & 1/P (Temperature = a constant).
2. Charles's law = V & T (Pressure = a constant).
3. Avogadro's law = V & n (Temperature and Pressure = constants).
Hence, Ideal gas law = V & nT/P (from the three gas laws above, V is
common).
=> Ideal gas law: PV = nRT (where R = universal gas constant).
What about Ideal/Perfect gas?
=>Ideal gas does not exist in reality. It is a hypothetical gas proposed to
simplify the calculations.
=>An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly-moving
point particles that interact only through elastic collisions.
=>In Ideal gas, the gas molecules move freely in all directions, and collision
between them is considered to be perfectly elastic, which implies no loss in
the kinetic energy due to the collision.
=>Although there is no ideal gas, all real gas tends to approach that
property when the density gets low enough. This is possible because the
molecules of the gas are so far apart from one another that they do not
interact with each other. Thus, the ideal gas concept helps us in studying
real gases.

LIMITATIONS OF IDEAL/PERFECT GAS:

Below are just a few limitations of the Ideal gas equation/law:
1. This equation holds well as long as the density is kept low.
2. This equation is applicable for single gas or even a mixture of multiple
gasses where ‘n’ will stand for the total moles of gas particles in the given
mixture.
1. A sample of helium gas at 25°C is compressed from 200 cm3 to 0.240
cm3. Its pressure is now 3.00 cm Hg. What was the original pressure of the
helium
Solution:
Using Ideal gas equation
That is, PV = nRT
P1 =?
V1 = 200 cm3
n1 = n
T1 = T

P2 = 3.00 cm Hg
V2 = 0.240 cm3
n2 = n
T2 = T
P2V2 = nRT
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 = P2V2/V1
P1 = 3.00 cm Hg x 0.240 cm3/200 cm3
P1 = 3.60 x 10-3 cm Hg

EVALUATION:
1. State Boyle's law
2. Derive the mathematical expression for Graham's law of diffusion.

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 1 - 3:

1. Explain in details
a. Amonton's law
b. Dalton's law of partial pressure
2. Give the formula for converting/changing
a. Temperature in °C to Kelvin/absolute temperature.
b. Temperature in Kelvin to °C
3. Give the value for
a. Standard temperature (st)
b. Standard pressure (sp)
c. Standard volume (sv) or Molar volume (Mv) or Gas Molar volume (GMv)
d. Universal gas constant (R)
WEEK 4 & 5:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain the structure of carbon: tetravalency nature of carbon, catenation,
allotropy, allotropes and their properties.

2. Explain the term gasification of coke (carbon).

3. Give the products of gasification of coke, and state their uses.

4. What is synthetic gas?

5. Give the oxides of carbon and their uses and test for CO2.

6.Explain the term coal, types, industrial distillation of coal, products and
their uses.

7. Explain the term petroleum; main sources(crude oil, coal & natural gas);
meaning of hydrocarbons, classes and importance.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS:

Carbon is a solid non-metallic element. It belongs to group IVA and period
2 of the Periodic Table. Carbon has four (4) valence electrons in its
outermost shell (electron-shell). Valence electrons are used for formation
of chemical bonds during chemical bonding or chemical combination or
chemical reactions/changes.

THE NATURE OF CARBON:

1. Tetravalency is the tendency or ability of an element to possess four (4)
valence electrons for chemical bonding. Carbon is tetravalent in nature,
meaning that, for carbon to be stable, it must form four (4) bonds with
other atoms of elements. The tetravalency of carbon is one of its
characteristics that makes it possible for carbon to form wide range of
compounds especially, organic compounds.

2. Catenation is the ability of certain elements to form a long chain frame-

work to which other elements are attached to. Carbon is one of the
elements with high catenation level. That is why carbon is found in many
organic compounds.

Allotropy is defined as the existence of two or more elements in various

forms in the same physical state.

EXAMPLES OF SOME ELEMENTS THAT EXHIBIT ALLOTROPY:

1. Sulphur

2. Phosphorus

3. Oxygen

4. Hydrogen

5. Tin

6. Carbon, etc.

Allotropes are the various forms of elements in the same physical state.
Examples of elements and their allotropes/allotropic forms

1. PHOSPHORUS: red phosphorus, brown phosphorus, white phosphorus

and black phosphorus.

2. OXYGEN: dioxygen/ordinary oxygen (O2) and trioxygen/ozone (O3).

3. TIN: white tin and grey tin.

4. HYDROGEN: ortho-hydrogen and para-hydrogen.

5. SULPHUR: (a) Crystalline allotropes of sulphur are: i). Rhombic sulphur

(α-sulphur) and ii).Monoclinic sulphur (β-sulphur).

(b) Non-crystalline allotropes of sulphur is amorphous sulphur (γ-sulphur)

=> there is also another allotropic form of sulphur called plastic sulphur
(false sulphur).

6. CARBON: (a) Crystalline allotropes of carbon are: i). Graphite and ii).
Diamond.

(b) Non-crystalline allotropes of carbon include i).Coal ii).Carbon black

iii).Soot iv).Wood charcoal v).Animal charcoal vi).Sugar charcoal, etc.

GASIFICATION OF COKE (CARBON): This is defined as the process of

passing steam/vapour and hot air over red-hot coke in order to produce
water gas and producer gas in a producer furnace/producer plant
respectively.

WATER GAS/SYNTHETIC GAS: Water gas or syngas is produced by

passing steam/vapour (H2O (g)) over red-hot coke (C) in a producer
furnace/producer plant.

That is, C(s) + H2O(g) ----------> CO(g) + H2(g).

(Water gas/synthetic gas)

The components/compositions of water gas/syngas is CO(g) + H2(g).

70% of the components of water gas is combustible or supports burning/

combustion, thereby making water gas/synthetic gas a better gaseous fuel
or industrial heating fuel than the producer gas.

PRODUCER GAS: Producer gas is produced by passing hot air (N2 + O2)
over red-hot coke (C).

That is, C(s) + N2 (g) + O2 (g) -------> CO2(g) + N2(g).

(Hot air) (Producer gas)

The compositions/components of producer gas are CO2 (g) + N2 (g).

Only 30% of the components/compositions of the producer gas is

combustible (i.e., CO2) since nitrogen gas (N2) is not combustible or does
not support burning/combustion. This renders producer gas not to be a
good industrial gaseous fuel or a fuel gas.
Gasification of coke takes place or occurs in a producer plant/producer
furnace.

OXIDES OF CARBON:
There are two (2) oxides of carbon, namely:

a). Carbon (II) oxide which is also known as carbon monoxide, i.e. CO. It is
a highly poisonous gas. It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of
metals from their ores or minerals, example, iron from its ore.

b). Carbon (IV) oxide, i.e. CO2. It is used by green plants for photosynthesis.

TEST FOR CO2:

CO2 turns limewater milky and the milkiness disappears with excess CO2.
At first, the milkiness was due to the formation of calcium trioxocarbonate
(IV), i.e. CaCO3, which is insoluble in water.
With excess CO2, bubbled/passed through the limewater, the milkiness of
the water disappears due to the formation of calcium hydrogen
trioxocarbonate (IV), i.e. Ca(HCO3)2 , which is soluble in water.

COAL:
Coal is a fossil fuel. It contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It also
contains nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. It occurs in the solid state.
THE FOUR (4) TYPES OF COAL:
1. Peat contains less than 40 to 55% of carbon and more impurities. It
contains sufficient volatile matter and lot of moisture. It produces more
smoke, hence more pollution. It burns like wood, gives less heat, emits
more smoke and leaves a lot of ashes.

2. Lignite Coal/Brown Coal is a lower grade of coal. It is an intermediate

stage. It is dark to black-brown in colour. Its moisture/water content is high
(over 35%). It undergoes spontaneous combustion. It creates fire
accidents in mines. It is lighter in colour than the higher ranks of coal. It has
the lowest carbon content out of all the coal ranks/types (25%-35%). It is
mainly used in electricity generation.
3. Bituminous Coal/Soft Coal contains slightly lower carbon content than
anthracite (45%-86%). The wide range of carbon content in bituminous coal
warrants its use for both electricity and steel production. It can be
identified through its shiny lustre and layered texture.

4. Anthracite/Hard Coal contains the highest amount of carbon out of all

the coal types/ranks (86%-97%). It is brittle and lustrous. It is used mostly
in industries due
to its high heat value. It is also known as the pure form of coal.
USES OF COAL:
1. Coal is used as fuel in factories/industries and homes.
2. Coal is used to obtain coke, coal gas and coal tar.
3. Coal is used in thermal power plants for generation of electricity.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL:

Destructive Distillation of Coal is defined as the process of heating coal in
the absence of air to produce coke, ammoniacal liquor, coal tar and coal
gas.
Pyrolysis is defined as a process of destructive distillation of organic
material in a closed vessel, atmosphere devoid of oxygen and at
temperature range of 500-900°C.

PRODUCTS/FRACTIONS OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL:

1. Coke
2. Ammoniacal liquor
3. Coal tar
4. Coal gas

Coke is a solid black substance. It is nearly a pure form of carbon. It is

used in the fabrication of steel, extraction of metals as a reducing agent
and as a fuel.
Coal tar is a black semi-liquid substance with an unpleasant smell. Its
products are used to make plastics, paints, vanishes, roofing and surfacing
or tarring of roads.
Coal gas is an excellent gaseous fuel with a high calorific value. In
industries, it is majorly used as a fuel, heat and light sources.
Ammoniacal liquor is the liquid product/fraction of destructive distillation
of coal. It is used in the manufacture of ammonium fertilizers and many
other petrochemicals.

APPLICATIONS/USES OF DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION:

1. Destructive distillation can be employed to obtain methanol and
turpentine from wood. Furthermore, the destructive distillation of wood is
also known to leave behind a residue of solid charcoal, a substance that
has a wide range of commercial applications/usage.
2. The destructive distillation of wood is also known to produce several
other compounds of commercial value, such as terpenes and tar.
3. One of the most prominent applications of destructive distillation is in
the processing of coal in order to obtain several commercially important
compounds such as coke, ammonium hydroxide, coal gas, and coal tar.
4. The waste processing of polymers via destructive distillation can afford
their constituent monomers to be re-used in suitable processes.

PETROLEUM/CRUDE OIL:
Petroleum is a thick, dark and viscous complex mixture of hydrocarbons
that occurs beneath the Earth's crust.
SOME FRACTIONS OF PETROLEUM/CRUDE OIL:
1. Kerosene
2. Diesel
3. Paraffin wax
4. Paraffin oil
5. Petrol
6. Bitumen/coal tar,etc.

HYDROCARBONS:
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon
only. Hydrocarbons are also referred to as binary compounds or
substances because they contain just two elements: hydrogen and carbon.

THE MAIN SOURCES OF HYDROCARBONS:

1. Petroleum/crude oil
2. Coal
3. Natural gas

CLASSES OF HYDROCARBONS:
1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons: This class of hydrocarbon is subdivided into two
(2), namely:
a). Acyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons
b). Alicyclic or cyclic aliphatic hydrocarbons
2. Aromatic hydrocarbons

FAMILIES OF HYDROCARBONS:
1. Alkanes
2. Alkenes
3. Alkynes
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain carbon -carbon
single bonds. They have general molecular formula of CnH2n+2 (where n is
greater than or equal to 1).
Below are some examples of members of the alkanes' family:
1. Methane = CH4
2. Ethane = C2H6 or CH3CH3
3. Propane = C3H8 or CH3CH2CH3
4. Butane = C4H10 or CH3CH2CH2CH3
5. Pentane= C5H12 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
6. Hexane = C6H14 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
7. Heptane = C7H16 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
8. Octane = C8H18 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
9. Nonane = C9H20 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
10. Decane = C10H22 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they contain carbon -
carbon double bonds. They have general molecular formula of CnH2n
(where n is greater than or equal to 2).
Below are some examples of members of the alkenes' family:
1. Ethene = C2H4 or CH2=CH2
2. Propene = C3H6 or CH3CH=CH2
3. Butene = C4H8 or CH3CH2CH=CH2
4. Pentene = C5H10 or CH3CH2CH2CH=CH2
5. Hexene = C6H12 or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH=CH2

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they contain carbon -

carbon triple bonds. They have general molecular formula of CnH2n -2
(where n is greater than or equal to 2).
Below are some examples of members of the alkynes' family:
1. Ethyne= C2H2
2. Propyne = C3H4
3. Butyne = C4H6
4. Pentyne = C5H8
5. Hexyne = C6H10
TEST FOR SATURATION AND UNSATURATION:
The alkanes do not decolourise the reddish-brown colour of the bromine
water. The alkenes and alkynes decolourise the reddish-brown colour of the
bromine water.

EVALUATION:
1. What are hydrocarbons?
2. Give the general molecular formula for
a). Aromatic hydrocarbons
b). Alkanes
c). Alkenes
d). Alkynes

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 4 & 5:

1. Draw the structures of
a). Graphite
b). Diamond
2. State the uses of
a). Graphite
b). Diamond
3. State the characteristic properties of
a). Graphite
b). Diamond
4. Explain Acheson process
5. How would you distinguish between the alkenes and the alkynes?

WEEK 6 - 9:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Define standard separation techniques.

2. Give types of standard separation techniques, explain and draw them.

3. State the applications of standard separation techniques.

4. Classify substances into pure and impure substances and state the
criteria for purity.

STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURES:

Standard separation techniques for mixtures are methods used for
separating mixtures into their components/constituents.

TYPES OF STANDARD SEPARATION TECHNIQUES FOR MIXTURES:

1. Sieving

2. Filtration

3. Evaporation or Heating to dryness

4. Decantation

5. Centrifugation

6. Magnetism or magnetic method

7. Chromatography

8. Precipitation

10. Crystallization

11. Fractional crystallization

12. Distillation

13. Fractional distillation

14. Floatation

15. Frostation

16. Separating funnel

17. Sedimentation

18. Winnowing

19. Handpicking

20. Threshing
FILTRATION:
Filtration is defined as a separation technique for the separation of solid
particles or groups of solid particles from their liquids in mixtures using a
filter paper and a filter funnel.
Note that the liquid that passes through the filter paper is called the filtrate
while the solid particles left on the filter paper are called the residues.
EVAPORATION:
Evaporation is defined as a separation technique in which the mixture is
heated in order to remove the liquid/solvent part of the mixture either partly
or completely while the solute is retained.
However, this separation method is not suitable for solutes that are
decomposed by heating such as copper (II) sulphate.

DECANTATION:
Decantation is defined as a crude way or method of separating insoluble
solids from liquids by pouring/decanting off the liquid. Here, the liquid
component of the mixture is not important.Applications of this technique is
found in the separation of sliced yam from the rinsing water, rice from
rinsing water, etc.
SUBLIMATION:
Sublimation is defined as a separation technique used for separating a
mixture of solids containing a component which sublimes but the other
component does not sublime by heating the mixture. Some examples of
substances that sublime include: camphor, iodine crystals, ammonium
chloride, dry ice (solid CO2), etc.
A cotton-stoppered inverted funnel is placed over the mixture. When the
mixture is heated, the heat-liable solid sublime and turn into a gas, and
travel to the top of the inverted funnel. Once the hot gas touches the cooler
funnel, it solidifies back into a solid. The solid can then be scrapped off and
collected in another container from the funnel.
MAGNETISM/MAGNETIC SEPARATION:
Magnetization/Magnetic Attraction is defined as a separation method
used for the separation of magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials
by means of a magnet. Examples include: the separation of pins from sand,
nails from rice, etc.

SEPARATING FUNNEL/SEPARATORY FUNNEL:

Separating funnel is defined as a separation technique used mainly for
separating two immiscible liquids into their components. The mechanism
involves taking advantage of the unequal density of the particles in the
mixture. Examples include: oil and water, kerosene and water, etc. can
easily be separated using the separating funnel technique.

SEDIMENTATION:
Sedimentation is defined as a separation technique whereby heavier
impurities/particles present in a liquid usually water settle down at the
bottom/base of the containing vessel of the mixture. Sedimentation
process may at times, be time consuming for the particles to completely
settle down.

SIEVING:
Sieving is defined as a separation technique used for separating solid
particles of different sizes by the use of a sieve of different mesh
sizes/pores.

HANDPICKING:
Handpicking is a method of separation which involves simply picking out
all the unwanted substances/particles with hand and separating them from
useful ones. The separated substances may be an impurity that has to be
thrown away or useful as well.
WINNOWING:
Winnowing this separation technique is used when the grains are collected
from the process of threshing, it needs to be cleared out of husks and
chaffs before it is turned into flour. Normally the separation of the mixture
is carried out with the help of wind or blowing air. The husk and chaff are
blown away by the strong wind when the farmers drop the mixture from a
certain height to the ground. The heavier grains are then collected in bags
or sacs.
THRESHING:
Threshing this separation technique is mostly used during the period of
harvesting of crops. With this separation method, the stalks are separated
from the grains by beating the dry stalks to shake off the dried grains.
DISTILLATION:
Distillation this is defined as a process of separating liquid mixtures with
wide boiling points. The components of the liquid mixture are first of all
heated, vaporized, condensed and then isolated.

CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Paper Chromatography this separation technique is used to separate a
mixture of solutes (or liquids) with different solubilities and degree of
adsorption. This method uses a porous or absorbent medium (e.g. paper or
jel) and a solvent which can move over the material. Paper chromatography
is commonly used for separating a mixture of dyes in ink or different types
of sugars.
To carry out paper chromatography, a rectangular piece of filter paper is
got and a line of 2cm is drawn on the paper. Pencil is used to draw the line
instead of ink, as ink may re-dissolve and there will be no reference line left
at the end of the experiment.
Place a drop of sample ink or mixture on the line. Let the sample dry before
placing more sample on the same spot. Place the other known
components (e.g. red, blue and green dye if we are separating ink samples)
on the line, with a distance away from the first ink sample, for comparison.

The chromatography paper is then placed in a suitable organic solvent

such as ethanol. The solvent will “run” up the chromatography paper after
some time.
As the solvent travels up the paper, the dyes are dissolved in the solvent.
Since some dyes are more soluble, they travel up the paper faster than the
rest. The less soluble dyes are absorbed more strongly on the paper near
the pencil line. This means that identical dyes will travel the same distance
along the length of the paper.
As the solvent reaches near the top of the paper, the chromatographic
paper is removed and the location where the solvent stops running is
marked. By comparing the ink sample with the colour dyes, one can infer or
deduce the composition of the ink sample as containing red, blue and
green dyes.
EVALUATION:
1. What is sieving?

2. Give the types of chromatography

3. What is seeding in crystallization?

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 6 - 9:

1. Explain the following separation technique:

a). Floatation

b). Frostation

c). Crystallization

d). Fractional distillation

e). Fractional crystallization

f). Precipitation

g). Centrifugation

2. Give the applications or uses of the separation techniques mentioned in

Q1 above.

3. Draw and label the devices or set-ups for the techniques mentioned in
Q1above .
WEEK 10:
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Define the terms and stating also their characteristic properties, uses
and reactions:

a).acids

b).bases

c). alkalis

d).salts

2. State the methods of preparing acids, bases, alkalis and salts.

3. Explain the following terms:

a).Neutralization reactions

b).How acid-base indicator works

c).Relative acidity and alkalinity (pH - scale).

4. Give the types of

a).acids

b).bases

c).alkalis

d).salts

5. Explain the rules for solubility of salts in water.

ACIDS, BASES/ALKALIS AND SALTS:

ACIDS:
Acid is defined as a chemical substance that ionizes to produce hydrogen
ions (H+) as the only positive ions.
+ -
That is, HCl(aq) --------> H (aq) + Cl (aq)

OR

Acid: This is defined as a chemical substance that dissolves in water to

produce oxonium ions or hydroxonium ions (H3O+) as the only positive ions.

That is, HCl(aq) +! H2O(l) -------------> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq).

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS:

1. Dilute acids have sour taste.

2. Concentrated acids are corrosive.

3. Dilute acids turn blue litmus paper red.

TYPES OF ACIDS:
1. Mineral/inorganic acids, e.g. H2SO4, HNO3, HCl, etc.

2. Natural/organic acids, e.g. citric acid, ascorbic acid, lactic acid, ethanoic
acid, etc.

PREPARATION OF ACIDS:
1. From dissolution of acid anhydrides such as SO2, SO3, CO2, NO2, PO4, etc.
in water. Examples include:

a). SO2(g) + H2O(l) -----> H2SO3(aq)

 b). SO3(g) + H2O(l) ------> H2SO4(aq)

c). CO2(g) + H2O(l) -------> H2CO3(aq)

d). 2NO2(g) + H2O(l) -------> HNO3(aq) +. HNO2(aq)

Note that NO2 is an example of a mixed acid anhydride. This is because it

produces two (2) types of acids when dissolved in water, namely:

a). Trioxonitrate (V) acid (HNO3)

b). Dioxonitrate (III) acid (HNO2)

2. From direct combination of constituent elements, e.g.

a). H2(g) + Cl2(g) -------> 2HCl(g)

b). H2(g) + Br2(g) --------> 2HBr(g)

c). H2(g) + F2(g) --------> 2HF(g)

BASES:
Base is defined as a chemical substance that ionizes to produce hydroxide
ions (OH-) as the only negative ions.

That is, NaOH(aq) ---------> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

OR
Base is defined as a chemical substance that neutralizes an acid to form
salt and water only.

That is, NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) -------> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

TYPES OF BASES:
1. Strong bases: e.g. NaOH, KOH, LiOH, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, etc.

2. Weak bases: e.g. NH3(aq)/NH4OH, etc.

Alkalis are basic soluble hydroxides. Examples include: NaOH, KOH, LiOH,
etc.

Note: All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES/ALKALIS:

1. Dilute bases turn red litmus paper blue.

2. Concentrated bases are corrosive.

3. Bases are slippery/soapy to touch.

4. Dilute bases have bitter taste.

PREPARATION OF BASES/ALKALIS:
1. From Combination of constituent elements, e.g.

a). 4Na(s) + O2(g) --------> 2Na2O(s)

b). 4K(s) + O2(g) ---------> 2K2O(s)

c). 2Ca(s) + O2(g) ---------> 2CaO(s)

d). 2Mg(s) + O2(g) ----------> 2MgO(s)

2. From dissolution of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals in water, e.g.

a). 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) -----> 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

b). 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -------> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

c). Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) ------> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Salt is defined as a chemical substance that is formed when the hydrogen
ion(s) of an is partially/incompletely or wholly/completely replaced by
metallic ions or ammonium ions (NH4+).

TYPES OF SALTS:
1. Normal/neutral salts

2. Acid salts

3. Basic salts

4. Double salts

5. Complex salts

Normal/Neutral Salts are salts formed from the reactions between strong
acids and strong bases. They are neutral to litmus papers. Examples
include: NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, K2SO4, etc.

Acid Salts are salts formed from the reactions between strong acids and
weak bases or by an incomplete replacement of the hydrogen ion of an
acid. They turn blue litmus paper red. Examples include: NaHSO4, KHSO4,
NH4Cl, etc.

Basic Salts are salts formed from the reactions between weak acids and
strong bases or by an incomplete replacement of the hydroxide ions of a
base. They turn red litmus paper blue. Examples include: Ca(OH)Cl,
Zn(OH)NO3, etc.

PROPERTIES OF SALTS:
1. Efflorescence
2. Deliquescence
3. Hygroscopy

Efflorescence is defined as a process whereby certain

compounds/substances on exposure to the atmosphere lose part or all of
their water of crystallization. Examples of efflorescent substances include:
Na2CO3.10H2O, etc.
Deliquescence is defined as a process whereby certain
compounds/substances on exposure to the atmosphere absorb water/
moisture much enough to dissolve in it to form solutions. Examples of
deliquescent substances include: NaOH pellets, etc.
Hygroscopy is defined as a process whereby certain compounds/
substances on exposure to the atmosphere absorb water or moisture but
not much to dissolve in it to form solutions. The substances become sticky.
Examples of hygroscopic substances include: CaO, etc.

METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS:

1. By neutralization reactions. Examples include:
a). HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ------> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
b). H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) ------> K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
c). HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) -------> NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2. By direct combination of constituent elements:

a). 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ------> 2NaCl(aq)
b). 2K(s) + Cl2(g) -------> 2KCl(aq)

3. By action of acids on active/reactive metals:

a). 2Na(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) -----> 2NaHSO4 + H2(g)
 b). 2K(s) + 2HCl(aq) -------> 2KCl(aq) + H2(g)

RULES FOR THE SOLUBILITY OF SALTS IN WATER:

1. Salts containing Group I elements (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) are soluble .
There are few exceptions to this rule. Salts containing the ammonium ion
(NH4+) are also soluble.
2. Salts containing nitrate ion (NO3-) are generally soluble.
3. Salts containing Cl-, Br-, or I- are generally soluble. Important exceptions
to this rule are halide salts of Ag+, Pb2+, and (Hg2)2+. Thus, AgCl, PbBr2, and
Hg2Cl2 are insoluble.
4. Most silver salts are insoluble. AgNO3 and Ag(C2H3O2) are common
soluble salts of silver; virtually all others are insoluble.
5. Most sulfate salts are soluble. Important exceptions to this rule include
CaSO4, BaSO4, PbSO4, Ag2SO4 and SrSO4.
6. Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group I
elements are soluble. Hydroxide salts of Group II elements (Ca, Sr, and Ba)
are slightly soluble. Hydroxide salts of transition metals and Al3+ are
insoluble. Thus, Fe(OH)3, Al(OH)3, Co(OH)2 are not soluble.
7. Most sulfides of transition metals are highly insoluble, including CdS,
FeS, ZnS, and Ag2S. Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and lead sulfides are also
insoluble.
8. Carbonates are frequently insoluble. Group II carbonates (CaCO3, SrCO3,
and BaCO3) are insoluble, as are FeCO3 and PbCO3
9. Chromates are frequently insoluble. Examples include PbCrO4 and
BaCrO4.
10. Phosphates such as Ca3(PO4)2 and Ag3PO4 are frequently insoluble.
11. Fluorides of BaF2, MgF2 and PbF2 are often insoluble in water.

EVALUATION:
1. What are mixtures?

2. Differentiate between miscible and immiscible liquids.

3. Give two (2) examples each of

a). Miscible

b). Immiscible

4. How are immiscible liquids separated?

ASSIGNMENT FOR WEEK 10:

1. Explain the following terms as associated with acids and bases:

a).strong acids/bases

b). concentrated acids/bases

c).dilute acids/bases

d).weak acids/bases.

2. Define the following terms:

a). pH

b). pH – scale

c). Solubility

d). Unsaturated solutions

e). Saturated solutions

f). Supersaturated solutions.

3. a). What does pH stand for?

b). Give the equation for pH

c).What is solubility curve?

4. Give the importance or applications or uses of solubility curve.

5. Explain the following theories of acids and bases:

a). Arrhenius theory of acids/bases

b). Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids/bases

c). Lewis theory of acids/bases