1.

2 Calculations
The mole is the key concept for chemical calculations Avogadro's Number
There are 6.022 x 1023 atoms in
DEFINITION: The mole is the amount of substance in grams that has the same
12 grams of carbon-12.
number of particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12.
Therefore explained in simpler
terms 'One mole of any specified
DEFINITION: Relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom entity contains 6.022 x 1023 of
compared to one twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-12 that entity':

DEFINITION: Relative molecular mass is the average mass of a molecule

compared to one twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-12

For most calculations we will do at A-level we will use the following 3 equations to work out moles
Learn these equations carefully and what units to use in them.

1. For pure solids, liquids and gases 2. For gases 3. For solutions

moles = mass Concentration = moles

Mr PV = nRT volume

Unit of Mass: grams Unit of Pressure (P):Pa Note the Unit of concentration: mol dm-3 or M
Unit of moles : mol Unit of Volume (V): m3 different Unit of Volume: dm3
Unit of Temp (T): K unit for
n= moles volume
Remember the Mr must Converting volumes
be calculated and quoted R = 8.31
to 1dp Converting temperature cm3  dm3 ÷ 1000
oC  K add 273 cm3  m3 ÷ 1000 000
dm3  m3 ÷ 1000

Using Equation 1
1. For pure solids, liquids and gases
Molar Mass (Mr) for a compound can be calculated by
moles = mass adding up the mass numbers(from the periodic table) of
Mr each element in the compound
eg CaCO3 = 40.1 + 12.0 +16.0 x3 = 100.1
Unit of Mass: grams
Unit of moles : mol Many questions will involve changes of units
1000 mg =1g
Example 1: What is the number of moles in 35.0g of 1000 g =1kg
CuSO4? 1000kg = 1 tonne
moles = mass/Mr
= 35.0/ (63.5 + 32.0 +16.0 x4)
= 0.219 mol
Example 2: What is the number of moles in 75.0mg of
CaSO4.2H2O?
moles = mass/Mr
Significant Figures
Give your answers to the same number of significant = 0.075/ (40 + 32.0 +16.0 x4 + 18.0x2)
figures as the number of significant figures for the = 4.36x10-4 mol
data you given in a question. If you are given a
mixture of different significant figures, use the
smallest

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Avogadro's Constant

The mole is the amount of substance in Avogadro's Constant (L)

grams that has the same number of There are 6.022 x 1023 atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. Therefore
particles as there are atoms in 12 grams explained in simpler terms 'One mole of any specified entity
of carbon-12. contains 6.022 x 1023 of that entity':

1 mole of copper atoms will contain 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Avogadro's Constant can be
1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules will contain 6.022 x 1023 molecules
used for atoms, molecules and
1 mole of sodium ions will contain 6.022 x 1023 ions
ions

No of particles = moles of substance (in mol) X Avogadro's constant

Example 3 : How many atoms of Tin are Example 4 : How many chloride ions are there in a 25.0
there in a 6.00 g sample of Tin metal? cm3 of a solution of magnesium chloride of concentration
moles = mass/Ar 0.400 moldm-3 ?
= 6.00/ 118.7 moles= concentration x Volume
= 0.05055 mol MgCl2 = 0.400 x 0.0250

Number atoms = moles x 6.022 x 1023 = 0.0100 mol

There are two moles of
= 0.05055 x 6.022 x 1023 moles of chloride ions = 0.0100 x2 chloride ions for every
= 3.04 x1022 = 0.0200 one mole of MgCl2
Number ions of Cl- = moles x 6.022 x 1023
= 0.0200 x 6.022 x 1023
= 1.20 x1022 (to 3 sig fig)

Density calculations are usually used with pure liquids but to work out the mass
Density
from a measured volume. It can also be used with solids and gases.

density = mass Density is usually given in g cm-3

Care needs to be taken if different units are
Volume
used.

Example 5 : How many molecules of ethanol are there in a Example 6 : There are 980mol of pure gold in a bar
0.500 dm3 of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) liquid ? The density of measuring 10 cm by 20 cm by 50 cm. What is the
ethanol is 0.789 g cm-3 density of gold in kg dm−3
Mass = moles x Mr
Mass = density x Volume
ethanol = 980 x 197
= 0.789 x 500
= 193060 g
= 394.5g
= 193.06kg
moles = mass/Mr
Volume = 10x20x50
= 394.5/ 46.0
= 10 000cm3
= 8.576 mol = 10dm3
Number of molecules= moles x 6.022 x 1023 density = mass/volume
= 8.576 x 6.022 x 1023 = 193/10
= 19.3 kg dm-3
= 5.16 x1023(to 3 sig fig)

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Empirical formulae
Definition: An empirical formula is the simplest ratio of atoms of each element in the compound.

General method
The same method can be
Step 1 : Divide each mass (or % mass) by the atomic mass of the element used for the following types
Step 2 : For each of the answers from step 1 divide by the smallest one of of data:
those numbers. 1. masses of each element
in the compound
Step 3: sometimes the numbers calculated in step 2 will need to be multiplied
up to give whole numbers. 2. percentage mass of each
element in the compound
These whole numbers will be the empirical formula.

Example 7 : Calculate the empirical formula for a compound that contains 1.82g of
K, 5.93g of I and 2.24g of O
Step1: Divide each mass by the atomic mass of the element to give moles
K = 1.82 / 39.1 I = 5.93/126.9 O = 2.24/16
= 0.0465 mol = 0.0467mol = 0.14mol

Step 2 For each of the answers from step 1 divide by the smallest one of those numbers.
K = 0.0465/0.0465 I = 0.0467/0.0465 O = 0.14 / 0.0465
=1 =1 =3
Empirical formula =KIO3

Molecular formula from empirical formula

Definition: A molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in the compound.

From the relative molecular mass (Mr) work out how many times
the mass of the empirical formula fits into the Mr.
Remember the Mr of a substance can be found
out from using a mass spectrometer. The
Example 8 : work out the molecular formula for the
molecular ion ( the peak with highest m/z) will
compound with an empirical formula of C3H6O and
be equal to the Mr.
a Mr of 116

C3H6O has a mass of 58

Spectra for C4H10
The empirical formula fits twice into Mr of 116 43

So molecular formula is C6H12O2

The Mr does not need to be exact to turn an empirical 29 Molecular ion

formula into the molecular formula because the molecular 58

formula will be a whole number multiple of the empirical

formula 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
m/z

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Hydrated salt

A Hydrated salt contains water of crystallisation Example 9

Na2SO4 . xH2O has a molar mass of 322.1, Calculate
.
Cu(NO3)2 6H2O the value of x
hydrated copper (II) nitrate(V). Molar mass xH2O = 322.1 – (23x2 + 32.1 + 16x4)
= 180
Cu(NO3)2 X = 180/18
Anhydrous copper (II) nitrate(V). =10

This method could be used for measuring mass loss in various

Heating in a crucible
thermal decomposition reactions and also for mass gain when
reacting magnesium in oxygen.

The water of crystallisation in calcium sulphate crystals can be The lid improves the accuracy of the
removed as water vapour by heating as shown in the following experiment as it prevents loss of solid
equation. from the crucible but should be loose
CaSO4.xH2O(s) → CaSO4(s) + xH2O(g) fitting to allow gas to escape.
Method.
•Weigh an empty clean dry crucible and lid .
•Add 2g of hydrated calcium sulphate to the crucible and
weigh again
•Heat strongly with a Bunsen for a couple of minutes
•Allow to cool
•Weigh the crucible and contents again
•Heat crucible again and reweigh until you reach a constant
mass ( do this to ensure reaction is complete).

Large amounts of hydrated calcium sulphate, such as

50g, should not be used in this experiment as the
decomposition is likely to be incomplete. Small amounts of the solid , such
as 0.100 g, should not be used in
The crucible needs to be dry otherwise a wet crucible this experiment as the percentage
would give an inaccurate result. It would cause mass loss uncertainties in weighing will be
to be too large as the water would be lost when heating. too high.

Example 10. 3.51 g of hydrated zinc sulphate were heated and 1.97 g
of anhydrous zinc sulphate were obtained.
Use these data to calculate the value of the integer x in ZnSO4.xH2O

Calculate the mass of H2O = 3.51 – 1.97 = 1.54g

Calculate moles Calculate moles = 1.54
= 1.97 of H2O
of ZnSO4 161.5 18

= 0.0122 =0.085

Calculate ratio of mole

of ZnSO4 to H2O = 0.0122 = 0.085
0.0122 0.0122
=7
=1
X=7

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 Concentration of Solutions

A solution is a mixture formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. In chemistry we most commonly use
water as the solvent to form aqueous solutions. The solute can be a solid, liquid or a gas.

Molar concentration can be measured for solutions. This is calculated by dividing the amount
in moles of the solute by the volume of the solution. The volume is measure is dm3. The unit
of molar concentration is mol dm-3 ; it can also be called molar using symbol M

Concentration = moles Unit of concentration: mol dm-3 or M

volume Unit of Volume: dm3

Converting volumes

A m3 is equivalent to a cube A dm3 is equivalent to a cube A cm3 is equivalent to a cube

100cmx100cmx100cm= 1000000cm3 10cmx10cmx10cm= 1000cm3 1cmx1cmx1cm

1dm3 = 1litre 1cm3 = 1 ml

100cm
10cm
10cm 1cm
1cm
10cm 1cm
100cm

100cm 1cm3
1dm3 or 1 litre

1m3

1 m3 = 1000 dm3 or 1000L 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3 or 1000mL

To convert m3 into dm3 multiply by 1000 To convert cm3 into dm3 divide by 1000

cm3  dm3 ÷ 1000

cm3  m3 ÷ 1000 000
dm3  m3 ÷ 1000

Example 11 What is the concentration of solution Example 12 What is the concentration of solution
made by dissolving 5.00g of Na2CO3 in 250 cm3 water? made by dissolving 10kg of Na2CO3 in 0.50 m3 water?
moles = mass/Mr moles = mass/Mr
= 5 / (23.0 x2 + 12 +16 x3) = 10 000 / (23.0 x2 + 12 +16 x3)
= 0.0472 mol = 94.2 mol
conc= moles/Volume conc= molest/Volume
= 0.0472 / 0.25 = 94.2 / 500
= 0.189 mol dm-3 = 0.19 mol dm-3

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 Mass Concentration

The concentration of a solution can also be To turn concentration measured in mol dm-3 into
measured in terms of mass of solute per volume concentration measured in g dm-3 multiply by Mr of the
of solution substance
conc in g dm-3 = conc in mol dm-3 x Mr
Mass Concentration = mass The concentration in g dm-3 is the same as the mass of
volume solute dissolved in 1dm3

Unit of mass concentration: g dm-3

Unit of Mass g
Unit of Volume: dm3

Ions dissociating
When soluble ionic solids dissolve in water they will dissociate into separate ions. This can lead to the
concentration of ions differing from the concentration of the solute.

Example 13
If 5.86g (0.1 mol) of sodium chloride (NaCl) is dissolved in 1
dm3 of water then the concentration of sodium choride solution
would be 0.1moldm-3 . NaCl(s) +aq  Na+(aq) + Cl- (aq)
However the 0.1mol sodium chloride would split up and form
0.1 mol of sodium ions and and 0.1 mol of chloride ions. The 0.1mol 0.1mol 0.1mol
concentration of sodium ions is therefore 0.1 mol dm-3 and the
concentration of chloride ions is also 0.1 mol dm-3
Example 14
If 9.53g (0.1 mol) of magnesium chloride (MgCl2) is dissolved
in 1 dm3 of water then the concentration of magnesium chloride
solution (MgCl2 aq) would be 0.1moldm-3 . MgCl2(s) +aq  Mg2+(aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
However the 0.1mol magnesium chloride would split up and
0.1mol 0.1mol 0.2mol
form 0.1 mol of magnesium ions and 0.2 mol of chloride ions.
The concentration of magnesium ions is therefore 0.1 mol dm-3
and the concentration of chloride ions is now 0.2 mol dm-3

Making a solution

• Weigh the sample bottle containing the required mass of Alternatively the known mass of
solid on a 2 dp balance solid in the weighing bottle could be
• Transfer to beaker and reweigh sample bottle transferred to beaker, washed and
• Record the difference in mass washings added to the beaker.

• Add 100cm3 of distilled water to the beaker. Use a glass

rod to stir to help dissolve the solid.

•Sometimes the substance may not dissolve well in cold

water so the beaker and its contents could be heated gently
until all the solid had dissolved.

• Pour solution into a 250cm3 graduated flask via a funnel. Remember to fill so the bottom of the
• Rinse beaker and funnel and add washings from the meniscus sits on the line on the neck of
beaker and glass rod to the volumetric flask. the flask. With dark liquids like potassium
• make up to the mark with distilled water using a dropping manganate it can be difficult to see the
pipette for last few drops. meniscus.
• Invert flask several times to ensure uniform solution.

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 Dilutions
Diluting a solution
Using a volumetric pipette is more
accurate than a measuring cylinder
•Pipette 25cm3 of original solution into a 250cm3 because it has a smaller uncertainty
volumetric flask
•make up to the mark with distilled water using a Use a teat pipette to make up to the mark
dropping pipette for last few drops. in volumetric flask to ensure volume of
• Invert flask several times to ensure uniform solution. solution accurately measured and one
doesn’t go over the line

Calculating Dilutions
Diluting a solution will not change the amount of moles of solute present but increase the volume of
solution and hence the concentration will lower
moles= volume x concentration
If amount of moles does not change then
Original volume x original concentration = new diluted volume x new diluted concentration

so new diluted concentration = original concentration x Original volume

new diluted volume

The new diluted volume will be equal to the original volume of solution added + the volume of water added.

Example 15
If 50 cm3 of water are added to 150 cm3 of a 0.20 mol dm-3 NaOH solution, what will the concentration of
the diluted solution be?
new diluted concentration = original concentration x Original volume
new diluted volume
new diluted concentration = 0.20 x 0.150
0.200
= 0.15 mol dm-3

Example 16
What volume of water in cm3 must be added to dilute 5.00 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm−3 hydrochloric acid so that
it has a concentration of 0.050 mol dm−3 ?
Moles original solution = conc x vol
= 1.00 x 0.005
= 0.005
New volume = moles /conc
= 0.005/0.05
= 0.1dm3 = 100cm3
Volume of water added = 100-5 = 95cm3

Safety and hazards

Irritant - dilute acid and alkalis- wear googles Hazardous substances in low
Corrosive- stronger acids and alkalis wear goggles concentrations or amounts
Flammable – keep away from naked flames will not pose the same risks
Toxic – wear gloves- avoid skin contact- wash hands after use as the pure substance.
Oxidising- Keep away from flammable / easily oxidised materials

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Ideal Gas Equation

The ideal gas equation applies to all gases and mixtures of PV = nRT
gases. If a mixture of gases is used the value n will be the total
moles of all gases in the mixture. Unit of Pressure (P):Pa
Unit of Volume (V): m3
The biggest problems students have with this equation is choosing Unit of Temp (T): K
and converting to the correct units, so pay close attention to the units. n= moles
R = 8.31 JK–1mol–1

Example 17: What is the mass of Cl2 gas that has a pressure of Converting temperature
100kPa, temperature 20oC , volume 500cm3. (R = 8.31)
oC  K add 273
moles = PV/RT
100 kPa = 100 000 Pa
= 100 000 x 0.0005 / (8.31 x 293) 20oC = 20+273= 293K
= 0.0205 mol 500 cm3 = 0.0005 m3

Mass = moles x Mr
= 0.0205 x (35.5 x2)
= 1.46 g

Example 18: 0.150g of a volatile liquid was injected into a sealed gas syringe. The gas syringe was placed in an oven at
70oC at a pressure of 100kPa and a volume of 80cm3 was measured. What is the Mr of the volatile liquid ? (R = 8.31)

moles = PV/RT 100 kPa = 100 000 Pa

= 100 000 x 0.00008 / (8.31 x 343) 80 cm3 = 0.00008 m3
= 0.00281 mol

Mr = mass/moles
= 0.15 / 0.00281
= 53.4 g mol-1

Using a gas syringe

Gas syringes can be used for a variety of experiments where the volume of a gas is measured, possibly to
work out moles of gas or to follow reaction rates.

The volume of a gas depends on pressure Make sure you don’t leave
and temperature so when recording volume gaps in your diagram where
it is important to note down the temperature gas could escape
and pressure of the room.

Moles of gas can be calculated from gas

volume (and temperature and pressure)
using ideal gas equation PV = nRT

If drawing a gas syringe make

Potential errors in using a gas syringe
sure you draw it with some
•gas escapes before bung inserted
measurement markings on the
•syringe sticks
barrel to show measurements
• some gases like carbon dioxide or sulphur
can be made.
dioxide are soluble in water so the true amount of
gas is not measured.

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Changing the Conditions of a gas

Questions may involve the same amount of gas under different conditions.

Example 19
40 cm3 of oxygen and 60 cm3 of carbon dioxide, each at 298 K and 100 kPa, were placed into an
evacuated flask of volume 0.50 dm3. What is the pressure of the gas mixture in the flask at 298 K?

There are two approaches to solving this

1. Work out moles of gas using ideal gas equation then put back into ideal gas equation
with new conditions
P1V1 = P2V2
2. Or combine the equation n= PV/RT as on right
T1 T2
Can do this as moles of gas do not change

As Temperature is the same can make the above equation P1V1 = P2V2
P2 = P1V1 /V2
= 100000 x 1x 10-4 / 5x10-4
= 20 000Pa

Reacting Volumes of Gas

Equal volumes of any gases measured under the same 1 mole of any gas at room
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal pressure (1atm) and room
numbers of molecules (or atoms if the gas in monatomic) temperature 25oC will have the
volume of 24dm3
Volumes of gases reacting in a balanced equation
can be calculated by simple ratio

Example 20 If one burnt 500 cm3 of methane at 1atm and 300K what volume of
Oxygen would be needed and what volume of CO2 would be given off under the
same conditions?
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
1 mole 2 mole 1 mole

500cm3 1dm3 500cm3

Simply multiply
gas volume x2

Example 21 An important reaction which occurs in the catalytic converter of a car is

2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)
In this reaction, when 500 cm3 of CO reacts with 500 cm3 of NO at 650 °C and at 1 atm.
Calculate the total volume of gases produced at the same temperature and pressure ?

2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g) total volume of gases produced = 750cm3

500cm3 500cm3 500cm3 250cm3

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Converting quantities between different substances using a balanced equation Typically we are given a quantity of
one substance and are asked to
N2 + 3H2  2NH3 work out a quantity for another
substance in the reaction. Any of
The balancing (stoichiometric) numbers are mole ratios
the above three equations can be
e.g. 1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 to produce 2moles of NH3 used.

1. For pure solids, liquids and gases 2. For gases 3. For solutions

moles = mass PV = nRT Concentration = moles

Mr volume

Step 3
Step 1:
Convert moles of second substance
Use one of the above 3 equations to Step 2:
into quantity question asked for
convert any given quantity into moles Use balanced equation to convert
using relevant equation
Mass moles moles of initial substance into
e.g. Moles ,Mr  mass
PVT of gas  moles moles of second substance
Mole, P, T gas  vol gas
Conc and vol of solution  moles
Moles, vol solution  conc

Example 22: What mass of Carbon dioxide would be produced Example 23: 23.6cm3 of H2SO4 neutralised 25.0cm3 of 0.150M
from heating 5.50 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate? NaOH. What is the concentration of the H2SO4?
2NaHCO3  Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O

Step 1: work out moles of sodium hydrogencarbonate

Moles = mass / Mr Step 1: work out moles of sodium hydroxide
= 5.50 /84 Moles = conc x vol
= 0.0655 mol = 0.150 x 0.025
= 0. 00375 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of CO2
2 moles NaHCO3 : 1 moles CO2
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of H2SO4
So 0.0655 HNO3 : 0.0328moles CO2
2 moles NaOH : 1 moles H2SO4
Step 3: work out mass of CO2 So 0.00375 NaOH : 0.001875 mol H2SO4
Mass = moles x Mr
= 0.0328 x 44.0 Step 3 work out concentration of H2SO4
=1.44g
conc= moles/Volume
= 0.001875 / 0.0236
Example 24: What is the total volume of gas produced in = 0.0794 mol dm-3
dm3 at 333K and 100kPa when 0.651 g of magnesium
nitrate decomposes when heated?
2Mg (NO3)2 (s) 2 MgO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) Example 25: What mass of Copper would react completely with
150 cm3 of 1.60M nitric acid?
Step 1: work out moles of magnesium nitrate 3Cu + 8HNO3  3Cu(NO3 )2 + 2NO + 4H2O
Moles = mass / Mr
= 0.651 / 148.3 Step 1: work out moles of nitric acid
= 0.00439 mol Moles = conc x vol
= 1.6 x 0.15
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of gas
= 0.24 mol
produced
2 moles Mg (NO3)2 : 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) ie 5moles of gas Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of Cu
So 0.00439 Mg (NO3)2 : 0.01098( 0.00439 x 5/2) moles 8 moles HNO3 : 3 moles Cu
gas So 0.24 HNO3 : 0.09 (0.24 x 3/8) mol Cu

Step 3: work out volume of gas Step 3: work out mass of Cu

Mass = moles x Mr
Volume = nRT/P = 0.09 x 63.5
= (0.01098 x 8.31 x 333 )/ 100000 =5.71g
= 0.000304m3
= 0.303dm3

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Limiting and excess reactants

Example 26 What is the maximum mass of Titanium that could be produced from reacting 100 g of TiCl4 with
80 g of sodium TiCl4 + 4 Na  4 NaCl + Ti
Step 1: work out amount, in mol, TiCl4 Step 1: work out amount, in mol, Na
amount = mass / Mr amount = mass / Mr
= 100 /189.9 = 80/23.0
= 0.527 mol = 3.48 mol
Step 2 use balanced equation to work out which reactant is in excess
Using 1TiCl4 :4 Na ratio we can see that 0.527mol of TiCl4 should react with 2.108 mol of Na. We actually have 3.48
mole of Na which is an excess of 1.372 moles. We can complete calculation using the limiting reactant of TiCl 4
Step 3: use balanced equation to work out amount in mol of Ti formed
1 mol TiCl4: 1 mole Ti
So 0.527mol TiCl4 produces 0.527 mole Ti
Step 4: work out mass of Ti formed
Mass = amount x Mr
= 0.527 x 47.9
=25.24g

% Yield and % Atom economy

actual yield Mass of useful products

percentage yield = x 100 percentage
= x 100
atom economy
theoretical yield Mass of all reactants

Example 27: What is the % atom economy for the following reaction where Fe is
the desired product assuming the reaction goes to completion? Do take into account
balancing numbers
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3 CO2
when working out %
% atom economy = (2 x 55.8) atom economy.
x 100
(2 x 55.8 + 3x16) + 3 x (12+16)
=45.8%

Example 28: 25.0g of Fe2O3 was reacted and it produced 10.0g of Fe. What is the
percentage yield?
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3 CO2

First calculate maximum mass of Fe that could be produced

Step 1: work out moles of Iron oxide
Moles = mass / Mr
=25.0 / 159.6
= 0.1566 mol

Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of Fe

1 moles Fe2O3 : 2 moles Fe
So 0.1566 Fe2O3 : 0.313moles Fe

Step 3: work out mass of Fe % yield = (actual yield/theoretical yield) x 100

Mass = moles x Mr
= 0.313 x 55.8 = (10/ 17.5) x 100
=17.5g =57.1%

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Titrations
Safety precautions
The method for carrying out the titration
Acids and alkalis are corrosive
•rinse equipment (burette with acid, pipette with alkali, conical flask
(at low concentrations acids are
with distilled water)
irritants)
•pipette 25 cm3 of alkali into conical flask
Wear eye protection and gloves
•touch surface of alkali with pipette ( to ensure correct amount is
If spilled immediately wash affected
added)
parts after spillage
•adds acid solution from burette
•make sure the jet space in the burette is filled with acid
If substance is unknown treat it as
•add a few drops of indicator and refer to colour change at end point
potentially toxic and wear gloves.
•phenolphthalein [pink (alkali) to colourless (acid): end point pink
colour just disappears] [use if NaOH is used]
•methyl orange [yellow (alkali) to red (acid): end point orange] If the jet space is not filled properly prior
[use if HCl is used] to commencing the titration it will lead to
•use a white tile underneath the flask to help observe the colour errors if it then fills during the titration,
change leading to a larger than expected titre
•add acid to alkali whilst swirling the mixture and add acid dropwise at reading.
end point
•note burette reading before and after addition of acid A conical flask is used in preference to a
•repeats titration until at least 2 concordant results are obtained- two beaker because it is easier to swirl the
readings within 0.1 of each other mixture in a conical flask without spilling
the contents.

Indicators are generally weak acids so we

Working out average titre results only add a few drops of them. If too much
Only make an average of the concordant titre results is added it will affect the titration result
lf 2 or 3 values are within 0.10cm3 and therefore concordant or close
then we can say results are accurate and reproducible and the Distilled water can be added to the conical
titration technique is good/ consistent flask during a titration to wash the sides of
the flask so that all the acid on the side is
Recording results washed into the reaction mixture to react
•Results should be clearly recorded in a table with the alkali.
•Result should be recorded in full (i.e. both initial and final readings) It does not affect the titration reading as
•Record titre volumes to 2dp (0.05 cm3) water does not react with the reagents or
change the number of moles of acid
added.

Common Titration Equations Titrating mixtures

If titrating a mixture to work out the concentration of an active ingredient
CH3CO2H + NaOH  CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O it is necessary to consider if the mixture contains other substances that
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O have acid base properties.
If they don’t have acid base properties we can titrate with confidence.
HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O Testing batches
In quality control it will be necessary to do titrations/testing on several
samples as the amount/concentration of the chemical being tested may
vary between samples.

Safely dealing with excess acid

Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are good for neutralising excess acid in the
stomach or acid spills because they are not corrosive and will not cause a hazard if used in excess. They also have no
toxicity if used for indigestion remedies but the CO2 produced can cause wind.
Magnesium hydroxide is also suitable for dealing with excess stomach acid as it has low solubility in water and is
only weakly alkaline so not corrosive or dangerous to drink (unlike the strong alkali sodium hydroxide). It will also
not produce any carbon dioxide gas.

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 More complicated titration calculations- taking samples

Example 29: A 25.0cm3 sample of vinegar was diluted in a Common Titration Equations
250cm3 volumetric flask. This was then put in a burette and
23.10cm3 of the diluted vinegar neutralised 25.0 cm3 of 0.100 CH3CO2H + NaOH  CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O
M NaOH. What is the concentration of the vinegar in gdm-3 ?
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 +2H2O
CH3CO2H + NaOH  CH3CO2-Na+ + H2O
HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O
Step 1: work out moles of sodium hydroxide
moles = conc x vol
NaHCO3 + HCl  NaCl + CO2 + H2O
= 0.10 x 0.025 Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
= 0. 00250 mol
Step 2: use balanced equation to give moles of CH3CO2H Example 31
1 moles NaOH : 1 moles CH3CO2H 950 mg of impure calcium carbonate tablet was crushed. 50.0
So 0.00250 NaOH : 0.00250 moles CH3CO2H cm3 of 1.00 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, an excess, was then
added. After the tablet had reacted, the mixture was
Step 3 work out concentration of diluted CH3CO2H in 23.1 transferred to a volumetric flask. The volume was made up to
(and 250 cm3)in moldm-3 exactly 100 cm3 with distilled water. 10.0 cm3 of this solution
conc= moles/Volume was titrated with 11.1cm3 of 0.300 mol dm–3 sodium
hydroxide solution.
= 0.00250 / 0.0231 What is the percentage of CaCO3 by mass in the tablet?
= 0.108 mol dm-3 1. Calculate the number of moles of sodium hydroxide used
Step 4 work out concentration of original concentrated moles= conc x vol
CH3CO2H in 25cm3 in moldm-3 = 0.30 x 0.0111
conc = 0.108 x 10 = 1.08 mol dm-3 = 0. 00333 mol

Step 5 work out concentration of CH3CO2H in original 2. Work out number of moles of hydrochloric acid left in 10.0 cm3
concentrated 25 cm3 in gdm-3 use balanced equation to give moles of HCl
conc in gdm-3 = conc in mol dm-3 x Mr 1 mol NaOH : 1 mol HCl
So 0.00333 NaOH : 0.00333 moles HCl
= 1.08 x 60 = 64.8 g dm-3
3. Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid left in
100 cm3 of solution
Example 30. An unknown metal carbonate reacts with
hydrochloric acid according to the following equation. Moles in 100cm3 = 0.00333 x10
M2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2MCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) =0.0333
A 3.96 g sample of M2CO3 was dissolved in distilled water to
make 250 cm3 of solution. A 25.0 cm3 portion of this solution 4. Calculate the number of moles of HCl that reacted with
required 32.8 cm3 of 0.175 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid for the indigestion tablet.
complete reaction. Calculate the Mr of M2CO3 and identify the
In original HCl 50.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm–3 there is 0.05moles
metal M
1. Calculate the number of moles of HCl used moles of HCl that =0.05 -0.0333
moles = conc x vol reacted with the =0.0167
= 0.175 x 0.0328 indigestion tablet.
= 0. 00574 mol
2. Work out number of moles of M2CO3 in 25.0 cm3 put in conical 5 Use balanced equation to give moles of CaCO3
flask CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
use balanced equation to give moles of M2CO3 2 mol HCl : 1 mol CaCO3
2 mol HCl : 1 mol M2CO3 So 0.0167 HCl : 0.00835 moles CaCO3
So 0. 00574 NaOH : 0.00287 moles M2CO3
6. work out the mass of CaCO3 in original tablet
3. Calculate the number of moles M2CO3 acid in original 250 cm3
of solution mass= moles x Mr
Moles in 250cm3 = 0.00287 x10 = 0.00835 x 100 = 0.835 g
=0.0287
percentage of
4. work out the Mr of M2CO3 = 0.835/0.950 x100
CaCO3 by mass in
Mr= mass / moles the tablet
= 87.9 %
= 3.96/ 0.0287= 138.0
5. Work out Ar of M = (138-12- 16x3)
2
Ar of M = 39 M= potassium

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Uncertainty
Readings and Measurements

Readings Measurements The uncertainty of a reading (one judgement) is at

the values found from a the values taken as the least ±0.5 of the smallest scale reading.
single judgement when difference between the The uncertainty of a measurement (two
using a piece of equipment judgements of two judgements) is at least ±1 of the smallest scale
values (e.g. using a reading.
burette in a titration)

Calculating Apparatus Uncertainties

Each type of apparatus has a sensitivity uncertainty To decrease the apparatus uncertainties
you can either decrease the sensitivity
•balance  0.001 g uncertainty by using apparatus with a
•volumetric flask  0.1 cm3 greater resolution (finer scale divisions )
•25 cm3 pipette  0.1 cm3 or you can increase the size of the
•burette (start & end readings and end point )  0.15 cm3 measurement made.

Calculate the percentage error for each piece of equipment used by Uncertainty of a measurement using
a burette. If the burette used in the
% uncertainty =  uncertainty x 100 titration had an uncertainty for each
Measurement made on apparatus reading of +/– 0.05 cm3 then during a
titration two readings would be taken
e.g. for burette so the uncertainty on the titre volume
% uncertainty = 0.15/average titre result x100 would be +/– 0.10 cm3 . Then often
another 0.05 is added on because of
To calculate the maximum percentage apparatus uncertainty in the uncertainty identifying the end point
final result add all the individual equipment uncertainties together. colour change

Reducing uncertainties in a titration If looking at a series of measurements

in an investigation the experiments
Replacing measuring cylinders with pipettes or burettes which have with the smallest readings will have
lower apparatus uncertainty will lower the error the highest experimental uncertainties.

To reduce the uncertainty in a burette reading it is necessary to

make the titre a larger volume. This could be done by: increasing
the volume and concentration of the substance in the conical flask
or by decreasing the concentration of the substance in the burette.

Reducing uncertainties in measuring mass

Using a more accurate balance or a larger mass will
reduce the uncertainty in weighing a solid
Weighing sample before and after addition and then
calculating difference will ensure a more accurate
measurement of the mass added.

If the %uncertainty due to the apparatus <

percentage difference between the actual value
Calculating the percentage difference between the
and the calculated value then there is a
actual value and the calculated value
discrepancy in the result due to other errors.
If we calculated an Mr of 203 and the real value is 214,
then the calculation is as follows: If the %uncertainty due to the apparatus >
Calculate difference 214-203 = 11 percentage difference between the actual value
% = 11/214 x100 and the calculated value then there is no
=5.41% discrepancy and all errors in the results can be
explained by the sensitivity of the equipment.

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