DIGITAL-2marks Q&A
DIGITAL-2marks Q&A
DIGITAL-2marks Q&A
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UNIT-1
1. Define binary logic?
Binary logic consists of binary variables and logical operations. The variables are Designated by the
alphabets such as A, B, C, x, y, z, etc., with each variable having only two distinct values: 1 and 0. There
are three basic logic operations: AND, OR, and NOT.
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De Morgan suggested two theorems that form important part of Boolean algebra. They are,
1) The complement of a product is equal to the sum of the complements. (AB)' = A' + B
2) The complement of a sum term is equal to the product of the complements. (A + B)' = A'B'
Duality property states that every algebraic expression deducible from the postulates Of Boolean algebra
remains valid if the operators and identity elements are interchanged. If the dual of an algebraic
expression is desired, we simply interchange OR and AND operators and replace 1's by 0's and 0's by 1's.
i) Karnaug map ii) Tabular method or Quine Mc-Cluskey method iii) Variable entered map technique
i) Generally it is limited to six variable map (i.e) more then six variable involving expression are
not reduced.
ii) The map method is restricted in its capability since they are useful for simplifying only
Boolean expression represented in standard form
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A karnaugh map or k map is a pictorial form of truth table, in which the map diagram is made up of
squares, with each squares representing one minterm of the function.
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11. What are called don’t care conditions?
In some logic circuits certain input conditions never occur, therefore the Corresponding output never
appears. In such cases the output level is not defined, it can be either high or low. These output levels are
indicated by ‘X’ or‘d’ in the truth tables and are called don’t care conditions or incompletely specified
functions
If a min term is covered by only one prime implicant, the prime implicant is said to be essential
A prime implicant is a product term obtained by combining the maximum possible number of adjacent
squares in the map.? Logic gates are the basic elements that make up a digital system. The electronic gate
is a circuit that is able to operate on a number of binary inputs in order to perform a particular logical
function.
Bipolar Unipolar Saturated Non Saturated PMOS NMOS CMOS RTL Schottky TTL ECL DTL I I C
TTL
What are its advantages? The NAND and NOR gates are called as the universal gates. These gates are
used to perform any type of logic application
Totem pole outputs cannot be connected together because such a connection might produce excessive
current and may result in damage to the devices.
Y = (A + B) (A + C’) (B' + C’) Y = (A + B) (A + C’) (B' + C’) = (AA' + AC +A'B +BC) (B' + C') [A.A' =
0] = (AC + A'B + BC) (B' + C’) = AB'C + ACC' + A'BB' + A'BC' + BB'C + BCC' = AB'C + A'BC'
19. Reduce A (A + B) A (A + B) = AA + AB = A (1 + B) [1 + B = 1] = A.
20. Reduce A'B'C' + A'BC' + A'BC A'B'C' + A'BC' + A'BC = A'C'(B' + B) + A'B'C = A'C' + A'BC [A +
A' = 1] = A'(C' + BC) = A'(C' + B) [A + A'B = A + B]
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Unit-II
When logic gates are connected together to produce a specified output for certain specified combinations
of input variables, with no storage involved, the resulting circuit is called combinational logic.
The problem definition determines the number of available input variables & required O/P variables.
Assigning letter symbols to I/O variables Obtain simplified Boolean expression for each O/P. Obtain the
logic diagram.
The logic circuit that performs the addition of two bits is a half adder. The circuit that performs the
addition of three bits is a full adder
4. Define Decoder?
A decoder is a multiple - input multiple output logic circuit that converts coded inputs into coded outputs
where the input and output codes are different.
A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from n input lines to a maximum of
2n out puts lines.
6. Define Encoder?
An encoder has 2n input lines and n output lines. In encoder the output lines generate the binary code
corresponding to the input value.
A priority encoder is an encoder circuit that includes the priority function. In priority encoder, if 2 or
more inputs are equal to 1 at the same time, the input having the highest priority will take precedence.
8. Define multiplexer?
Multiplexer is a digital switch. If allows digital information from several sources to be routed onto a
single output line
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A comparator is a special combinational circuit designed primarily to compare the relative magnitude of
two binary numbers.
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10. List basic types of programmable logic devices. .
The sum and carry outputs of any stage cannot be produced until the input carry occurs, this leads to a
time delay in the addition process. This delay is knows as carry propagation delay.
A BCD adder is a circuit that adds two BCD Digits and produces a sum digit also in BCD
seven segment displays are used to give a visual indication of the outputs states.
A parity bit is used for the purpose of detecting errors during transmission of binary information.
The circuits
The circuits that generators the parity in the transmitter is called a parity generators.
The circuits that checks the parity in the receiver is called a parity checker.
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UNIT-III
The sequential circuits are classified on the basis of timing of their signals into two types. They are
Synchronous sequential circuit. 2) Asynchronous sequential Rejinpaul.com
circuit.
The basic unit for storage is flip flop. A flip-flop maintains its output state either at 1 or 0 until
directed by an input signal to change its state.
There are various types of flip flops. Some of them are mentioned below they are, _RS flip-flop _SR
flip-flop _D flip-flop _JK flip-flop _T flip-flop
When R input is low and S input is high the Q output of flip-flop is set. When R input is high and S
input is low the Q output of flip-flop is reset. When both the inputs R and S are low the output does not
change When both the inputs R and S are high the output is unpredictable.
When R input is low and S input is high the Q output of flip-flop is set. When R input is high and S input
is low the Q output of flip-flop is reset. When both the inputs R and S are low the output does not
change. When both the inputs R and S are high the output is unpredictable.
In D flip-flop during the occurrence of clock pulse if D=1, the output Q is set and if D=0, the output is
reset.
When K input is low and J input is high the Q output of flip-flop is set. When K input is high and J input
is low the Q output of flip-flop is reset. When both the inputs K and J are low the output does not change
When both the inputs K and J are high it is possible to set or reset the flip-flop (ie) the output toggle on
the next positive clock edge.
T flip-flop is also known as Toggle flip-flop. When T=0 there is no change in the output. When T=1 the
output switch to the complement state (ie) the output toggles.
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In JK flip-flop output is fed back to the input. Therefore change in the output results change in the input.
Due to this in the positive half of the clock pulse if both J and K are high then output toggles
continuously. This condition is called ‘race around condition’. Rejinpaul.com
The problem of race around condition can solved by edge triggering flip flop. The term edge triggering
means that the flip-flop changes state either at the positive edge or negative edge of the clock pulse and it
is sensitive to its inputs only at this transition of the clock.
A master-slave flip-flop consists of two flip-flops where one circuit serves as a master and the other as a
slave.
A register is a group of flip-flops flip-flop can store one bit information. So an n-bit register has a group
of n flip-flops and is capable of storing any binary information/number containing n-bits.
The binary information in a register can be moved from stage to stage within the register or into or out of
the register upon application of clock pulses. This type of bit movement or shifting is essential for certain
arithmetic and logic operations used in microprocessors. This gives rise to group of registers called shift
registers.
There are five types. They are, _Serial In Serial Out Shift Register _Serial In Parallel Out Shift Register
_Parallel In Serial Out Shift Register _Parallel In Parallel Out Shift Register _Bidirectional Shift Register
Combinational circuits Sequential circuits Memory unit is not required Memory unity is required Parallel
adder is a combinational circuit Serial adder is a sequential circuit
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The information stored in the memory elements at any given time define.s the present state of the
sequential circuit.
The present state and the external inputs determine the outputs and the next state of the sequential circuit.
UNIT-V
1. Explain ROM
A read only memory (ROM) is a device that includes both the decoder and the OR gates within a single
IC package. It consists of n input lines and m output lines. Each bit combination of the input variables is
called an address. Each bit combination that comes out of the output lines is called a word. The number
of distinct addresses possible with n input variables is 2n.
3. Explain PROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) It allows user to store data or program. PROMs use the
fuses with material like nichrome and polycrystalline. The user can blow these fuses by passing
around 20 to 50 mA of current for the period 5 to 20μs.The blowing of fuses is called programming
of ROM. The PROMs are one time programmable. Once programmed, the information is stored
permanent.
4. Explain EPROM.
EPROM(Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) EPROM use MOS circuitry. They store 1’s
and 0’s as a packet of charge in a buried layer of the IC chip. We can erase the stored data in the
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EPROMs by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light via its quartz window for 15 to 20 minutes. It is not
possible to erase selective information. The chip can be reprogrammed.
5. Explain EEPROM.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) EEPROM also use MOS
circuitry. Data is stored as charge or no charge on an insulated layer or an insulated floating gate in
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the device. EEPROM allows selective erasing at the register level rather than erasing all the
information since the information can be changed by using electrical signals.
6. What is RAM?
Random Access Memory. Read and write operations can be carried out.
7. Define ROM
A read only memory is a device that includes both the decoder and the OR gates within a single IC
package
8. Define address and word:
In a ROM, each bit combination of the input variable is called on address. Each bit combination that
comes out of the output lines is called a word.
Final stable state depends on the order in which the state variable changes -race condition is harmful
4. What are the steps for the design of asynchronous sequential circuit?
Construction of primitive flow table -reduction of flow table -state assignment is made -realization of
primitive flow table
5. What is hazard?
The merger graph is defined as follows. It contains the same number of vertices as the state table contains
states. A line drawn between the two state vertices indicates each compatible state pair. It two states are
incompatible no connecting line is drawn.
The states are said to be incompatible if no line is drawn in between them. If implied states are
incompatible, they are crossed & the corresponding line is ignored
When 2 or more binary state variables change their value in response to a change in an input variable,
race condition occurs in an asynchronous sequential circuit. In case of unequal delays, a race condition
may cause the state variables to change in an unpredictable manner.
If the final stable state that the circuit reaches does not depend on the order in which the state variable
changes, the race condition is not harmful and it is called a non critical race.
Races can be avoided by making a proper binary assignment to the state variables. Here, the state
variables are assigned with binary numbers in such a way that only one state variable can change at any
one state variable can change at any one time when a state transition occurs. To accomplish this, it is
necessary that states between which transitions occur be given adjacent assignments. Two binary are said
to be adjacent if they differ in only one variable.
16. Write short note on one hot state assignment. The one hot state assignment is another method for
finding a race free state assignment. In this method, only one variable is active or hot for each row in
the original flow table, ie, it requires one state variable for each row of the flow table. Additional row
are introduced to provide single variable changes between internal state transitions.
The delay elements provide a short term memory for the sequential circuit. The present state and next
state variables in asynchronous sequential circuits are called secondary variables.
In asynchronous sequential circuit state table is known as flow table because of the behaviour of the
asynchronous sequential circuit. The stage changes occur in independent of a clock, based on the logic
propagation delay, and cause the states to flow from one to another.
A pulse mode asynchronous machine has two inputs. If produces an output whenever two consecutive
pulses occur on one input line only. The output remains at 1 until a pulse has occurred on the other input
line. Write down the state table for the machine
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