Engineering Drawing - Book

A Handbook on Engineering
Graphics
Authors
Dr. M. Chandra Sekhara Reddy
Gadham Setty Guru Mahesh
Dr. N. Rajesh
Gadham Setty Guru Sai Prasad
AkiNik Publications
New Delhi
Published By: AkiNik Publications
AkiNik Publications
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Toll Free (India) – 18001234070
Authors: Dr. M. Chandra Sekhara Reddy, Gadham Setty Guru Mahesh, Dr.
N. Rajesh and Gadham Setty Guru Sai Prasad
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© AkiNik Publications
Edition: 1st
Publication Year: 2021
Pages: 136
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Contents
S. No. Topics Page No.

1 Unit – I 1-29
Introduction to Engineering Drawing 1
Lettering 7
Geometrical Constructions 10
Conic Sections 15
Hyperbola 20
Special Curves 21
2 Unit – II 29-41
Projection of Points and Straight Lines 29
Problems 31
Important Questions 40
3 Unit – III 42-76
Projection of Planes 42
Simple Problems 45
Projection of Solids 52
Simple Problems 56
4 Unit – IV 77-108
Introduction to AUTOCAD 77
5 Unit – V 109-115
Orthographic Projection 109
6 Unit – VI 116-120
Isometric Projection 116
7 Experiments 121-146
2D Sketch of Object Model – 1 122
Orthographic Projections – 4 128
Orthographic Projections - 5 130
Orthographic Projections - 6 132
Isometric Projections - 7 134
Isometric Projections - 8 136
Question Bank
Unit - I
Introduction to Engineering Drawing

Engineering drawing is a two-dimensional representation of three-
dimensional objects. In general, it provides necessary information about the
shape, size, surface quality, material, manufacturing process, etc., of the
object. It is the graphic language from which a trained person can visualize
objects.
Drawing Instruments and aids
The Instruments and other aids used in drafting work are listed below:
❖ Drawing board
❖ Set squares.
❖ French curves
❖ Templates
❖ Mini drafter
❖ Instrument box
❖ Protractor
❖ Set of scales
❖ Drawing sheets
❖ Pencils
Drawing Board
Until recently drawing boards used are made of well-seasoned softwood
of about 25 mm thick with a working edge for T-square. Nowadays mini
drafters are used instead of T-squares which can be fixed on any board. The
standard size of board depends on the size of drawing sheet size required.
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Figure 1.1: Mini-drafter
Mini-Drafter
Mini drafter shown in Figure 1.1 and consists of an angle formed by two
arms with scales marked and rigidly hinged to each other. It combines the
functions of T-square, set-squares, scales and protractor. It is used for
drawing horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and perpendicular
lines and for measuring lines and angles.
Instrument Box
Instrument box contains 1. Compasses, 2. Dividers and 3. Inking pens.
What is important is the position of the pencil lead with respect to the tip of
the compass. It should be at least 1 mm above as shown in the fig. because
the tip goes into the board for grip by 1 mm.
Figure 1.2
Pencils
Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are
available in the market. The hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by
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3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The grade HB denotes medium hardness of
lead used for general purpose. The hardness increases as the value of the
numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes softer, as the value
of the numeral before B increases.
➢ HB Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and free sketching
➢ H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines
➢ 2H Hard grade for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines,
Extension lines, Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines.
Drawing Sheet
The standard drawing sheet sizes shown in Figure 1.3 are arrived at on
the basic Principal of x: y = 1: 2^ (1/2) and xy = 1 where x and y are the
sides of the sheet. For example AO, having a surface area of 1 Sq.m; x = 841
mm and y = 1189 mm. The successive sizes are obtained by either by
halving along the length or doubling the width, the area being in the ratio 1:
2. Designation of sizes is given in the fig. For class work use of A2 size
drawing sheet is preferred.
Table 1.1
Designation Dimension, mm Trimmed aloe

AO 841 x 1189
A1 590 x 841
A2 420 x 594
A3 297 x 420
AO 210 x 297
Figure 1.3
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Figure.1.4
Title Block
The Figure No. 1.4 shows title block should lie within the drawing space
at the bottom right hand comer of the sheet. The title block can have a
maximum length of 170 mm and width of 65mm providing the following
information.
➢ Title of the drawing.
➢ Drawing number.
➢ Scale.
➢ Symbol denoting the method of projection.
➢ Name of the firm, and
➢ Initials of staff, who have designed, checked and approved.
Lines
Just as in English textbook the correct words are used for making correct
sentences; in Engineering Graphics, the details of various objects are drawn
by different types of lines. Each line has a definite meaning and sense to
convey.
➢ Visible Outlines, Visible Edges: (Continuous wide lines) the lines
drawn to represent the visible outlines/ visible edges / surface boundary
lines of objects should be outstanding in appearance.
➢ Dimension Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): Dimension Lines are
drawn to mark dimension.
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➢ Extension Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): There are extended
slightly beyond the respective dimension lines.
➢ Construction Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): These are drawn for
constructing drawings and should not be erased after completion of the
drawing.
➢ Hatching / Section Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): These are
drawn for the sectioned portion of an object. These are drawn inclined at
an angle of 450 to the axis or to the main outline of the section.
➢ Guide Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines): These are drawn for
lettering and should not be erased after lettering.
➢ Break Lines (Continuous Narrow Freehand Lines): Wavy
continuous narrow line drawn freehand is used to represent break of an
object.
➢ Break Lines (Continuous Narrow Lines With Zigzags): Straight
continuous narrow line with zigzags is used to represent break of an
object.
➢ Dashed Narrow Lines (Dashed Narrow Lines):Hidden edges / Hidden
outlines of objects are shown by dashed lines of short dashes of equal
lengths of about 3 mm, spaced at equal distances of about 1 mm. the
points of intersection of these lines with the outlines / another hidden
line should be clearly shown.
➢ Centre Lines (Long-Dashed Dotted Narrow Lines): These are drawn
at the centre of the drawings symmetrical about an axis or both the axes.
These are extended by a short distance beyond the outline of the
drawing.
➢ Cutting Plane Lines: Cutting Plane Line is drawn to show the location
of a cutting plane. It is long-dashed dotted narrow line, made wide at the
ends, bends and change of direction. The direction of viewing is shown
by means of arrows resting on the cutting plane line.
➢ Border Lines: Border Lines are continuous wide lines of minimum
thickness 0.7 mm.
Page | 5
Table 1.2
Page | 6
Conventional Representation of Materials
Table.1.3
Lettering
Lettering is defined as writing of titles, sub-titles, dimensions, etc., on a
drawing.
Importance of Lettering
To undertake production work of an engineering component as per the
drawing, the size and other details are indicated on the drawing. This is done
in the form of notes and dimensions. Main Features of Lettering are
legibility, uniformity and rapidity of execution. Use of drawing instruments
for lettering consumes more time. Lettering should be done freehand with
Page | 7
speed. Practice accompanied by continuous efforts would improve the
lettering skill and style. Poor lettering mars the appearance of an otherwise
good drawing.
Size of Letters
➢ Size of Letters is measured by the height h of the CAPITAL letters as
well as numerals.
➢ Standard heights for CAPITAL letters and numerals recommended by
BIS are given below: 1.8, 2.5, 3.5, 5, 6, 10, 14 and 20 mm.
Note: Size of the letters may be selected based upon the size of drawing.
Guide Lines
In order to obtain correct and uniform height of letters and numerals,
guide lines are drawn, using 2H pencil with light pressure. HB grade conical
end pencil is used for lettering. The following are some of the guide lines for
lettering.
➢ Drawing numbers, title block and letters denoting cutting planes,
sections are written in 10 mm size.
➢ Drawing title is written in 7 mm size.
➢ Hatching, sub-titles, materials, dimensions, notes, etc., are written in 3.5
mm size.
➢ Space between lines = 3/4 h
➢ Space between words may be equal to the width of alphabet M or 3/5 h.
Procedure for Lettering
1. Thin horizontal guide lines are drawn first at a distance ' h' apart.
2. Lettering Technique: Horizontal lines of the letters are drawn from left
to right. Vertical, Inclined and curved lines are drawn from top to
bottom.
3. After lettering has been completed, the guidelines are not erased.
Table.1.4
Page | 8
Table 1.5
Dimensioning
Drawing of a component, in addition to providing complete shape
description, must also furnish Information regarding the size description.
These are provided through the distances between the Surfaces, location of
holes, nature of surface finish, type of material, etc. The expression of these
Features on a drawing, using lines, symbols, figures and notes is called
dimensioning.
Figure.1.5
Methods of Indicating Dimensions
The dimensions are indicated on the drawings according to one of the
following two methods.
Method - 1 (Aligned method)
Dimensions should be placed parallel to and above their dimension lines
and preferably at the middle, and clear of the line. Dimensions may be
written so that they can be read from the bottom or from the right side of the
drawing. Dimensions on oblique dimension lines should be oriented as
shown in Fig.2.26a and except where unavoidable, they shall not be placed
in the 30° zone. Angular dimensions are oriented.
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Figure.1.6 (a) Figure.1.6 (b)
Method - 2 (Uni-directional)
Dimensions should be indicated so that they can be read from the
bottom of the drawing only. Non- horizontal dimension lines are interrupted,
preferably in the middle for insertion of the dimension.
Note: Horizontal dimensional lines are not broken to place the
dimension in both cases.
Figure.1.7
Page | 10
Geometrical Constructions
Introduction
Engineering drawing consists of a number of geometrical constructions.
A few methods are illustrated here without mathematical proofs.
a) To divide a straight line into a given number of equal parts say 5
Figure 1.8
Construction
1. Draw AC at any angle 𝜃 to AB.
2. Construct the required number of equal parts of convenient length on
AC like 1, 2, 3.
3. Join the last point 5 to B
4. Through 4, 3, 2, 1 draw lines parallel to 5B to intersect AB at 4', 3', 2'
and 1'.
1. To bisect a given angle.
Figure 1.9
Construction
1. Draw a line AB and AC making the given angle.
2. With centre A and any convenient radius R draw an arc intersecting the
sides at D and E.
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3. With centre’s D and E and radius larger than half the chord length DE,
draw arcs intersecting at F.
4. Join AF, <BAF = <FAC.
2. To inscribe a regular polygon of any number of sides in a given
circle.
Figure 1.10
Construction
1. Draw the given circle with AB as diameter.
2. Divide the diameter AB into N equal parts say 5.
3. With AB as radius and A & B as centres, draw arcs intersecting each
other at C.
4. Join C-P and extend to intersect the circle at D.
5. Join A-D which is the length of the side of the required polygon.
6. Set the compass to the length AD and starting from D mark off on the
circumference of the circles, obtaining the points E,F, etc. The figure
obtained by joining the points A,D,E etc., is the required polygon.
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3. To inscribe a hexagon in a given circle.
Figure 1.11
Construction
1. With centre O and radius R draw the given circle.
2. Draw any diameter AD to the circle.
3. Using 300 - 600 set-square and through the point A draw lines A1, A2 at
an angle 600 with AD, intersecting the circle at B and F respectively.
4. Using 300-600 set-square and through the point D draw lines Dl, D2 at
an angle 600 with DA, intersecting the circle at C and E respectively.
5. By joining A, B, C, D, E, F and A, S the required hexagon is obtained.
4. To construct a regular polygon (say a pentagon) given the length of
the side.
Figure 1.12
Page | 13
Construction
1. Draw a line AB equal to the side and extend to P such that AB = BP.
2. Draw a semicircle on AP and divide it into 5 equal parts by trial and
error.
3. Join B to second division Irrespective of the number of sides of the
polygon B is always joined to the second division.
4. Draw the perpendicular bisectors of AB and B2 to intersect at O.
5. Draw a circle with O as centre and OB as radius.
6. With AB as radius intersect the circle successively at D and E. Then join
CD, DE and EA.
5. To construct a regular polygon (say a hexagon) given the side AB
Figure 1.13
Construction
1. Draw a line AB equal to the side and extend to P such that AB = BP.
2. Draw a semicircle on AP and divide it into 6 equal parts by trial and
error.
3. Join B to second division.
4. Join B- 3, B-4, B-5 and produce them.
5. With 2 as centre and radius AB intersect the line B, 3 produced at D.
Similarly get the point E and F.
6. Join 2- D, D-E, E-F and F-A to get the required hexagon.
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6. To construct a regular figure of given side length and of N sides on a
straight line.
Figure 1.14
Construction
1. Draw the given straight line AB.
2. At B erect a perpendicular BC equal in length to AB.
3. Join AC and where it cuts the perpendicular bisector of AB, number the
point 4.
4. Complete the square ABCD of which AC is the diagonal.
5. With radius AB and centre B describe arc AC as shown.
6. Where this arc cuts the vertical centre line numbers the point 6.
7. This is the centre of a circle inside which a hexagon of side AB can now
be drawn.
8. Bisect the distance 4-6 on the vertical centre line.
9. Mark this bisection 5. This is the centre in which a regular pentagon of
side AB can now be drawn.
10. On the vertical centre line step off from point 6 a distance equal in
length to the distance 5-6. This is the centre of a circle in which a
regular heptagon of side AB can now be drawn.
11. If further distances 5-6 are now stepped off along the vertical centre line
and are numbered consecutively, each will be the centre of a circle in
which a regular polygon can be inscribed with side of length AB and
with a number of sides denoted by the number against the centre.
Page | 15
Conic Sections
Cone is formed when a right angled triangle with an apex and angle 𝜃 is
rotated about its altitude as the axis. The length or height of the cone is equal
to the altitude of the triangle and the radius of the base of the cone is equal to
the base of the triangle. The apex angle of the cone is 2𝜃. When a cone is cut
by a plane, the curve formed along the section is known as a conic.
a) Circle: When a cone is cut by a section plane A-A making an angle 𝛼 =
900 with the axis, the section obtained is a circle.
b) Ellipse: When a cone is cut by a section plane B-B at an angle, 𝛼 more
than half of the apex angle i.e., 𝜃 and less than 900, the curve of the
section is an ellipse. Its size depends on the angle 𝛼 and the distance of
the section plane from the apex of the cone.
c) Parabola: If the angle 𝛼 is equal to 𝜃 i.e., when the section plane C-C is
parallel to the slant side of the cone the curve at the section is a
parabola. This is not a closed figure like circle or ellipse. The size of the
parabola depends upon the distance of the section plane from the slant
side of the cone.
d) Hyperbola: If the angle 𝛼 is less than 𝜃 (section plane D-D), the curve
at the section is hyperbola. The curve of intersection is hyperbola, even
if 𝛼 = 𝜃, provided the section plane is not passing through the apex of
the cone. However if the section plane passes through the apex, the
section produced is an isosceles triangle.
Figure 1.15
Page | 16
e) Eccentricity
a. If e=1, it is parabola
b. If e>1, it is hyperbola
c. If e<1, it is an ellipse
Where eccentricity e is the ratio of distance of the point from the focus
to the distance of the point from the directrix.
Parabola: In physical world, parabola are found in the main cables on
simple suspension bridge, as parabolic reflectors in satellite dish antennas,
vertical curves in roads, trajectory of a body, automobile head light,
parabolic receivers.
Figure 1.16
Page | 17
1. To draw a parabola with the distance of the focus from the directrix
at 50mm (Eccentricity method)
Figure 1.17
Construction
1. Draw the axis AB and the directrix CD at right angles to it:
2. Mark the focus F on the axis at 50mm.
3. Locate the vertex V on AB such that AV = VF
4. Draw a line VE perpendicular to AB such that VE = VF
5. Join A, E and extend. Now, VE/VA = VF/VA = 1, the eccentricity.
6. Locate number of points 1, 2, 3, etc., to the right of V on the axis, which
need not be equidistant.
7. Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines perpendicular to the axis and
to meet the line AE extended at 1',2',3' etc.
8. With centre F and radius 1-1', draw arcs intersecting the line through 1
at P1 and P`1.
9. Similarly, locate the points P2, P`2, P3, P`3 etc., on either side of the
axis. Join the points by smooth curve, forming the required parabola.
Page | 18
2. To draw a normal and tangent through a point 40mm from the
directrix.
To draw a tangent and normal to the parabola. Locate the point M which
is at 40 mm from the directrix. Then join M to F and draw a line through F,
perpendicular to MF to meet the directrix at T. The line joining T and M and
extended is the tangent and a line NN, through M and perpendicular to TM is
the normal to the curve.
Ellipse
Ellipses are mostly found as harmonic oscillators, phase visualization,
elliptical gears, ellipse wings.
Figure 1.18
Page | 19
3. To draw an ellipse with the distance of the focus from the directrix
at 50mm and eccentricity = 2/3 (Eccentricity method)
Figure 1.19
Construction
1. Draw any vertical line CD as directrix.
2. At any point A in it, draw the axis.
3. Mark a focus F on the axis such that AF1=50mm.
4. Divide AF1 in to 5 equal divisions.
5. Mark the vertex V on the third division-point from A.
6. Thus eccentricity e= VF1/VA = 2/3.
7. A scale may now be constructed on the axis which will directly give the
distances in the required ratio.
8. At V, draw a perpendicular VE = VF1. Draw a line joining A and E.
9. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it draw a perpendicular to
meet AE produced at 1'.
10. With centre F and radius equal to 1-1', draw arcs to intersect a
perpendicular through 1 at points P1 and P'1.
11. Similarly mark points 2, 3 etc. on the axis and obtain points P2 and P'2,
P3 and P'3, etc.
12. Draw the ellipse through these points, it is a closed curve two foci and
two directrices.
Page | 20
Hyperbola
Lampshades, gear transmission, cooling towers of nuclear reactors are
some of the applications of Hyperbola.
Figure 1.20
1. To draw a hyperbola with the distance of the focus from the
directrix at 50mm and e=3/2 (Eccentricity method).
Figure 1.21
Construction
1. Draw the directrix CD and the axis AB.
2. Mark the focus F on AB and 65mm from A.
3. Divide AF into 5 equal divisions and mark V the vertex, on the second
division from A.
Page | 21
4. Draw a line VE perpendicular to AB such that VE=VF. Join A and E.
5. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to
meet AE produced at 1'.
6. With centre F and radius equal to 1-1', draw arcs intersecting the
perpendicular through 1 at P1 and P'1.
7. Similarly mark a number of points 2, 3 etc., and obtain points P2 and
P'2, etc.
Special Curves
Cycloidal Curves
Cycloidal curves are generated by a fixed point in the circumference of a
circle when it rolls without slipping along a fixed straight line or circular
path. The rolling circle is called the generating circle, the fixed straight line,
the directing line and the fixed circle, the directing circle.
In physical world, cycloidal curves are used as cycloidal gears, epicyclic
train dynamometer, epicyclic gear train, hypocycloid engine.
Cycloid
A cycloid is a curve generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a
circle, when it rolls without slipping along a straight line.
1. To draw a cycloid, given the radius R of the generating circle.
Figure 1.22
Page | 22
Construction
1. With centre O and radius R, draw the given generating circle.
2. Assuming point P to be the initial position of the generating point, draw
a line PA, tangential and equal to the circumference of the circle.
3. Divide the line PA and the circle into the same number of equal parts
and number the points.
4. Draw the line OB, parallel and equal to PA. OB is the locus of the centre
of the generating Circle.
5. Errect perpendiculars at 1’, 2’, 3’, etc., meeting OB at Q1, Q2, Q3 etc.
6. Through the points 1, 2, 3 etc., draw lines parallel to PA.
7. With centre O, and radius R, draw an arc intersecting the line through 1
at P1, P1 is the position of the generating point, when the centre of the
generating circle moves to Q1.
8. Similarly locate the points P2, P3 etc.
9. A smooth curve passing through the points P, P1, P2, P3 etc., is the
required cycloid.
To draw a normal and tangent to a cycloid
10. Mark a point M on the cycloid at a given distance from the directing
line.
11. With M as a centre and the radius R, cut the centre line at point C.
12. Through point C, draw a line perpendicular to PA, Which meets PA at
l
Point N .
l l
13. Join N M and extend it to N. The line NN is the required normal.
l l l
14. Through Point M, draw a line TT Perpendicular to NN . The line TT is
the required tangent.
Epicycloid
An epi-cycloid is a curve traced by a point on the circumference of a
generating circle, when it rolls without slipping on another circle (directing
circle) outside it.
Page | 23
2. To draw an epi-cyloid, given the radius 'r' of the generating circle
and the radious 'R' of the directing circle.
Construction
1. With centre O' and radius R, draw a part of the directing circle.
2. Draw the generating circle, by locating the centre O of it, on any radial
line O' P extended such that OP = r.
3. Assuming P to be the generating point, locate the point, A on the
directing circle such that the arc length PA is equal to the circumference
of the generating circle. The angle subtended by the arc PA at O' is
𝑟
given by 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑂𝐴 = ∗ 3600
𝑅
4. With centre O' and radius O’O, draw an arc intersecting the line O'A
produced at B. The arc OB is the locus of the centre of the generating
circle.
5. Divide the arc PA and the generating circle into the same number of
equal parts and number the points.
6. Join O'-1', O'-2', etc., and extend to meet the arc OB at O1,O2 etc.
7. Through the points 1, 2, 3 etc., draw circular arcs with O' as centre.
8. With centre O1 and radius r, draw an arc intersecting the arc through 1
at P1.
9. Similarly, locate the points P2, P3 etc.
10. A smooth curve through the points P1, P2, P3 etc., is the required epi-
cycloid.
Figure 1.23
Page | 24
To draw a normal and tangent to a Epicycloid.
11. Mark a point M on the epicycloid at a given distance from the Point O'.
12. With M as the centre and radius r , cut the centre arc OB at point C.
13. Join O'C to meet the arc PA at point D.
14. Join DM and Produce it to N. The line DN is the required normal.
l l
15. Through Point M, Draw a line TT Perpendicular to DN. The line TT is
the required tangent.
Hypocycloid
If the generating circle rolls inside the directing circle, the curve traced
by the point in called hypocycloid.
3. Draw a hypocycloid of a circle of 40 mm diameter which rolls inside
another circle of 200 mm diameter for one revolution. Draw a
tangent and normal at any point on it.
Figure 1.24
Construction
1. 1. Taking any point O as centre and radius (R) 100 mm draw an arc PQ
𝑟
which subtends an angle 𝜃 = 72° at O. 𝜽 = 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = X 𝟑𝟔𝟎0
𝑅
2. Let P be the generating point. On OP mark PC = r = 20 mm, the radius

of the rolling circle.
Page | 25
3. With C as centre and radius r (20 mm) draw the rolling circle. Divide
the rolling circle into 12 equal parts as 1,2,3 etc., in clock wise direction,
since the rolling circle is assumed to roll counter clock wise.
4. With O as centre, draw concentric arcs passing through 1, 2, 3 etc.
5. With O as centre and OC as radius draw an arc to represent the locus of
centre.
6. Divide the arc PQ into same number of equal parts (12) as 1', 2', 3' etc.
7. Join O'1, O'2 etc., which intersect the locus of centre at C1C2C3 etc.
8. Taking centre C1 and radius r, draw an arc cutting the arc through 1 at
P1. Similarly obtain the other points and draw a smooth curve through
them.
To draw a tangent and normal at a given point M
9. With M as centre and radius r = CP cut the locus of centre at the point
N.
10. Join ON and extend it to intersect the base circle at S.
11. Join MS, the normal.
12. At M, draw a line perpendicular to MS to get the required tangent.
Example: Draw an epicycloid of rolling circle of diameter 40 mm
which rolls outside another circle (base circle) of 150 mm diameter for one
revolution. Draw a tangent and normal at any point on the curve.
Figure 1.25
Page | 26
𝑟
𝜽 = X 𝟑𝟔𝟎0
𝑅
Involutes
1. Draw the involute of an equilateral triangle of side 20 and draw a
normal and a tangent at a distance 60 from the centre of the
triangle.
Figure 1.26
1. Draw the given triangle ABC of side 20.
2. Assuming A as the starting point; with B as centre and radius BA(=20),
draw an arc intersecting the line CB extended at P1.
3. With centre C and radius CP1 (=2 x 20), draw an arc intersecting the line
AC extended at P2.
4. With centre A and radius AP2 (= 3 x 20), draw an arc intersecting the
line BA produced at P3.
5. The curve through A, P1, P2, P3 is the required involute.
Page | 27
2. Draw the involute of a regular hexagon of side 20. Draw a tangent
and a normal to the curve at a distance 100 from the centre of the
hexagon.
Figure 1.27
➢ Draw the hexagon ABCDEF of side 20 and locate its centre O.
Assuming that the thread is unwound from A in the clock-wise
direction, the starting point for the involute is A.
➢ With centre B and radius BA (=20), draw an arc intersecting the line CB
extended at P1.
➢ With centre C and radius CP1(=2 x 20), draw an arc intersecting the line
DC extended at P2.
➢ In a similar way, obtain the other points P3, P4, etc.
➢ A smooth curve through the above points is the required involute.
Page | 28
3. Draw the involute of a circle of 40 diameter. Also, draw a tangent
and a normal to the curve at a point 95 from the centre of the circle.
Figure 1.28
1. With centre O and diameter 40, draw the given circle.
2. Assuming P as the starting point, draw a line PA, tangent to the circle
and equal to the circumference of the circle.
3. Divide the circle and the line PA into the same number of equal parts
and number as shown.
4. Draw a tangent to the circle at the point 1 and locate on it P 1 such that
1P1 = P1’.
5. Draw a tangent to the circle at point 2 and locate on it P2 such that 2P2 =
P2’.
6. Locate other points P3, P4, etc., in a similar way.
7. A smooth curve through these points is the required involute.
8. From the construction, it is obvious that a tangent to the circle is normal
to the involute to draw the tangent and normal.
9. Locate the point M on the curve, which is at 95 from the centre of the
circle
10. Join M, O and locate its mid-point O1.
11. With centre O1 and radius O1 M, draw a semi-circle intersecting the
given circle at N.
12. Join N, M forming the normal to the curve and a line T-T, perpendicular
to NM at M is the tangent to the curve.
Page | 29
Unit - II
Projection of Points and Straight Lines

Introduction
What is point?
An element which has no dimensions, it can be situated in the following
positions with respect to principal planes of the projections.
➢ Point situated above H.P and in front of V.P.
➢ Point situated above H.P and behind V.P
➢ Point situated below H.P and behind V.P.
➢ Point situated below H.P and in front of V.P.
➢ Point situated on H.P and in front of V.P.
➢ Point situated above H.P and on V.P.
➢ Point situated on H.P and behind V.P.
➢ Point situated below H.P and on V.P.
➢ Point situated on both H.P and V.P.
Conventional Representation
➢ Actual Position of a point designated by capitals i.e. A, B, C, D …
➢ Front view of a point is designated by small letters with dashes i.e. a’,
b’, c’, d’….
➢ Top view of a point is designated by only small letters i.e. a, b, c, d ….
➢ Side view of a point is designated by small letters with double dashes
i.e. a”, b”, c”, d”...
The Intersection of reference planes is a line known as reference line
denoted by x-y and the line connecting the front and top view is known as
projection line; it is always perpendicular to the principal axis (x-y line).
Page | 30
Figure 2.1
Problem
1. Draw the orthographic projections of the following points?
a) Point P is 30 mm. above H.P and 40 mm. in front of VP.
b) Point Q is 25 mm. above H.P and 35 mm. behind VP.
c) Point R is 32 mm. below H.P and 45 mm behind VP.
d) Point Sis 35 mm. below H.P and 42 mm in front of VP.
e) Point T is in H.P and 30 mm behind VP.
f) Point U is in V.P and 40 mm. below HP.
g) Point V is in V.P and 35 mm. above H.P.
h) Point W is in H.P and 48 mm. in front of VP.
Solution
Figure 2.2
Projection of Straight Lines
Introduction
What is Line?
Page | 31
A Shortest distance between two points and the actual length of the line
is known as True Length denoted by TL.
Orientation of Straight Lines
➢ Line parallel to both H.P and V.P
➢ Line perpendicular to H.P and parallel to V.P
➢ Line perpendicular to V.P and parallel to H.P
➢ Line inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P
➢ Line inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P
➢ Line situated in H.P
➢ Line situated in V.P
➢ Line situated in both H.P and V.P
➢ Line inclined to both the reference planes.
1. Line inclined to both H.P and V.P front view angle and top view
angle = 900.
2. Line inclined to both H.P and V.P front view angle and top view
angle = 900.
Problems
1. Line parallel to both H.P and V.P A 50mm long line AB is parallel
to both H.P and V.P. The line is 25mm in front of V.P and 60mm
above H.P, draw the projections of the line.
Figure 2.3
Page | 32
2. Line perpendicular to H.P A 60mm long line AB has its end A at a
distance of 20mm above the H.P. The line is perpendicular to the
H.P and 40mm in front of V.P, draw the projections of the line.
Figure 2.4
3. Line perpendicular to V.P A 60mm long line AB, has its end A at a
distance of 20mm in front of the V.P. the line is perpendicular to
V.P and 40mm above H.P, draw the projection of the line.
Figure 2.5
Page | 33
4. Line inclined to H.P and parallel to V.P A 80mm long line AB has
the end A at a distance of 20mm above HP and 40mm in front of
V.P. The line is inclined at 30 deg to H.P and parallel to V.P, draw
the projection of the line.
Figure 2.6
5. Line inclined to V.P and parallel to H.P An 80mm long line AB is
inclined at 30 deg to V.P and is parallel to H.P. The end A is 20mm
above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P, draw the projection of
the line.
Figure 2.7
Page | 34
6. Line situated in H.P A line AB 60mm long is situated in H.P and
inclined to V.P at 30 deg. The end A is 20mm in front of V.P, draw
the projection of line.
Figure 2.8
7. Line situated in V.P Draw the projections of 70mm long line AB
situated in the V.P and inclined at 30 deg to H.P. The end A is 25
mm above H.P.
Figure 2.9
Page | 35
8. Lines inclined to both the reference planes. A 70mm long line AB
has an end A at 20mm above H.P and 30mm in front of V.P. The
line is inclined at 45 deg to the H.P and 30 deg to V.P, draw the
projections.
Figure 2.10
Page | 36
3.1 Important Questions and Previous Paper Problems
1. A line AB, 70mm long, has its end A 15mm above HP and 20mm in
front of VP. It is inclined at 30° to HP and 45°to VP. Draw its
projections and mark its traces.
Solution
Figure 2.11
2. The top view of a 75mm long line AB measures 65mm, while its
front view measures 50mm. Its one end A is in HP and12mm in
front of VP. Draw the projections of AB and determine its
inclination with HP and VP
Solution
Figure 2.12
Page | 37
3. A line AB, 65mm long has its end A 20mm above H.P. and 25mm in
front of VP. The end B is 40mm above H.P. and 65mm in front of
V.P. Draw the projections of AB and shows its inclination with H.P.
Solution
Figure 2.13
4. The projectors of the ends of a line AB are 5cm apart. The end A is
2cm above the H.P and 3cm in front of V.P. The end B is1cm below
H.P. and 4cm behind the V.P. Determine the true length and traces
of AB, and its inclination with the two planes.
Solution
Figure 2.14
Page | 38
5. A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 45 to the H.P. and its top view
makes an angle of 60 with the V.P. The end A is in the H.P. and
12mm in front of V.P. Draw its front view and finds its true
inclination with the V.P.
Solution
Figure 2.15
6. A line AB, 90mm long, is inclined at 30 to the HP. Its end A is 12mm
above the HP and 20mm in front of the VP. Its FV measures 65mm.
Draw the TV of AB and determine its inclination with the VP.
Solution
Figure 2.16
Page | 39
7. Two lines AB & AC make an angle of 120 deg between them in their
FV & TV. AB is parallel to both the HP & VP. Determine the real
angle between AB & AC.
Solution
Figure 2.17
8. A line AB, inclined at 40º to the V.P. has its end 50mm and 20mm
above the H.P. the length of its front view is 65mm and its V.T. is
10mm above the H.P. determine the true length of AB its inclination
with the H.P. and its H.T.
Solution
Figure 2.18
Page | 40
9. The top view of a 75mm long line CD measures 50 mm. C is 50 mm
in front of the VP & 15mm below the HP. D is 15 mm in front of the
VP & is above the HP. Draw the FV of CD & find its inclinations
with the HP and the VP. Show also its traces.
Solution
Figure 2.19
10. A line PQ 100 mm long is inclined at 30º to the H.P. and at 45º to the
V.P. Its mid-point is in the V.P. and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its
projections, if its end P is in the third quadrant and Q is in the first
quadrant.
Solution
Figure 2.20
Page | 41
➢ Three different reference planes and their respective views Horizontal
Plane, Vertical Plane and Side or Profile Plane Front view is a view
projected on VP Top View is a view projected on HP and Side View is a
view projected on PP.
➢ A line when parallel to both the planes HP and VP, then the line has true
length in both the front and top views.
➢ If the line is inclined only to HP the Front view is a line having the true
length (TL) and true inclination θ
➢ If the line is inclined only to VP the Top view is a line having the true
length (TL) and true inclination Φ
➢ First angle projections method the objects are placed in 1 st Quadrant (FV
above x-y line and TV below x-y line) which is above HP and in front of
VP.
➢ Third angle projections method the objects are placed in 3 rd Quadrant
(FV below x-y line and TV above x-y line) which is below HP and
behind VP.
Important Questions
1. A line PS 65mm has its end P 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front
of the VP. It is inclined at 55 deg to the HP and 35 deg to the VP. Draw
its projections.
2. A line CD, inclined at 25deg to the HP, measures 80mm in top view.
The end C is in the first quadrant and 25mm and 15mm from the HP and
the VP respectively. The end D is at equal distance from the both the
reference planes. Draw the projections, fine true length and true
inclination with the VP.
3. A straight line ST has its end S, 10mm in front of the VP and nearer to
it. The mid-point M line is 50mm in front of the VP and 40mm above
HP. The front and top view measure 90mm and 120mm respectively.
Draw the projection of the line. Also find its true length and true
inclinations with the HP and VP.
4. A line PQ has its end P, 10mm above the HP and 20mm in front of the
VP. The end Q is 85mm in front of the VP. The front view of the line
measures 75mm. the distance between the end projectors is 50mm.
Draw the projections of the line and find its true length and its true
inclinations with the VP and HP.
5. A line PF, 65mm has its end P, 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front
of the VP. It is inclined at 55deg to the VP. Draw its projections.
Page | 42
Previous Paper Questions
1. A line CD 60mm long has its end ‘C’ in both H.P and V.P. It is inclined
at 30 to V.P. Draw the projections to H.P and 450.
2. A point C is 40mm below H.P and 20mm behind V.P, another points D
and E are 60mm above H.P and in front of V.P, 90mm below H.P and
45mm in front of V.P respectively. Draw the projections of all points on
same reference line.
3. The end P of a straight line PQ is 20 mm above the H.P. and 30 mm in
front of V.P. The end Q is 15 mm below the H.P. and 45mm behind the
V.P. If the end projectors are 50 mm apart, Draw the projection of PQ
and determine the true length, traces and inclination with the reference
planes.
4. The front view of line inclined at 30 0 to V.P is 65mm long. Draw the
projections of a line, when it is parallel to and 40mm above H.P. and
one end being 20mm in front of V.P.
5. A line PQ, 64 mm long has one of its extremities 20 mm in front VP and
the other 50 mm above HP. The line is inclined at 40 0 to HP and 25 to
VP. Draw its top and front view.
6. The projection of a line AB has 350 inclination in top view and 400
inclination in the front view with an elevation length of 60 mm. If the
end A is 10 mm below HP and B is 12 mm behind VP, Draw the
projections and locate the traces keeping the line in the third quadrant.
7. Line PQ has 72 mm length in the front view and 66 mm length in the
top view. The end P is 48 mm below HP and 40 mm behind VP, while
the end Q is 12 mm below HP. Draw the projection of the line, locate
the traces and determine the true length and inclinations of the line with
the reference planes.
Page | 43
Unit – III
Projection of Planes
Introduction
A plane is a two dimensional object having length and breadth only. Its
thickness is always neglected; various shapes of plane figures are considered
such as square, rectangle, circle, pentagon, hexagon, etc.
Figure 3.1
Types of Planes
1. Perpendicular planes which have their surface perpendicular to anyone
of the reference planes and parallel or inclined to the other reference
plane.
2. Oblique planes which have their surface inclined to both the reference
planes.
Trace of Plane
The trace of a plane is the line of intersection or meeting of the plane
surface with the reference plane; if necessary the plane surface is extended to
intersect the reference plane. The intersection line of the plane surface with
HP is called the Horizontal Trace (HT) and that of VP is called the Vertical
Page | 44
Trace (VT).
A plane figure is positioned with reference to the reference planes by
referring its surface in the following possible position.
Projection of Different Planes position with respective to Principal
planes
1) Surface of Plane Parallel to the HP (and perpendicular to VP)
Figure 3.2
2) Surface of Plane Parallel to the VP (and perpendicular to HP)
Figure 3.3
Page | 45
3) Surface of Plane Inclined to the HP and perpendicular to VP
Figure 3.4
4) Surface of Plane Inclined to the VP and perpendicular to HP
Figure 3.5
Page | 46
5) Surface of Plane Perpendicular to Both HP and VP
Figure 3.6
6) Surface of Plane is Inclined to Both HP and VP
Figure 3.7
Page | 47
Simple Problems
Plane Parallel to HP
Problem: A Square plane with a 40mm side has its surface parallel to
and 20mm above the HP. Draw its Projections, when (a) A side is parallel to
VP (b) A side is inclined at 300 to VP and (c) All sides are equally inclined
to VP.
Visualized position of surface plane Picture
Solution
Figure 3.8(a)
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.8(b)
Page | 48
Plane Parallel to Plane Parallel to VP
Problem: A Hexagonal plane with a 30mm side has its surface parallel
to and 20mm in front of the VP. Draw it’s Projections, when (a) a side is
perpendicular to HP (b) a side is parallel to the HP (c) Side is inclined at 45 0
to the HP.
Visualized position of surface plane Picture:
Solution
Figure 3.9(a)
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.9(b)
Page | 49
Plane is inclined to HP and Perpendicular to VP
Problem: A Pentagonal plane with a 30mm side has an edge on the HP,
the surface of the Plane is inclined at 450 to the HP. Draw it’s Projections?
Solution
Figure 3.10(a) Figure 3.10(b)

Problem: A Hexagonal plate with a 30mm side and negligible thickness
has its surface perpendicular to the HP and inclined at 45 0 to the VP. Draw
it’s Projections? When one of it’s sides of the Plane is Parallel to and 15 mm
in front of the VP.
Solution
Figure 3.11(a) Figure 3.11(b)
Page | 50
Problem: A Circular plane with a 60mm Diameter is resting on a point
it’s circumference on the VP. The centre is 40 mm above the HP, and the
surface is inclined at 450 to the VP. And perpendicular to the HP Draw It’s
Projections?
Solution
Figure 3.12
Problem: Rectangle 30mm and 50mm sides is resting on HP on one of
its small side which is 300 inclined to VP, while the surface of the plane
makes 450 inclination with HP. Draw it’s projections?
Solution
Figure 3.13
Page | 51
Problem: A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting on HP, on one
of it’s sides with it’s surface 450 inclined to HP. Draw it’s projections when
the side in HP makes 300 angle with VP?
Solution
According to the given Problem
1. Surface inclined to HP plane
2. Assumption for initial position is parallel to HP.
3. So TV view will show True shape. Hence begin with TV, draw
pentagon below X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
Note: Surface and side inclination are directly given
Figure 3.14
Problem: A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting on HP on one of
it’s sides while it’s opposite vertex (corner) is 30 mm above HP. Draw
projections when side in HP is 300 inclined to VP.
Solution
1. Surface inclined to HP plane.
2. Assumption for initial position is parallel to HP.
3. So TV view will show True shape. Hence begin with TV, draw
pentagon below X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
Page | 52
Note: Surface Inclination indirectly given and side inclination is
Directly given only change is the manner in which surface inclination is
described: One side on HP & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above HP. Hence
redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above arrangement. Keep a’b’ on xy & d’
30 mm above xy.
Figure 3.15
Problem: A circle of 50 mm diameter is resting on HP on end A of it’s
diameter AC which is 300 inclined to HP while it’s TV is 450 inclined to VP.
Draw it’s Projections?
Solution:
1. Surface inclined to HP plane.
2. Assumption for initial position parallel to HP.
3. So which TV will show True shape.
4. Which diameter AC horizontal Hence begin with TV, draw rhombus
below X-Y line, taking longer diagonal parallel to X-Y.
Note: In This problem inclination of TV of that AC is given, It could be
drawn directly as shown in 3rd step. of that AC is given, It could be drawn
directly as shown in 3rd step.
Page | 53
Figure 3.16
Important Questions
1. A pentagon of sides 30mm rests on the ground on one of its corners with
the sides containing the corners being equally inclined to the ground.
The side opposite to the corner on which it rests is inclined at 30 degrees
to the VP and is parallel to the HP. The surface of the pentagon makes
10 degrees with the ground. Draw the top and front views of the
pentagon.
2. A regular pentagon of 30mm side is resting on one of its edges on HP
which is inclined at 45degrees to VP. Its surface is inclined at 30
degrees to HP. Draw its projections.
Previous Paper Questions
1. Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm side, having one of
its sides in the H.P. and inclined at 60 degrees to the V.P., and its
surface making an angle of 45 degrees with H.P.
2. A thin circular plate of 40mm diameter having its plane vertical and
inclined at 40 Its centre is 30mm above H.P. and 35mm in front of V.P.
Draw the projections to V.P.
Page | 54
Projection of Solids
Introduction
A solid has three dimensions, the length, breadth and thickness or
height. A solid may be represented by orthographic views, the number of
which depends on the type of solid and its orientation with respect to the
planes of projection. solids are classified into two major groups. (i)
Polyhedral, and (ii) Solids of revolution
Polyhedral: A polyhedral is defined as a solid bounded by plane
surfaces called faces. They are: (i) Regular polyhedral (ii) Prisms and (iii)
Pyramids
Regular Polyhedral: A polyhedron is said to be regular if its surfaces
are regular polygons. The following are some of the regular polyhedral.
Solids
Prisms: A prism is a polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases
parallel to each other. The two bases are joined by faces, which are
rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing through the centres of the
bases is called the axis of the prism.
A prism is named after the shape of its base. For example, a prism with
square base is called a square prism, the one with a pentagonal base is called
a pentagonal prism, and so on (Fig) The nomenclature of the prism is given
in Fig.
Figure 3.18
Page | 55
a) Tetrahedron: It consists of four equal faces, each one being a
equilateral triangle.
b) Hexa Hedron (Cube): It consists of six equal faces, each a square.
c) Octahedron: It has eight equal faces, each an equilateral triangle.
d) Dodecahedron: It has twelve regular and equal pentagonal faces.
e) Icosahedrons: It has twenty equal, equilateral triangular faces.
Pyramids: A pyramid is a polyhedron having one base, with a number
of isosceles triangular faces, meeting at a point called the apex. The
imaginary line passing through the centre of the base and the apex is called
the axis of the pyramid.
The pyramid is named after the shape of the base. Thus, a square
pyramid has a square base and pentagonal pyramid has pentagonal base and
so on. The nomenclature of a pyramid is shown in Fig.
Figure 3.19
Types of Pyramids
There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape
of their base. These are Triangular Pyramid, Square Pyramid, Pentagonal
pyramid, hexagonal pyramid and tetrahedron
Solids of Revolution: If a plane surface is revolved about one of its
edges, the solid generated is called a solid of revolution. The examples are
(i) Cylinder, (ii) Cone, (iii) Sphere.
Page | 56
Frustums and Truncated Solids: If a cone or pyramid is cut by a
section plane parallel to its base and the portion containing the apex or
vertex is removed, the remaining portion is called frustum of a cone or
pyramid.
Prisms Position of a Solid with Respect to the Reference Planes: The
position of solid in space may be specified by the location of either the axis,
base, edge, diagonal or face with the principal planes of projection. The
following are the positions of a solid considered.
1. Axis perpendicular to HP
2. Axis perpendicular to VP
3. Axis parallel to both the HP and VP
4. Axis inclined to HP and parallel to VP
5. Axis inclined to VP and parallel to HP
6. Axis inclined to both the Planes (VP. and HP)
The position of solid with reference to the principal planes may also be
grouped as follows
1. Solid resting on its base.
2. Solid resting on anyone of its faces, edges of faces, edges of base,
generators, slant edges, etc.
3. Solid suspended freely from one of its corners, etc.
1. Axis perpendicular to one of the principal planes
When the axis of a solid is perpendicular to one of the planes, it is
parallel to the other. Also, the projection of the solid on that plane will show
the true shape of the base. When the axis of a solid is perpendicular to H.P,
the top view must be drawn first and then the front view is projected from it.
Similarly when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to V.P, the front view
must be drawn first and then the top view is projected from it.
Page | 57
Figure 3.20
Page | 58
Simple Problems
When the axis of solid is perpendicular to one of the planes, it is parallel
to the other. Also, the projection of the solid on that plane will show the true
shape of the base. When the axis of a solid is perpendicular to H.P, the top
view must be drawn first and then the front view is projected from it.
Similarly when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to V.P, the front view
must be drawn first and then the top view is projected from it.
1. Axis perpendicular to HP
Problem: A Square Pyramid, having base with a 40 mm side and 60mm
axis is resting on its base on the HP. Draw its Projections when (a) a side of
the base is parallel to the VP. (b) A side of the base is inclined at 30 0 to the
VP and (c) All the sides of base are equally inclined to the VP.
Solution
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.21
2. Axis perpendicular to VP
Problem: A pentagonal Prism having a base with 30 mm side and
60mm long Axis, has one of It’s bases in the VP. Draw Its projections When
(a)rectangular face is parallel to and 15 mm above the HP (b) A rectangular
face perpendicular to HP and (c) a rectangular face is inclined at 45 0 to the
HP Solution:
Page | 59
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3.22
3. Axis parallel to both the HP and VP
Problem: A pentagonal Prism having a base with a 30 mm side and
60mm long axis, is resting on one of its rectangular faces on the HP. with
axis parallel to the VP. Draw its projections?
Solution
Figure 3.23
Page | 60
4. Axis inclined to HP and parallel to VP
Problem: A Hexagonal Prism having a base with a30 mm side and 75
mm long axis, has an edge its base on the HP. Its axis is Parallel to the VP
and inclined at 450 to the HP Draw its projections?
Solution
Figure 3.24
5. Axis inclined to VP and parallel to HP
Problem: An Hexagonal Prism, having a base with a 30 mm side and
65 mm long axis, has an edge it’s base in the VP Such that the axis is
inclined at 300 to the VP and Parallel to the HP. Draw its Projections?
Page | 61
Solution
Figure 3.25
6. Axis inclined to both the principal planes (HP and VP)
A solid is said to be inclined to both the planes when (i) the axis is
inclined to both the planes, (ii) the axis is inclined to one plane and an edge
of the base is inclined to the other. In this case the projections are obtained in
three stages.
Stage I: Assume that the axis is perpendicular to one of the planes and
draw the projections.
Stage II: Rotate one of the projections till the axis is inclined at the
given angle and project the other view from it.
Stage III: Rotate one of the projections obtained in Stage II, satisfying
the remaining condition and project the other view from it.
Problem: A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed on HP on one
corner that a body diagonal is Parallel to HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw
it’s projections.
Solution Steps
1. Assuming standing on HP, begin with TV, a square with all sides
equally inclined to xy. Project FV and name all points of FV & TV.
2. Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 3’ (This can become Parallel to
Page | 62
xy)
3. From 1’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’.
4. Draw 2nd FV in which 1’-p’ line is vertical means c’-3’ diagonal must be
horizontal. Now as usual project TV.
5. In final TV draw same diagonal is perpendicular to VP as said in
problem. Then as usual project final FV.
Solution
Figure 3.26
Problem: A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one of
its generator on HP which makes 300 inclinations with VP. Draw it’s
projections?
Solution Steps
Resting on HP on one generator, means lying on HP
1. Assume it standing on HP.
2. It’s TV will show True Shape of base (Circle)
3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as TV& taking 50 mm axis project FV. (a
triangle)
4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
5. Draw 2nd FV in lying position I.e. o’e’ on xy. And project it’s TV
below xy.
6. Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7. Then construct remaining inclination with VP (Generator o 1e1 300
to xy as shown) & project final FV.
Page | 63
Solution
Figure 3.27
Problem: A cube of 50 mm long edges is so placed on HP on one
corner that a body diagonal through this corner is perpendicular to HP and
parallel to VP. Draw it’s three views.
Solution Steps
1. Assuming it standing on HP begin with TV, a square of corner case.
2. Project corresponding FV & name all points as usual in both views.
3. Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2nd FV making it vertical (I’ on xy)
4. Project it’s TV drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure.
5. With standard method construct Left-hand side view. (Draw a 450
inclined Line in Tv region (below xy). Project horizontally all points of
Tv on this line and reflect vertically upward, above xy. After this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these lines. Name points
of intersections and join properly. For dark & dotted lines locate
observer on left side of Fv as shown.)
Page | 64
Solution
Figure 3.28
Problem: A circular cone, 40 mm base diameter and 60 mm long axis is
resting on HP, on one point of base circle such that it’s axis makes 45 0
inclination with HP and 400 inclination with VP. Draw it’s projections.
Solution
Figure 3.29
Problem: A hexagonal prism, having a base with a 30mm side and an
80mm long axis, rests on one of its base edges in the H.P such that the axis is
inclined at 300 to the HP and 450 to the VP. Draw its projections?
Page | 65
Solution
Figure 3.30
Problem: A Square prism, having a base with a 35mm side and an
60mm long axis, rests on one of its base edges in the HP such that the axis is
inclined at 450 to the HP and 450 to the VP. Draw its projections, if the
resting edge makes an angle of 300 with VP?
Solution
Figure 3.31
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Problem: A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one
point of a base circle on VP while it’s axis makes 45 0 with VP and FV of the
axis 350 with HP. Draw its projections.
Solution Steps
Resting on VP on one point of base, means inclined to VP:
1. Assume it standing on VP
2. It’s FV will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as FV & taking 50 mm axis project TV. (a
Rectangle)
4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
5. Draw 2nd TV making axis 450 to xy and project it’s FV above xy.
6. Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per the procedure.
7. Then construct remaining inclination with HP (FV of axis i.e. centre
line of view to xy as shown) & project final.
Solution
Figure 3.32
Problem: A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm long and axis 40 mm
long, is standing on HP on it’s base with one base edge parallel to VP. A
tetrahedron is placed centrally on the top of it. The base of tetrahedron is a
triangle formed by joining alternate corners of top of prism. Draw
projections of both solids. Project an auxiliary TV on AIP 45 0 inclined to
HP.
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Solution
Figure 3.33
Tips & Shortcuts
1. Axis inclined to HP and Parallel to VP have to solve in two stages
Stage (i) assume axis perpendicular to HP then draw Top and Front view
Stage (ii) Tilt the Front view according to given angle. Then project all
the points will get Final Top view
2. Axis inclined to VP and Parallel to HP have to solve in two stages
Stage (i) assume axis perpendicular to VP then draw front and Top view
Stage (ii) Tilt the Top view according to given angle. Then project all
the points will get Final Front view
Previous paper questions and Important Problems
1. A cone of base diameter 40 mm and axis height 60 mm rests on the
ground on a point of its base circle such that the axis of the cone is
inclined at 400 to the HP and 300 to the VP. Draw its front and top
views.
2. A hexagonal prism of base of side 40 mm and axis length 80 mm rests
on one of its base edges on the HP. The end containing that edge is
inclined at 300 to the HP and the axis is parallel to VP. It is cut by a
plane perpendicular to the VP and parallel to the HP. The cutting plane
bisects the axis. Draw its front and the sectional top views.
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3. A square pyramid of base side 30 mm and altitude 50 mm lies on one of
its triangular faces on the HP with its axis parallel to the VP. It is cut by
a vertical plane inclined at 300 to the VP and meeting the axis at 40 mm
from the vertex measured in the plan. Draw the top view, sectional front
view and the true shape of the section.
4. A cone, diameter of base 50 mm and axis 65 mm long. is lying on the
HP. on one of its generators with the axis parallel to the VP. It is cut by
a horizontal Section plane 12mm above the ground. Draw its front view
and sectional top view.
5. Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid of side of base 30mm and
axis 60mm long resting on one of its base edges in HP with its axis
inclined at 300 to HP. and the top view of axis is 450 to VP.
6. A square prism having a base with a 40mm side and a 60 mm long axis
rests on its base on HP. such that one of the vertical faces makes an
angle of 30 degrees with VP. A section plane perpendicular to the VP.
Inclined at 45 degrees to the HP. and passing through the axis at a point
20 mm from its top end cuts the prism. Draw its front view, sectional
top view.
7. A hexagonal prism, side of base 35mm and height 75mm is resting on
one of its corners on HP. with a longer edge containing that corner
inclined at 60 degrees to the HP. and rectangular face parallel to the VP.
A horizontal section plane cuts the prism into two halves. Draw the
sectional top view of the cut prism and front view.
8. Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism, base 25 mm side and axis
50 mm long resting on one of its rectangular faces on HP, with the axis
inclined at 45 degrees to VP.
Sections and Developments of Solids
Introduction
5.1 Sections of Solids
Sections and sectional views are used to show hidden detail more
clearly. They-are created by using a cutting plane to cut the object.
A section is a view of no thickness and shows the outline of the object at
the cutting plane. Visible outlines beyond the cutting plane are not drawn.
A sectional view, displays the outline of the cutting plane and all visible
outlines which can be seen beyond the cutting plane.
Improve visualization of interior features. Section views are used when
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important hidden details are in the interior of an object. These details appear
as hidden lines in one of the orthographic principal views; therefore, their
shapes are not very well described by pure orthographic projection.
5.2 Cutting Plane
Section views show how an object would look if a cutting plane (or saw)
cut through the object and the material in front of the cutting plane was
discarded
5.3 Representation of cutting plane
According to drawing standards cutting plane is represented by chain
line with alternate long dash and dot. The two ends of the line should be
thick.
5.4 Hatching
On sections and sectional views solid area should be hatched to indicate
this fact. Hatching is drawn with a thin continuous line, equally spaced
(preferably about 4mm apart, though never less than Imm) and preferably at
an angle of 4S degrees.
Problem 1: A square prism of base side on 30 mm and axis length 60
mm is resting on HP on one of its bases, with a base side inclined at 30° to
VP. It is cut by a plane. Inclined at, lO° to. HP and perpendicular to VP and
is bisecting the axis of the prism. Draw its front view, sectional top view and
true shape of section.
Ans: Draw the projections of the prism in the given position. The top
view is drawn and the front view is projected.
To draw the cutting plane, front view and sectional top view
6. Draw the Vertical Trace (VT) of the cutting plane inclined at 400 to
XY line and passing through the mid point of the axis.
7. As a result of cutting, longer edge a' p' is cut, the end a' has been
removed and the new comer l' is obtained.
8. Similarly 2' is obtained on longer edge b' q', 3' on c' r' and 4' on d's',
9. Show the remaining portion in front view by drawing dark lines.
10. Project the new points 1',2',3' and 4' to. get 1,2,3 and 4 in the top
view of the prism, which are coinciding with the bottom end of the
longer edges p, q, r and s respectively.
11. Show the sectional top view or apparent section by joining 1, 2, 3
and 4' by drawing hatching lines.
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Figure 3.12
To draw the true shape of a section
1. Consider an auxiliary inclined plane parallel to the cutting plane and
draw the new reference line x1 y1 parallel to VT of the cutting plane at
an arbitrary distance from it.
2. Draw projectors passing through 1',2',3' and 4' perpendicular to x 1 y1
line.
3. The distance of point 1 in top view from XY line is measured and
marked from x1 y1 in the projector passing through l' to get 11'. This is
repeated to get the other points 21, 31 and 41
4. Join these points to get the true shape of section as shown by drawing
the hatching lines.
Problem 3: A pentagonal pyramid of base side 40 mm and axis length
80mm is resting on HP on its base with one of its base side parallel to VP. It
is cut by a plane inclined at 30° to HP and perpendicular to VP and is
bisecting the axis. Draw its front view, sectional top view, and the true shape
of section.
Ans: To draw the cutting plane, front view and sectional top view
1. Draw the VT of the cutting plane inclined at 30° to XY line and
passing through the midpoint of J the axis.
2. As a result of cutting, new comers 1', 2', 3', 4' and 5' are obtained on
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slant edges a '0', b '0', c '0', d'o' and e '0' respectively.
3. Show the remaining portion in front view by drawing dark lines.
4. Project the new points to get 1,2,3,4 and 5 in the top view on the
respective slant edges.
5. Note that 2' is extended horizontally to meet the extreme slant edge
a ' 0 ' at m', it is projected to meet ao in top view at m. Considering
0 as centre, om as radius, draw an arc to get 2 on bo.
Figure 3.13
6. Join these points and show the sectional top view by drawing
hatching lines. SS
5.5 To draw true shape of section.
1. Draw the new reference. line X1 Y1 parallel to VT of the cutting
plane.
2. Projectors from 1',2' etc. are drawn perpendicular to X 1 YI line.
marked from X1 Y1 in the projector passing through l' to get I 1' This
is repeated to get 21,31etc.
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4. Join these points and draw hatching lines to show the true shape of
section.
Problem 5: A cylinder of base diameter 40 mm and height 60 mm rests
on its base on HP. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 30°
to HP and meets the axis at a distance 30 mm from base. Draw the front
view, sectional top view, and the true shape of section.
Ans:
Figure 3.14
Draw the projections of the cylinder. The top view is drawn and the
front view is projected. Consider generators by dividing the circle into equal
number of parts and project them to the front view.
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1. Draw the VT of the cutting plane inclined at 30° to XY line and
passing through a point on the axis at a distance 30 mm from base.
2. The new point 1', 2' etc. are marked on the generators a' p', h' q' etc.
3. Project the new points to the top view to get 1, 2, etc. which are
coinciding with p, q, etc. on the base circle.
To draw true shape of section
1. Draw X1 Y1 line parallel to VT of the cutting plane.
2. Draw the projectors through 1', 2', etc. perpendicular to X1 Y1 line.
marked from X1 Y1 in the projector passing through 1' to get 1 1 '
This is repeated to get other points 21, 31 etc.
4. Join these points by drawing smooth curve to get the true shape of
section and this is shown by hatching lines.
Problem 5: A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis length 75 mm,
resting on HP on its base is cut by a plane in lined at 45° to HP and
perpendicular to VP and is bisecting the axis. Draw the front view and
sectional top view and true shape of this section.
Ans: Draw the projections of the cone. Consider generators by dividing
the circle into equal number of parts and project them to the front view.
1. Draw the VT of the cutting plane inclined at 45° to the XY line and
passing through the midpoint of the axis.
2. New points 1',2' etc; are marked on the generators a' 0', h' 0', etc.
3. Project the new points to the top view to get 1,2, etc. on the
generators ao, bo etc.
4. Note that the new point 3' is produced to mark m' on a' 0' and is
projected to get m on ao. Considering 0 as centre and om as radius,
draw an arc to get 3 on co in the top view. The same method is
repeated to get 7 on go.
5. Join these points by drawing smooth curve and draw the hatching
lines to show the sectional, top view.
To draw true shape of section
1. Draw X1 Y1 line parallel to VT of the cutting plane.
2. Draw the projectors through 1', 2' etc. perpendicular to X 1 Y1 line.
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marked from X1 Y1 in the projector passing through l' to get 1 1 and is
repeated to get 21 ' 31 etc.
4. Join these points by drawing smooth curve to get the true shape of
section and is shown by hatching lines.
Figure 3.15
Development of Surfaces
1. A cylinder of base diameter 40mm and axis 60mm long is resting on
H.P. such that its axis is parallel to V.P. and perpendicular to H.P. Draw
its Development. (The views are given in Third angle projection)
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2. A square prism of side of base 40mm and axis 80mm long, is resting on
its base on H.P. such that, a rectangular face of it is parallel to V.P.
Draw the development of the prism.
Figure 3.16
Construction
1. Draw the Projections of the Prism.
2. Draw the stretch – out line AA and mark – off the sides of the base
along this line in succession. i.e. AB, BC, CD and DA.
3. Erect perpendiculars through these points and mark the edges AA 1,
BB1 etc.,
4. Add the bases ABCD and A1 B1 C1 D1 suitably.
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Note
➢ Stretch-out line is drawn in-line with the base in the front view, to
complete the development quickly.
➢ All the lines on the development should represent the true lengths.
3. A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 30mm and 60mm long, is resting
on its base on H.P. with an edge of the base parallel to V.P. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Figure 3.17
Construction
1. Draw the projections of the pentagonal pyramid.
2. Determine the true length of the slant edge OC of the pyramid as
shown.
3. With any point O as centre and radius equal to the true length of the
slant edge, draw an arc of a circle.
4. With radius equal to the side of the base, step-off five divisions on
the above arc.
5. Join the above division points in the order and also with the centre
of the arc.
6. The figure thus formed is the development of the surface of the
pyramid.
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Hint
➢ The development of a pyramid consists of a number of equal
isosceles triangles. The base of the triangle is equal to the edge of
the base and the sides equal to the slant height of the pyramid
respectively.
➢ The true length of the slant edge may be measured from the front
view, by making its top view parallel to xy.
4. Draw the development of surface of the square pyramid of base 30mm

and axis 50mm when it is resting on its square base such that two of its
side are perpendicular to V.P.
Figure 3.18
Construction
1. Draw the top view of the square pyramid of base 30mm.
2. Project top view and draw front view of the pyramid of height
50mm.
3. Determine the true length of the slant edge of the pyramid.
4. With any point O as centre and radius equal to the true length of the
slant edge, draw an arc of the circle.
5. With radius equal to the side of the base, step- off four divisions on
the above arc.
6. Join the above division points in the order and also with the centre
of the arc. The figure thus formed is the development of the lateral
surface of the pyramid.
5. Draw the development of surface of a cone of base diameter 20mm
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and axis height 30mm.
Figure 3.19
Construction
1. Draw the XY line.
2. Draw the projections of the cone of diameter 20mm and axis height
30mm
3. Draw the circle into 12 equal parts named as 1, 2, 3. . . etc.
4. For transferring slant edges to the development draw first parallel
lines to the base upto true length line (O1’).
5. Darken the developed portion of cone.
A right circular cone of diameter 60mm and height 70mm is cut by an
inclined plane passing through the axis at a point 15mm above the base and
inclined at 45 degree to HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw the development
of lateral surface of the cone.
Figure 3.20
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Unit - IV
Introduction to AutoCAD
Two words in AutoCAD, one is Auto “(Logo of company)” and another
is CAD “(computer aided design)”. AutoCAD is commercial software used
for 2D and 3D modeling. It is developed by Autodesk Company. Autodesk is
an U.S.A based company. It is widely used in industry for 2D drawing and
3D modeling. In another way we can say that AutoCAD is a designing
course, which is performed by the help of computer.
1. Advantages of AutoCAD than manual drawing
➢ High speed, huge storage space and rapid recall capabilities.
➢ This results in reduction of drafting labour and drafting time.
➢ We can quickly correct a drawing error and see a revised picture on
the graphic screen.
➢ Visual modeling of any object or engineering component is
possible.
➢ Once a component is drawn it can be copied and inserted at many
places.
➢ Colour graphics help to display more distinct information on the
screen, highlight certain important features, etc.
➢ It can be exported to commercial analysis software for analysis
purpose.
➢ It is used in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of
designs for improved engineering productivity.
2. Applications of Computer Aided Drafting
➢ Mechanical: Design of machine elements, CNC machine tools,
Robotics
➢ Automotive: Kinematics, Hydraulics, Steering.
➢ Electrical: Circuit layout, Panel design, control system.
➢ Electronics: Schematic diagrams of PCs, ICS, etc.
➢ Communication: Communication network, satellite transmitting
picture, T.V. telecasting.
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➢ Civil: Mapping, contour plotting, building drawing, structural
design
➢ Architectural : Town planning, interior decorations, multistoried
complex
➢ Aerospace: Design of spacecraft, flight simulator, lofting etc.
3. Getting Started: To open the AutoCAD file, click on AutoCAD Icon.
Layout of AutoCAD contains several tools such as menu bar, tool bar,
status line etc. as shown in figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: AutoCAD Layout

Menu bar: consist of all the information for drafting. Mainly, it consists
of home, insert, annotate, layout, parametric, content, view, manage, output,
plug-ins, online etc. In each division, several tools are placed based on the
need. For example, to give the dimensions to the model, you can use tools in
home page or annotate where you can get more option for dimensioning.
Tool bar: consist of all the tools (commands) require to draw the
diagrams. To know the description of any tool, keep the cursor on the
respective tool and wait. That plays a video to understand that command. Or
go to help and type the name of the command that gives the full details about
the command. To go to help, click on “?”, which is on the top right corner of
the AutoCAD screen.
Status line: is used for settings such as Object snap settings, Orthogonal
setting, Polar track setting etc.
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3.1 Use of Mouse: The top view of the mouse button is given the figure 4.2.
The mouse consists of left button, right button and scrolling ball as
shown in the figure 4.2. The use of these buttons in AutoCAD is
explained below.
Figure 4.2: Top View of the Mouse

a) Left button
(i) To select object
(ii) To select location
(iii) To create a window to cover an object or number of objects
b) Right button (i) Instead of Enter Key this is used, wherever [Enter]
instruction is given.
(ii) To cancel current command.
(iii) To carry forward just previous command used instead of typing the
same.
c) Scrolling ball is used to „zoom in‟ and „zoom out‟. To „zoom in‟ an
object, place the cursor on which you willing to zoom in and scroll ball
from front to back and similarly for „zoom out‟.
d) Mouse is dragged to create a window or to displace an object from one
location to another location.
3.2 How to save the File:
After you open the AutoCAD layout, see “A” icon at the top most left
corner. You move the cursor on the icon and click the left button of the
mouse and follow sequence of steps mention in figure 4.3. If you follow the
sequence then the file will be saved in the server. After every 10 minutes,
you need to save the drawing by clicking on save button.
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3.3 Setting: In general, four important setting need for engineering graphics
course to make the drafting easier. Those setting are discussed below.
1. Limit setting: In AutoCAD, you can draw big diagram like India map
to small diagram like screw with the dimensions. But how much space
required for drafting is the matter. So, according to our need, we can
select the drawing space. In general A4 sheet dimensions (297mm ×
210mm) are enough for our engineering graphics. So, to set the limits
follow the below procedure. Enter LIMITS in the command bar and
enter (∟).
Command: LIMITS (Enter)
Specify lower left corner or [ON/OFF] <0.0000,0.0000>: 0,0
Specify upper right corner <17.0000,11.0000>: 297,210
Command: Z (ZOOM) (∟)
Specify corner of window, or [All/Center] <real time>: A (∟)
Figure 4.3: Sequence of Steps to save the file in the server

2. Osnap Setting: One of the important settings in the status line is Object
Snap Mode (O Snap) setting. To on this mode, F3 is used. This mode is
used to display the end, mid, center, node etc. points in the object. To
optimize the display points in the mode, need to go to the setting. To go
to the O Snap setting, keep the cursor on OSnap icon, which is in the
status line, right click and select settings. A window will open, click on
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the points which you would like to display on the object and say OK.
Below given points in the figure 5 are the most commonly required
points while drawing a model.
3. Dimension Style Setting: Dimensions are most important for
engineering drawing. Without dimensions, one cannot understand how
big or small the actual object. So, it is much more important to show all
the dimensions of the diagram. Before giving the dimensions, it is
important to do necessary setting because, in AutoCAD software, it is
possible to draw small model like micro bolt to big model like India
map and the dimensions height also should be appropriate to the
diagram. These setting can be done in the dimensions settings. To do
dimensions setting, enter “D” in the command bar and follow sequence
of steps as mentioned in figure 4.5 and figure 4.6. Change the setting in
the opened pallet. When you change the settings the corresponding
value will change in the window. So, it is easy to identify either the
given value is appropriate or not for the drawn model.
Figure 4.4: Most commonly required points of OSnap settings.
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Figure 4.5: Sequence of steps followed for dimensions style settings in AutoCAD
Figure 4.6: Sequence of steps followed for dimensions style settings in AutoCAD
Page | 85
3.4 Selection of Objects
Line, Circle, Arc, Rectangle, Ellipse etc. are called as objects in
AutoCAD. The selection of object is important in order to edit the object
such as move, copy, erase etc. When you want to select a single object, you
can select the object by directly giving click on the corresponding object
with the curser. When many objects at single locate need to select, it is not
easy to select each and every object with the curser. So, at that time, a
window can be created to select the multiple objects at a time. Here, two
types of window are used to select the objects. Those are
1. Dotted Window: If give click on the AutoCAD screen and drag on to
the left side, this window will be created. Basically, this window
background will be in green color (Figure 4.7). The objects which are
touched by the window and which are inside the window will be
selected. This window is commonly used to select the objects which are
big in size and intersecting the small size objects.
2. Solid Window: If give click on the AutoCAD screen and drag on to the
right side, this window will be created (Figure 4.8). The objects which
are inside the window only will be selected. This window is commonly
used to select the objects which are small in size and intersecting the big
size objects. Dotted and solid window are given below figure.
Figure 4.7: Solid Window Figure 4.8: Dotted Window

Example: By using solid window all the objects are selected except big
circle, line and rectangle as shown in below figure (a) and the objects which
are selected are in dotted line in (b).
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Figure 4.9: Selection of objects with solid window and the selected objects are with
dots
By using dotted window all the objects are selected including big circle,
line and rectangle as shown in below figure (a) and the objects which are
selected are in dotted line in (b).
Figure 4.10: Selection of objects with dotted window and the selected objects are
with dots
4. Important Commands: Tools require to draw the diagram are called as
commands. Total 1000 to 4000 commands are in AutoCAD. But only
few commands are sufficient to draw the diagrams in engineering
graphics course. Here, some important commands are listed below. To
know about each and every command, you can use help in the
AutoCAD screen. If you want to know about any command, keep the
curse on the corresponding command in the tool bar and hold 5 seconds.
Then it gives the description about that command or plays a video to
understand the command. Here, list of commands are given in
alphabetical order from A to Z. It is also important remember the
shortcuts of the commands. The shortcut will start with command first
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letter only. The next letter can be the next letter or any one letter which
is in the command itself. If you type the first letter in the command bar,
it display all the letters related to that command. So, you can easily
select the required command. Here, shortcut – name of the command –
brief description about the command are listed below.
A – Arc – Draw an arc
AL – Align – to align a line or object to the defined line
AR – Array – polar / rectangular
C – Circle – Draw a circle CO – Copy – Copy an object D – Dimension
style
DIV – Divide – Inserts point node a set division
E – Erase
EL – Ellipse
EX – Extend – Extend the selected lines to nearest objects
H – Hatch – To open hatch dialog box
L – Line – Draw a line
M – Move – To move selected object
MA – Match properties – to open the dialog to match the properties
MI – Mirror – To mirror an object
O – Offset – to offset an object with specified distance
P – PAN – to slide the drawing
PDM – Point mode – to recognize the point
PDS – Point size
PL – Poly line – to draw continuous line
PO – Point – to draw a point
POL – Polygon
REC – Rectangle
RO – Rotate
SC – Scale – To increase the dimensions
Text – To write the text
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TR – Trim – to trim the line
Z – Zoom – A=All, E=EXTENTS, W=WINDOW
Shortcuts
CTRL+1: Properties, CTRL+P: Print, CTRL+S: Save, CTRL+Z: Undo
CTRL+8: Displays the calculator, F3: Object Snap On/Off, F7: Grid
On/Off
F8: Ortho On / Off
F9: Snap On / Off
A – Arc – Draw an arc
This command is used to draw an arc using center point, diameter or

radius of the arc. Different possibilities to draw an arc are given in the table.
AL – Align – to align a line or object to the defined line
This command is used to align the objects with the other objects. For
example a triangle of its base is parallel to the ground need to align with a
line inclined to the ground as shown in the diagram. In this case, the two
points 1 and 2 of the triangle can be aligned with the other two points 1‟ and
2‟ on the line
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AR – Array – polar / rectangular
This command is used to multiply the objects into the required manner.
According to its arrangement, three types of arrays are used in this
command. Those are rectangular, Polar and Path arrays.
For example, I want multiply a star into 3 rows and 4 columns like a
rectangle than rectangular array is used to multiply the objects as shown in
figure 12.
Similarly, when I want multiply the object around a point, then I can use
polar array to multiply the object around a point as shown in figure 13. If
you know the path in which you need to multiply the objects then path array
can be used.
Figure 12: Rectangle Array
Figure 4.11: Polar Array
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C – Circle – Draw a circle
This command is used to draw a circle. Circle can be drawn in many

ways. The possible ways are mentioned in above. As per the know variable,
can select circle to draw. When all the ways are possible then we select the
easiest way of drawing the circle.
CO – Copy – Copy an object
This command is used to multiply the drawn objects. For example, in
the figure drawn diagram can be copy and place where ever it is possible.
Command: Copy
Select object to copy:
D – Dimension style
This command is used to do dimensions settings.
DIV – Divide – Inserts point node a set division
This command is used to divide the drawn object into equal segments.
The object can be a straight line, circle, arc, ellipse etc.
Command: DIVIDE
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Select object to divide: (select circle)
Enter the number of segments or [Block]: 12
E – Erase
This command is used to delete or erase the drawn objects. Selection of
objects is more important here. When multiple objects need to delete, then
select the all objects to be delete and then press enter.
Command: ERASE
Select objects: (After selection Press ENTER)
EL – Ellipse
This command is used to draw an ellipse with three points. Here first
two points are one axis end points and the third point is the other axis end
point.
Command: ELLIPSE
Specify axis endpoint of ellipse or [Arc/Center]: Specify other endpoint
of axis: <Ortho on> Specify distance to other axis or [Rotation]:
EX – Extend – Extend the selected lines to nearest objects

This command is used to extend the lines or arcs to the nearest objects
which are possible to intersect. If no possibility to intersect the object by
extending the lines or arcs then obviously the line or arc will not extend even
you execute the command.
Command: EXTEND Select object to extend:
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H – Hatch – To open hatch dialog box
This command is used to hatch the closed boundary with different
styles. Once the command is executed, then hatch dialog box will open. So,
you select the type of pattern for hatch and say OK. Then dialog box
disappears and appears the model, so select the closed boundary for hatch as
shown figure below.
Figure 4.12: Different types of Hatchings
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L – Line – Draw a line
This command is used to draw series of line segments. Each and every
line segment will act as an individual line segment.
Command: LINE
Specify first point: (select point P1)
Specify next point or [Undo]: (select P2, P3, P4)
M – Move – To move selected object

This command is used to move the objects from one place to another
place. For example, in the below diagram, I want to move the star from left
side of the house to right side of the house then I can use move command to
move this star.
Command: MOVE
Select objects: (select star which is at the left side) Specify base point
or [Displacement] <Displacement>: Specify second point or <use first point
as displacement>:
Figure 4.13: star moved to right side Figure 4.14: star moved to point 2
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Here, base point is one of the important concepts, when the object is to
move to the particular location. For example, same star I want to move at the
top of the house such that the point 1 should match with the point 2. In that
case base point becomes point 1 and the destination of the base point
becomes point 2.
MA – Match properties – to open the dialog box to match the properties
This command is used to match the properties of one object to another
object. The objects properties like line, circle, arc, weight, type, color, scale,
hatch etc. can be match. For example, match the properties of the left side
model to right side model in figure 16.
Figure 4.15: To match the Figure 4.16: The properties are

properties of left side models matched to the right side
to right side from left side. of the models
MI – Mirror – To mirror an object
This command is used to form a mirror image of an object. The result of
this command is an object symmetric to the original object and place equally
back to the mirror. Mirror command involves first to select the object to
mirror and then defining a mirror location by entering the starting and ending
points of a mirror line.
O – Offset – to offset an object with specified distance

This command is used to create concentric circles, parallel lines and
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parallel curves etc. The entity to be offset should be a single entity.
Command: Offset
Specify offset distance or [Through/Mode]: 1
Select object to offset or <exit>: (Select rectangle)
Specify point on side to offset: (specify inside, because need to offset
inside. Outside also can be done if required)
P – PAN – to slide the drawing

This command is used to slide the drawing space.
PL – Poly line – to draw continuous line
Poly line creates a 2D polyline and the line is a connected sequence of
segments creates as a single planar object. You can create straight line
segments, arc segments, or a combination of the two. In this command width
of the line also can be specified
Command: PLINE Specify start point:
Specify next point or [Arc/Half width/Length/Undo/Width]: W Specify
starting width <0.0000>: 0.7
Specify ending width <0.7000>:
Specify next point or [Arc/Half width/Length/Undo/Width]:
PO – Point – to draw a point

This command is used to specify a point on an object. The appearance of
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point in drawing is governed by the PDMODE and PDSIZE system variable.
PDMODE command sets the mode of point as per requirement. Two
important modes of Point are cross (x) mode and plus (+) mode. PDSIZE
command sets the size of point entity.
Command: PDMODE
Enter new value for PDMODE <0>: 3
Command: PDSIZE
Enter new value for PDSIZE <0.0000>: 1
Command: POINT
Current point modes: PDMODE=3 PDSIZE=1.0000
Specify a point:
POL – Polygon
This command is used to draw regular polygons like triangle, square,
pentagon, hexagon etc. To draw polygon, either you know the edge length,
inscribed in circle radius or circumscribed about circle radius. An example is
given to understand in figure 4.17.
Figure 4.17: To draw regular triangle in different cases of Polygon

I Case: Command: POLYGON Enter number of sides <3>:
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]: E Specify first endpoint of edge:
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Specify second endpoint of edge: @10,0
II Case: Command: POLYGON Enter number of sides <3>:
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]:
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle]: I
Specify radius of circle: 5
III Case: Command: POLYGON Enter number of sides <3>:
Specify center of polygon or [Edge]:
Enter an option [Inscribed in circle/Circumscribed about circle] <I>:
C
Specify radius of circle: 2.5
RO – Rotate Command: ROTATE Select objects: 1 found
Specify base point: (base point is a point, around which it rotate)
Specify rotation angle or [Copy/Reference] <90>: 45
This command is used to rotate the objects around a point. This point is
known as base point for rotation. To rotate the object in anti-clock wise then
enter the angle with +ve sign otherwise –ve sign.
SC – Scale – To increase the dimensions
This command is used to enlarge or reduces object dimensions
proportionally in X, Y and Z directions. To scale an object, specify a base
point and scale factor. The base point acts as the center of the scaling
operation and remains stationary. A scale factor greater than 1 enlarges the
object whereas less than one shrinks the object.
Command: SCALE Select objects: 1 found Specify base point: (Point 2)
Specify scale factor or [Copy/Reference]: 1.5
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Text – To write the text
Command: TEXT Text height: 3.0000
Specify start point of text or [Justify/Style]: Specify rotation angle of
text <0>: 0 (Enter)
This is the example for text
TR – Trim – to trim the line
This command is used to trim the objects at a cutting edge defined by

other objects. To trim the unwanted lines directly, after the trim command
enter twice.
Command: TRIM (Enter)(Enter)
Select object to trim:
Z – Zoom – A=All, E=EXTENTS, W=WINDOW
This command is used to zoom the objects in the AutoCAD screen.
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When particularly zoom in an object then the remaining objects may hide.
Again when you want zoom out, it may not and some objects may hidden. In
that case this command can use and can see all the objects in the AutoCAD
screen. Here, “A” means all the objects in the screen.
Command: ZOOM
Specify corner of window, enter a scale factor (nX or nXP), or
[All/Center/Dynamic/Extents/Previous/Scale/Window/Object] <real
time>: a
5. Co-ordinate Systems: Similar to mathematics, in AutoCAD also there
are three types of coordinates used for drafting in 2D and 3D. These
coordinate systems are very important to draw a line by varying two
variables i.e. length and direction. It is discussed below about those
coordinates.
1) Absolute Coordinate System
Absolute Coordinates uses the Cartesian System to specify a position in
the X and Y to locate a point from the 0-X, and 0-Y (0, 0) point. To locate a
point using the Absolute Coordinate system, type the X-value and Y-value
separated by comma (with no space). In AutoCAD, it is known as world co-
ordinate system (WCS).
1. Example: Let A (-10,-4) and B (9, 6) are two end points of a line as
shown in figure. A line need to be drawn by connecting these two
points. In Absolute coordinates, these end points are mentioned to draw
the line by line command.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: -10, -4
Specify next point or [Undo]: 9,6
Specify next point or [Undo]: Esc (Escape)
Here U can be entered to go to the previous step and Esc is entered to
disable the present command.
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2. Example: To draw 3 × 4mm rectangle, four corner points of the
rectangle (as shown in figure) need to be entered.
Command: L (LINE) Specify first point: 1,1
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: 1,3
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: C
Here C is entered to close the line with the starting point. The
disadvantage with this coordination system is “each and every point
coordinates need to be known”. This is time consuming and tedious process
when complex diagrams to be done.
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2) Polar Coordinate System
Polar coordinates are used whenever an inclined line to be drawn. Here
inputs are (r, θ) where r is the length of the line and θ is the inclination with
x – axis. To use the polar coordinates, points entered by typing @length ˂
angle (enter). The starting point of the line can be picked in the screen or can
directly enter by absolute coordinate system. But to specify the second point
“@” symbol is entered to ensure the length of the line start from the previous
point.
3. Example: Draw 3 × 4mm rectangle as shown in figure. The points are
entered as shown below.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: 1,1 or pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: @3˂0
Specify next point or [Undo]: @2˂90
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: @-3˂0
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: C or @2˂-90
4. Example: Draw a rhombus as shown in figure.

Command: LINE
Specify first point: pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: @10<30
Specify next point or [Undo]: @-10<-30
Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @-10<30
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Specify next point or [Close/Undo]: @10<-30 (Esc)
Here to draw the line towards negative direction of the axis, -ve sign is
used. The advantage with this coordinate system, when compare with
absolute coordinate system is: Each and every point in the diagram needs not
to be known. Starting point can be any point; usually it is picked by the
cursor randomly. Inclined lines can be drawn easily, if the inclination is
known.
But this coordinate system is not preferable to use when horizontal and
vertical lines to be drawn, since every time entering inclination angle for
horizontal (0) and vertical (90), “˂” symbol is time consuming process. To
avoid this complexity to draw horizontal and vertical line, relative coordinate
system is used.
3) Relative Coordinate System
In this coordinate system, after first point entered, next point can be
entered by specifying the coordinates compare/ relative to the first point.
Here inputs are (x, y) relative to the previous point. To use the relative
coordinates, points entered by typing @ x, y (enter), where x, y are x and y
coordinate distance from the previous point.
5. Example: Draw 3 × 4mm rectangle as shown in figure. The points are
entered as shown below.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: 1,1 or pick any point
Specify next point or [Undo]: @3,0
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: @-3,0
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: C or @0, -2
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6. Example: Draw 6 × 4 rectangle by using line command with relative
coordinates.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: C or @0, -4
7. Example: Draw below diagram by using relative coordinates. Consider
each grid length is one unit.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: @-2,-3
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: @4,1
Specify next point or [Close Undo]: @-1,-3
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Example Drawings Practice
Model-1: Can you guess the diameter of the bigger circle?
Command: C (CIRCLE)
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: (Pick
randomly any one point in the screen)
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter]: 15
Command: _circle (Select 2P circle)
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: _2p
Specify first end point of circle's diameter: pick center point of the first
circle.
Specify second end point of circle's diameter: Take nearest point and
pick point on the circumference of the 1st circle with some angle.
Command: C (CIRCLE)
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Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: Pick
randomly any one point in the screen.
Specify radius of circle or [Diameter] <7.5000>: 5
Command: M (MOVE)
Select objects: Specify opposite corner: 1 found
Specify base point or [Displacement]: select left quadrant point of the
3rd circle
Specify second point or <use first point as displacement>: select left
quadrant point of the 1st circle
Model-2
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: Pick any one point in the screen.
Command: LINE
Specify first point: select mid-point of the 1st line
Specify next point or [Undo]: select end-point of the 1st line
Command: LINE
Specify first point: select end-point of the 2nd line
Specify next point or [Undo]: select another end-point of the 1st line
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Command: E (ERASE)
Select objects: select 2nd line (it is unwanted line as per our drawing) 1
found
Command: _circle (Select Tan Tan Tan Circle)
Specify first tangent point on circle: _tan to (specify 3rd line) Specify
second tangent point on circle: _tan to (specify 2nd line) Specify third
tangent point on circle: _tan to (specify 4th line)
Model-3
Command: REC (RECTANGLE) Specify first corner point or

[coRner/Base/Height/Center/chaMfer/Fillet/centerLine/Dialog]: Pick
any one point in the screen.
Specify other corner point or [Area/Rotation]: @30,30
Command: _circle (Select Tan Tan Radius Circle)
Specify center point for circle or [3P/2P/Ttr (tan tan radius)]: _ttr
Specify point on object for first tangent of circle: select any one line in
rectangle
Specify point on object for second tangent of circle: select any other line
which is neighboring line of the first one.
Specify point on object for first tangent of circle: select any other line in
rectangle to draw another circle
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rectangle to draw another circle Specify point on object for second tangent of
circle: select any other line which is neighboring line of the first one.
rectangle to draw another circle
Command: _circle
Specify first point on circle: specify center of the 1st circle.
Specify second point on circle: specify center of the 2nd circle. Specify
third point on circle: specify center of the 3rd circle. Command: tr (TRIM)
Enter, Enter
Select object to trim or shift-select to extend or
[Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]: trim unwanted lines
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Model-4
Command: REC (RECTANGLE) Specify first corner point or

[coRner/Base/Height/Center/chaMfer/Fillet/centerLine/Dialog]: Pick
any one point in the screen
Specify other corner point or [Area/Rotation]: @40,40
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: Pick Point 6
Specify next point or [Undo]: Pick mid-point of opposite line of the
rectangle.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: Pick point 1
Specify next point or [Undo]: Pick center point of the 1st line.
Command: L (LINE)
Specify first point: Pick the same point 1
Specify next point or [Undo]: @0,-10
Specify next point or [Undo]: Pick center point of the 1st line.
Command: C (2P CIRCLE)
Specify first end point of circle's diameter: Pick point 5
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Specify second end point of circle's diameter: Pick center point of the
1st line.
Command: 2P CIRCLE
Specify first end point of circle's diameter: Pick point 6
Specify second end point of circle's diameter: Pick center point of the
1st line.
Command: _arc (Select start, center and end ARC) Specify start point of
arc or [Center]: Pick point 5. Specify center point of arc or [Center/End]:
Pick point 1
Specify end point of arc or [Angle/chord Length]: Pick point 6.
Command: TR (Enter, Enter) TRIM
Current settings: Projection=UCS, Edge=None Select cutting edges ...
Select objects or <select all>: Select object to trim or shift-select to
extend or [Fence/Crossing/Project/Edge/eRase/Undo]: Trim Un-wanted lines
Command: E – ERASE
ERASE Un-wanted lines and curves
Command: MI (MIRROR)
Select objects: Specify opposite corner: 7 found (Select 3 arcs and 4
lines)
Select objects: Specify first point of mirror line: Pick point 2
Specify second point of mirror line: Pick point 4
Erase source objects? [Yes/No] <N>: Command: RO (ROTATE)
Current positive angle in UCS: ANGDIR=counterclockwise
ANGBASE=0
Select objects: Specify opposite corner: 7 found, 14 total (Select 6 arcs
and 8 lines) Specify base point: Specify rotation angle or [Copy/Reference]
<0>: C
Rotating a copy of the selected objects. Specify rotation angle or
[Copy/Reference] <0>: 90
Command: E (ERASE)
Select objects: select rectangle
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UCS- User Coordinate System
The UCS is a moveable Cartesian coordinate system that establishes
the XY work plane, horizontal and vertical directions, axes of rotation, and
other useful geometric references. You can change the UCS origin and
orientation for convenience as you specify points, enter coordinates, and
work with drawing aids, such as ortho mode and the grid.
A UCS can be stored with a viewport if the UCSVP system variable is
set to 1 for that viewport.
a. b.
Fig 4.18: a. Origin is shifted to Front view of object b. Origin moved from default
position to required position
Note: By using UCS dimensions can easily specified to the object. It
will improves the fastness to the designer or draftsman during dimensions of
the geometric model without changing its views.
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Unit - V
Orthographic Projection
Introduction
Projection: Projection is defined as an Image or drawing of the object
made on a plane. The lines form the object to the Plane are called projectors.
Figure 5.1
Methods of Projections: In Engineering drawing the following four
methods of Projection are commonly used the yare
1. Orthographic Projection
2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection
4. Perspective Projection
In orthographic projection an object is represented by two are three
views on the mutual perpendicular projection planes each projection view
represents two dimensions of an object.
In is oblique and perspective projections represents the object by a
pictorial view as eyes see it. In the methods of projects in three dimensional
object is represented on a projection plane by one view only.
Orthographic Projection
When the Projectors are parallel to each other and also perpendicular to
the plane the projection is called orthographic Projection
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Example: Orthographic projection of a car shown in below figure.
Figure 5.2
We can represent in orthographic projection two to three views enough
as shown in below figures
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
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Orthographic projection of given object
Orthographic Projection is away of drawing an 3D object from different
directions. Usually a front, side and plan view is drawn so that a person
looking at the drawing can see all the important sides. Orthographic
drawings are useful especially when a design has been developed to a stage
where by it is almost ready to manufacture.
Plane of projection: Two planes employed for the purpose of
orthographic projections are called reference planes or planes of projection.
They are intersect each other at right angle to each other the vertical plane of
projection is usually denoted by the letters VP and the other Plane is
horizontal plane of Projection is denoted by HP. The line in which they
intersect is termed as the reference line and is denoted by the letters xy.
Four quadrants
Figure 5.5
Quadrants as shown above figure 5.5. Here planes to be assumed
transparent here the object may be situated any one of four quadrants. The
projections are obtained by drawing perpendiculars from the object to the
planes, i.e by looking from the Front and Top. It should be remembered that
the first and third quadrants always opened out while rotating the planes. The
position of views with respect to the reference line will change according to
quadrant in which object may be situated as shown in below figures.
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First angle Projection
Figure 5.6
We have assumed the object to be situated infront of the VP and above
the HP i.e., First quadrant and then projected it on these planes, the method
of projection is known as First angle projection method.
Here object lies between observer and plane of projection. In this
method when the views are drawn in their relative positions the Top view
comes below the front view.
Third angle Projection
Figure 5.7
Page | 115
Here the object is assumed to be situated in third quadrant, here Plane of
projection assumed to be transparent. It lies between Object and the
observer. In this method when the views are drawn in their relative positions
the Top view comes below the front view.
Reference Line
While representing Projections it can be seen that while considering the
front view which is seen from front the HP coincides with the line xy in their
words xy represents HP.
Similarly while considering Top view which view obtained by looking
from above, the same line xy represents the VP hence, when the projections
are drawn in correct relationship with each other xy represents both the HP
and VP this is called as Reference line.
Figure 5.8
Note: There are two ways of drawing in orthographic-First Angle and
Third Angle. They differ only in the position of the plan, front and side
views.
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Exercise Questions
1. Draw Front View, Top view and Side view for the figure shown below.
All dimensions are in mm.
2. Draw the Front view, Top view and Side view for the figure shown
below. All dimensions are in mm.
3. Draw the Front view, Top view and Side view for the figure shown
below. All dimensions are in mm.
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4. Draw the front view, top view, & side view for the figure shown below.
All dimensions are in mm.
5. Draw the front view, top view and side view of the figure shown below.
All dimensions are in mm
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Unit - VI
Isometric Projection
Isometric projection is a type of pictorial projection in which the three
dimensions of a solid are not only shown in one view but their actual sizes
can be measured directly from it. The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting
at point A and making 1200 angles with each other are termed Isometric
Axes. The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines. The planes
representing the faces of the cube as well as other planes parallel to these
planes are called Isometric Planes.
Isometric scale
When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions are
visible then in the process all dimensions become proportionally inclined to
observer’s eyesight and hence appear apparent in lengths. This reduction is
0.815or9/11(approx.). It forms are reducing scale which is used to draw
isometric drawings and is called Isometric scale. In practice, while drawing
isometric projection, it is necessary to convert true lengths in to isometric
lengths for measuring and marking the sizes. This is conveniently done by
constructing an isometric scale as described on next page.
Construction of isometric scale
From point A, with line AB draw 300 and 450 inclined lines AC & AD
respective on AD. Mark divisions of true length and from each division-
point draw vertical lines up to AC line. The divisions thus obtained on AC
give lengths on isometric scale.
Note
Isometric Drawing/Isometric view True length
Isometric Projection Reduced length (isometric length)
Page | 119
Types of Isometric Drawings
Figure 6.1
Isometric scale [Line AC] required for Isometric Projection
Figure 6.2
Page | 120
Isometric Terminology
Figure 6.3
Isometric axes: The Three Lines CB, CD, CG meeting at a point C and
making an angle of 1200 with each other are called Isometric axes.
Isometric Lines: The Lines parallel to the Isometric Axis are termed as
Isometric lines. Example from above fig. AB, AD, GF, GH, BF, D Hare
Isometric Lines.
Non-Isometric Lines: The lines which are not parallel to the isometric
axes are known as Non- Isometric Lines Example from above fig. BD, AC,
CF, BG are Non-Isometric Lines.
Isometric Planes: The planes representing the faces of the cube as well
as other planes parallel to these planes are termed as Isometric Planes
Example from above fig. ABCD, BCGF, CGHD are Isometric Planes.
Isometric Scale: It is the scale which is used to convert the true length
in to Isometric Length.
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Isometric views of planes
Simple Problems
Problem
Draw the isometric view of a square with40mmside?
Solution
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6.4
Problem
Draw the isometric view of a Hexagon with 40mm side such that its
surface is Parallel to the HP and a side Parallel to the VP?
Solution
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5
Problem: Draw the isometric view of a Circle with a 60mm Diameter
on all three Principle Planes Using Co-ordinate methods?
Solution
Construction Procedure
1. Draw a circle with 60mm Diameter and enclose it in a square abcd.
2. Mark mid points of the sides1, 2, 3 and 4, where the square touches the
circle tangentially.
3. Draw the Diagonals of the square which cut in the circle at points 5, 6, 7
Page | 122
and 8 as shown in fig(a).
4. Draw a Rhombus ABCD to represent Isometric view of a square abcd.
5. Mark points 1, 2, 3 and 4 on it as the mid point of the sides.
6. Mark points 5, 6, 7 and 8 on it, such that they are at a distance equal to
Ax from the side of the square. Join points to obtain isometric view as
shown in figures (b)(c)(d)
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6.6
Problem
Draw the isometric view of a Circle lamina with a 60mm Diameter on
all three Principle Planes using four Centre methods?
Solution
Construction
1. Draw a Rhombus ABCD of 60mmside to represent isometric view of a
square.
2. Mark 1, 2, 3 and 4 as a mid points of the sides AB, BC, CD and DA
respectively join (the ends of the minor diagonals) B to meet points 3 &
4 and D to meet points 1&2. Let B4 and D1 intersect at point E and B3
and D2 intersect at a point F. Then B, E, D and F are the Four centres
for drawing the ellipse
3. With centre B and radius B3 draw Arc3-4.
4. With centre D and Radius D1 draw Arc 1-2. With centre E and radius
E1 draw Arc1-4. With centre F and radius F2 draw Arc2-3.
5. These Arcs join in the form of an Ellipse which represents the required
isometric as shown in figure (a)(b)(c)
Page | 123
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 6.7
Page | 124
Exercise Problems
Problem: Draw the isometric view of the given orthographic projection
of the object?
Solution:
Problem: A square pyramid of 40mm base side and 60mm axis is cut by
an inclined section plane through the midpoint of axis as shown. Draw
isometric view of section of pyramid?
Solution
Page | 125
Hands on Experiments by
using AUTO CAD
Page | 126
2D Sketch of Object Model - 1
Exp No: 1 Date:

Aim: To develop the given model by using auto cad 2D commands and
to specify its dimension.
Software Used
Operating system: Windows 10, AutoCAD
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, Polygon, Arc, Circle, Offset, Copy, Move, Trim,
Layer, DIM.
Procedure
• Study functional requirements of the component.
• Select a suitable scale for the entire drawing.
• Set appropriate limits to new AutoCAD file using LIMITS command.
• Using Line, Polygon, circle, tangent and arc command draw the given
sample drawing.
• By using dimension tool marks the dimensions of every sketch.
• Finished work sheet is saved and hard copy is taken.
Result
Page | 127
Page | 128
Exp No: 2 Date:

Software Used
Operating system: Windows 10 , AutoCAD
Commands Used
Layer, DIM.
Procedure
• Using circle, array, tangent and arc command draw the given sample
drawing.
Result
Page | 129
Page | 130
Exp No: 3 Date:

Software Used
Operating system: Windows 10 , AUTOCAD
Commands Used
Layer, DIM.
Procedure
• Using circle, array, tangent, trim and arc command draw the given
sample drawing.
Result
Page | 131
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Orthographic Projections - 4
Exp No: 4 Date:

Aim: To Draw the orthographic projection of isometric component
Software Used
Operating system: Windows 10, AUTOCAD
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, Extrude, Dim.
Procedure
• Using Line, Extrude draw the given sample drawing.
Result
Page | 133
Page | 134
Exp No: 5 Date:

Software Used
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, circle, trim, Extrude, Dim.
Procedure
• Using Line, circle, trim and Extrude draw the given sample drawing.
Result
Page | 135
Page | 136
Exp No: 6 Date:

Software Used
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, Extrude, Dim.
Procedure
• Using Line, Extrude draw the given sample drawing.
Result
Page | 137
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Isometric Projections - 7
Exp No: 7 Date:

Aim: To draw an isometric view of a cylinder and cone witha50mm
base diameter and a 70mm long axis when axis of solid is perpendicular to
V.P
Software Used
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, Axis, Circle, Extrude, Dim.
Procedure
• Using line, axis, circle, extrude draw the given sample drawing.
Result
Page | 139
Page | 140
Isometric Projections - 8
Exp No: 8 Date:

Aim: To Draw an isometric view of a pentagonal pyramid and square
Prism having a base, with a 40mm side and 50mmlong axis, when the its
axis is vertical
Software Used
Commands Used
Limits, Zoom, Line, join, axis, Extrude, Dim.
Procedure
• Using Line, join, axis, Extrude draw the given sample drawing.
Result
Page | 141
QUESTION BANK
Page | 142
Unit – 1
Construct an ellipse, with distance of the focus from the directrix as 50mm and
1 eccentricity as 2/3. Also draw normal and tangent to the curve at a point 40mm
from the directrix
Construct a rectangular hyperbola, when a point P on it is at distances of 18 and
2 34 from two asymptotes. Draw Normal and Tangent at a distance of 25mm

from any asymptote.
Construct a cycloid, given the diameter of the generating circle as 40mm. Draw
3
tangent to the curve at a point on it, 35mm from the directing line
Draw an epi – cycloid of a circle of 40mm diameter, which rolls on another
4 circle of 120mm diameter for one revolution in clock – wise. Draw a tangent
and a normal to it at a point 90mm from the center of the directing circle.
Draw an involute of a given circle with diameter 50mm and to draw a tangent
5
and normal to the involute of a circle at any point N on it.
Unit – 2
Draw the projection of following points which is lying on the reference line
25mm apart.
i. A point A is 20mm above HP and 30mm infront of VP.
1 ii. A point B is 20mm above HP and 30mm behind VP.

iii. A point C is 20mm below HP and 30mm behind VP.
iv. A point D is 20mm below HP and 30mm infront of VP.
v. A point E is on HP and 30mm infront of VP.
A Line AB of 70mm long is inclined at 300 to HP and 450 to VP. The end A of
2
the line is 15 above HP and 20 Infront of VP. Draw the Projections of the line.
A line PQ of 65mm long has its end P, 25mm above HP and 20mm in front of
3
V.P. The end Q is 40mm above HP and 50mm in front of VP Draw its
Page | 143
projections and find its inclinations with HP and VP.
A hexagonal plane of side 30mm has an edge on the HP. Its surface is inclined
4 at 450 to HP and the edge on which the plane rests is inclined at 30 0 to VP.
Draw its projections
A semi – circular plate of 80mm diameter, has its straight edge on VP and
5 inclined at 300 to HP, while the surface of the plate is inclined at 45 0 to V.P.
Draw the projections of the plate.
Unit – 3
A square prism, side of base 30mm and axis 45mm long lies on H.P. such that
its axis is parallel to both H.P. and V.P. Draw the top and front views of the
prism when
1
i. It lies with one of its rectangular faces on H.P. and
ii. It lies with one of its longer edges on H.P.
i. Draw the projections of a cylinder of base 30mm diameter and axis 50mm
long, when it is resting on HP on one of its bases.
2
ii. A cube of 40mm side is resting with a face on HP such that, the vertical
faces are equally inclined to VP. Draw its projections
A pentagonal prism is resting on one of the corners of its base on HP. The
longer edge containing that corner is inclined at 30 0 to HP and the vertical plane
3
containing that edge is inclined at 450 to VP. Draw the projections of the solid.
Take the side of the base as 30 and length of the axis as 80mm.
Draw the projections of a cone of 100mm height and 75 diameter, resting on
4 one of its generators on HP and its axis lies in a vertical plane, inclined at 30 0 to
VP.
A Hexagonal Pyramid side of base 30mm and axis 50mm long rests with one of
5 the corners of its base on H.P. Its axis is inclined at 35 0 to H.P. and 450 to V.P.
Draw its projections.
Unit – 4
Page | 144
A cube of 35mm long edges is resting on HP on one of its faces with a vertical
face inclined at 300 to VP. It is cut by a section plane parallel to VP and 9mm
1
away from the axis and further away from VP. Draw its sectional front view
and top view
A triangular pyramid having base 40mm side and axis 50mm long is lying on
HP on one of its faces with the axis parallel to VP. A section plane parallel to
2
VP cuts the pyramid at a distance of 6mm from the axis. Draw its front view
and sectional top view.
A square pyramid base 40mm side and axis 65mm long is lying on base on HP
and all the edges of the base are equally inclined to VP. It is cut by a section
3 plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45 0 to HP and bisecting the axis.

Draw its sectional top view and true shape of the section and sectional side
view.
A cylinder of 40mm in diameter and 60mm height and having its axis vertical is
cut by a section plane perpendicular to VP, inclined at 45 0 to HP and
4
intersecting the axis 32mm above the base. Draw its front view, sectional top
view and true shape of the section.
A cone is resting on HP with its base of diameter 50mm and axis 70mm and it
5 is cut by a section plane parallel to the base at a height of 20mm from the base.
Draw its sectional top view.
Unit – 5
A square prism of side of base 40mm and axis 80mm long, is resting on its base
1 on HP such that, a rectangular face of it is parallel to VP. Draw the

development of the prism.
A pentagonal pyramid of base side 30mm and axis 60mm long, is resting on its
2 base on HP with an edge of the base parallel to VP. Draw the development of
the pyramid
Page | 145
A regular cone of base diameter 40mm and axis 65mm is resting on its base on
the ground. It is cut by a section plane passing through the mid-point of the
3 axis and making an angle of 400. Draw the lateral surface development of the
cone.
A square pyramid, with side of base 30mm and axis 50mm long, is resting on
its base on HP with an edge of the base parallel to VP. It is cut by a section
4 plane, perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45 0 to HP. The section plane is

passing through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the development of the surface
of the cut pyramid.
A hexagonal prism of side of base 30mm and axis 75mm long, is resting on its
5 base on HP such that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. Draw the

development of the hexagonal prism using parallel line development method
Page | 146

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A Handbook on Engineering

The author/publisher has attempted to trace and acknowledge the materials

S. No. Topics Page No.

Introduction to Engineering Drawing

Designation Dimension, mm Trimmed aloe

2. Let P be the generating point. On OP mark PC = r = 20 mm, the radius

Projection of Points and Straight Lines

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3.10(a) Figure 3.10(b)

Figure 3.11(a) Figure 3.11(b)

(a) (b) (c)

4. Draw the development of surface of the square pyramid of base 30mm

Figure 4.1: AutoCAD Layout

Figure 4.2: Top View of the Mouse

Figure 4.3: Sequence of Steps to save the file in the server

Figure 4.4: Most commonly required points of OSnap settings.

Figure 4.7: Solid Window Figure 4.8: Dotted Window

This command is used to draw an arc using center point, diameter or

Figure 12: Rectangle Array

Figure 4.11: Polar Array

This command is used to draw a circle. Circle can be drawn in many

EX – Extend – Extend the selected lines to nearest objects

Figure 4.12: Different types of Hatchings

M – Move – To move selected object

Figure 4.15: To match the Figure 4.16: The properties are

O – Offset – to offset an object with specified distance

P – PAN – to slide the drawing

PO – Point – to draw a point

Figure 4.17: To draw regular triangle in different cases of Polygon

TR – Trim – to trim the line

This command is used to trim the objects at a cutting edge defined by

4. Example: Draw a rhombus as shown in figure.

Command: REC (RECTANGLE) Specify first corner point or

Command: REC (RECTANGLE) Specify first corner point or

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Exp No: 1 Date:

Exp No: 2 Date:

Exp No: 3 Date:

Exp No: 4 Date:

Exp No: 5 Date:

Exp No: 6 Date:

Exp No: 7 Date:

Exp No: 8 Date:

2 34 from two asymptotes. Draw Normal and Tangent at a distance of 25mm

Draw an epi – cycloid of a circle of 40mm diameter, which rolls on another

1 ii. A point B is 20mm above HP and 30mm behind VP.

3 plane perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45 0 to HP and bisecting the axis.

1 on HP such that, a rectangular face of it is parallel to VP. Draw the

4 plane, perpendicular to VP and inclined at 45 0 to HP. The section plane is

5 base on HP such that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. Draw the

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