CHAPTER 2

SIMPLE
STRAIN
Simple Strain, 
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of
the change in length caused by the applied force, to
the original length.



L

Where:  = deformation
L = original length
 = strain
Stress-Strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-

compression testing machine. As the axial load is
gradually increased in increments, the total elongation
over the gage length is measured at each increment of
the load and this is continued until failure of the
specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-
sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal
stress  and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of
these quantities with the stress  along the y-axis and the
strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram.
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT (HOOKE'S LAW)
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit,
the stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear
relation between elongation and the axial force causing
was first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is
called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the
stress is directly proportional to strain or
 or   k
The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of
Elasticity E or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope
of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then
  E
ELASTIC LIMIT

The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer
go back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the
maximum stress that may be developed such that there is no
permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely
removed.

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC RANGES

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic

range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

YIELD POINT

Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH

The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate

strength or tensile strength.

RAPTURE STRENGTH

Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also

known as the breaking strength.

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE

Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material

as the force is gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O
to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The
resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without
creating a permanent distortion.
MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS

Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material

as the force is gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to
R). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.
WORKING STRESS, ALLOWABLE STRESS, AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a

given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is
termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited
to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable
stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by
a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength)
to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
AXIAL DEFORMATION
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the
stress is proportional to strain and is given by
  E
𝑃 𝛿 𝑃 𝛿
since  = and 𝜀 = , then = 𝐸 𝐿. Solving for δ,
𝐴 𝐿 𝐴

PL L
 
AE E
If however, the cross-sectional area is not uniform, the axial
deformation can be determined by considering a differential length
and applying integration.

where 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑦 and 𝑦 and 𝑡, if variable, must be expressed in

terms of 𝑥.
For a rod of unit mass 𝜌 suspended vertically from one end, the
total elongation due to its own weight is

𝜌𝑔𝐿2 𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝛿= =
2𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
where:
𝜌 is in kg/m3,
L is the length of the rod in mm,
M is the total mass of the rod in kg,
A is the cross-sectional area of the rod in mm2, and
g = 9.81 m/s2.

STIFFNESS, 𝒌
Stiffness is the ratio of the steady force acting on an elastic body to
the resulting displacement. It has the unit of N/mm.

𝑃
𝑘 = 𝛿
Solved Problems:
1. A 6 inch long copper wire is stretched to a total length of 6.05
inches. What is the strain?

Given:
𝐿 = 6“
𝛿 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ − 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝛿 = 6.05 − 6 = 0.05 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ.

Solution:
𝛿
𝜖=
𝐿
0.05
𝜖=
6
1
𝜖=
120
2. A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length
of 150 m is suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile
load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850
kg/m3 and E = 200 GPa, find the total elongation of the rod.

Given: 𝐴 = 300 𝑚𝑚2 = 300 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2

𝐿 = 150 𝑚 𝑃 = 20 𝑘𝑁 = 20,000 𝑁
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 7850 𝑚3 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎
Solution:
a. Elongation due to its own weight, 𝛿1
𝜌𝑔𝐿2
𝛿1 =
2𝐸
7850(9.81) 150 2
𝛿1 =
2(200 𝑥 109 )
𝛿1 = 4.33 𝑥 10−3 𝑚
𝛿1 = 4.33 𝑚𝑚
b. Elongation due to the applied load, 𝛿2

𝑃𝐿
𝛿2 =
𝐴𝐸
20,000 150
𝛿2 =
300 𝑥 10−6 (200 𝑥 109 )
𝛿2 = 0.05 𝑚
𝛿2 = 50 𝑚𝑚

c. Total Elongation, 𝛿𝑇

𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿1 + 𝛿2
𝛿𝑇 = 4.33 + 50
𝛿𝑇 = 54.33 𝑚𝑚
3. An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the
axial loads applied at the positions shown. Compute the total
change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is
suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.
1 2 3

Solution:
a. Axial force in each segment
1 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑃1 𝑃1 = 6000 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)
 2
𝐹𝐻 = 0
6000 + 𝑃2 = 7000
𝑃2
𝑃2 = 1000 𝑙𝑏 (𝐶)
3
𝐹𝐻 = 0
7000 + 𝑃3 = 6000 + 5000
𝑃3
𝑃3 = 4000 𝑙𝑏 (𝑇)

b. Elongation of each segment

𝑃𝐿 6000 3 𝑥 12 𝑃𝐿 1000 5 𝑥 12
𝛿1 = = 𝛿2 = =
𝐴𝐸 1 0.5 10𝑥106 𝐴𝐸 2 0.5 10𝑥106
𝛿1 = 0.0432 𝑖𝑛. 𝛿2 = 0.012 𝑖𝑛.
Since 𝑃1 is in tension, then Since 𝑃2 is in compression,
𝛿1 is an elongation then 𝛿2 is a shortening
 𝑃𝐿 4000 4 𝑥 12
𝛿3 = =
𝐴𝐸 3 0.5 10𝑥106
𝛿3 = 0.0384 𝑖𝑛.
Since 𝑃3 is in tension, then
𝛿3 is an elongation

c. Total Axial Deformation

3
𝛿𝑇 = 1𝛿 (assume elongation is positive)
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿1 − 𝛿2 + 𝛿3
𝛿𝑇 = 0.0432 − 0.012 + 0.0384
𝛿𝑇 = 0.0696 𝑖𝑛. (elongation)
4. A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar
as shown. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find
the largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of
3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in
the bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the
assembly is suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use Est = 200 GPa,
Eal = 70 GPa, and Ebr = 83 GPa.
Solution:
a. Axial force in each segment

- Steel segment - Bronze segment

𝑃𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑏𝑟

𝐹𝐻 = 0 𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃 (Tension) 𝑃𝑏𝑟 + 𝑃 = 3𝑃
𝑃𝑏𝑟
= 2𝑃 (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
- Aluminum segment
𝑃𝑎𝑙
𝐹𝐻 = 0
𝑃𝑎𝑙 + 3𝑃 = 4𝑃 + 𝑃
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑃 (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)
b. Analyze each segment based on their allowable stresses

- Steel segment
𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡

6
𝑃
140 𝑥 10 𝑃𝑎 =
480 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑃 = 67,200 𝑁

- Bronze segment
𝑃𝑏𝑟
𝜎𝑏𝑟 =
𝐴𝑏𝑟
2𝑃
120 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎 =
650 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑃 = 39,000 𝑁
 - Aluminum segment
𝑃𝑎𝑙
𝜎𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝑎𝑙
2𝑃
80 𝑥 106 𝑃𝑎 =
320 𝑥 10−6 𝑚2
𝑃 = 12,800 𝑁

c. Analyze each segment based on their allowable deformation

- Steel segment 𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡

𝑃(1)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
480 𝑥 10−6 (200 𝑥 109 )
𝑃
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = (elongation)
96 𝑥 106
 - Bronze segment - Aluminum segment
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑏𝑟 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑏𝑟 𝐴𝐸 𝑎𝑙
2𝑃(2) 2𝑃(1.5)
𝛿𝑏𝑟 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
650 𝑥 10−6 (83 𝑥 109 ) 320 𝑥 10−6 (70 𝑥 109 )
𝑃 3𝑃
𝛿𝑏𝑟 = (shortening) 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = (elongation)
13487500 22.4𝑥 106

𝑎𝑙
𝛿𝑇 = 𝑠𝑡 𝛿 (assume elongation is positive)
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝑠𝑡 − 𝛿𝑏𝑟 + 𝛿𝑎𝑙

𝑃 𝑃 3𝑃
0.003 𝑚 = 6 − +
96 𝑥 10 13487500 22.4𝑥 106
𝑃 = 42,733.51 𝑁

∴ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 12,800 𝑁 (safe value of P)

5. The rigid bar ABC shown is hinged at A and supported by a steel
rod at B. Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if
the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi and the vertical
movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
Solution:
a. Find the axial force of the steel rod due to the applied force P.
𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝐴𝐻
𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 2 = 𝑃(5)
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 2.5 𝑃
𝐴𝑉

b. Analyze the steel rod based on its allowable stress

𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝜎𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡
2.5 𝑃
30,000 =
0.5
𝑃 = 6000 𝑙𝑏.
- Value of P so as not to over stress the
steel rod
c. Analyze the steel rod due to the vertical movement of point C.

𝛿𝑠𝑡

By ratio and proportion But

of the two similar 𝑃𝐿
triangles 𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑠𝑡 0.1 2.5𝑃(4 𝑥 12)
= 0.04 =
2 5 0.5(29 𝑥 106 )
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.04 𝑖𝑛. 𝑃 = 4,833.33 𝑙𝑏.
- Value of P so as not to exceed
0.10 in. movement of point C.

∴ 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4,833.33 𝑙𝑏. (safe value of P)

6. The rigid bar ABC, attached to two vertical rods as shown, is
horizontal before the load P is applied. Determine the vertical
movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.
Solution:
a. Find the axial force of the steel and aluminum rods due to the
applied force P.
𝑃𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑠𝑡

𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝑀𝐵 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 6 = 50(3.5) 𝑃𝑎𝑙 6 = 50(2.5)
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 29.17 𝑘𝑁 𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 20.83 𝑘𝑁

b. Determine the deflection of each rod

𝑃𝐿
- Steel rod 𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡
(29.17𝑥103 )(4)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
300𝑥10−6 (200𝑥109 )
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.00194 𝑚 = 1.94 𝑚𝑚
- Aluminum rod 𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑎𝑙
(20.83𝑥103 )(3)
𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
500𝑥10−6 (70𝑥109 )
𝛿𝑎𝑙 = 0.00179 𝑚 = 1.79 𝑚𝑚
c. Vertical movement of point C
1.79

𝛿𝐵

1.94
𝑦 0.15

Movement diagram of bar AB

By ratio and proportion

𝑦 0.15
=
3.5 6
𝑦 = 0.0875 𝑚𝑚

𝛿𝐵 = 1.79 + 𝑦
𝛿𝐵 = 1.79 + 0.0875
𝛿𝐵 = 1.8775 𝑚𝑚
7. The rigid bars AB and CD shown are supported by pins at A and C
and the two rods. Determine the maximum force P which can be
applied as shown if its vertical movement is limited to 5 mm.
Neglect the weight of all members.
Solution:
a. Find the axial force of each rod due to applied load P.
𝑃𝑎𝑙
𝐴𝐻 𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 6 = 𝑃𝑎𝑙 (3)
𝐴𝑉 𝑃𝑠𝑡 2𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑎𝑙 (1)

FBD of member AB
𝑃𝑠𝑡
𝐶𝐻
𝑀𝐶 = 0
𝑃𝑠𝑡 6 = 𝑃 (3)
𝐶𝑉 P
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 0.5𝑃 (2)

Substitute (2) to (1)

FBD of member CD
2(0.5𝑃) = 𝑃𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃
b. Deflection analysis
- Member AB - Member CD

𝛿𝑃 𝛿𝐵

𝛿𝑠𝑡

By R & P By R & P
𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝛿𝐵 𝛿𝑃 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡
= =
3 6 3 6
𝛿𝐵 = 2𝛿𝑎𝑙 (3) 𝛿𝑃 = 0.5 𝛿𝐵 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 (4)
Substitute (3) to (4)
𝛿𝑃 = 0.5(2𝛿𝑎𝑙 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 )
0.005 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 + 0.5𝛿𝑠𝑡
but

𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝐸 𝑎𝑙
0.5𝑃(2) 𝑃(2)
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
300𝑥10−6 (200𝑥109 ) 500𝑥10−6 (70𝑥109 )
𝑃 𝑃
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 =
60𝑥106 17.5𝑥106
Substitute
𝑃 𝑃
0.005 = 6
+ 0.5
17.5𝑥10 60𝑥106
𝑃 = 76,363.64 𝑁
8. A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to be attached, as
shown, to two rods whose lower ends are on the same level.
Determine the ratio of the areas of the rods so that the slab will
remain level.
Solution:
a. Determine the axial force of b. Deflection analysis
each material due to the total - Since the lower ends of the
weight W. bars are of the same level
when the slab is attached,
A B
then
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
=
FBD of concrete slab 𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝐸 𝑎𝑙
𝑀𝐵 = 0 1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑙 6 = 𝑊(4) 3 𝑊 (6 𝑥 12) = 3 𝑊 (4 𝑥 12)
2 𝐴𝑠𝑡 (29𝑥106 ) 𝐴𝑎𝑙 (10𝑥106 )
𝑃𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊 2 6
3 𝐴𝑎𝑙 3 𝑊 (4 𝑥 12)(29𝑥10 )
𝑀𝐴 = 0 =
𝐴𝑠𝑡 1 𝑊 (6 𝑥 12)(10𝑥106 )
𝑃𝑠𝑡 6 = 𝑊(2) 3
𝐴𝑎𝑙 58
1 = Answer
𝑃𝑠𝑡 = 𝑊 𝐴𝑠𝑡 15
3
PROBLEMS IN STRAIN AND AXIAL DEFORMATION
1. The following data were recorded during the tensile test of a 14-
mm-diameter mild steel rod. The gage length was 50 mm.

Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following

mechanical properties: (a) proportional limits; (b) modulus of
elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) ultimate strength; and (e) rupture
strength.
From the stress-strain diagram:

a. Proportional Limit = 246.20 Mpa

b. Modulus of Elasticity
E= slope of stress-strain diagram within proportional limit
246.20
𝐸= = 205166.67 𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.0012

𝐸 = 205.2 𝐺𝑃𝑎
c. Yield Point = 270.24 Mpa
d. Ultimate Strength = 441.74 Mpa
e. Rupture Strength = 399.51 MPa