ADJECTIVES

In the preceding study sessions, we started our discussion of the units or constituents that make
up a stretch of utterance such as morphemes and words so we already know that words can
belong to different categories traditionally known as parts of speech. In study session 4, we
dealt with nouns (a noun is the name of any person, animal, place or thing) and in study session
5, attention was given to the category known as pronoun which is a word form that may be
used in place of a noun, such as I, we, you, he, she, it and they etc. In study session 6, you
learnt different things about verbs. Verbs are the heart of language and because of them, our
words take action and we able to express who we are and how we feel. A verb is therefore a
word that expresses action or a state of being (that is, existence) or condition and is required to
make a sentence. In the study session on verbs, we also discussed action and auxiliary verbs,
the different forms of a verb as well as tense, mood voice and agreement in relation to verbs.

In this study section, we shall continue our examination of the different word classes by
discussing the word class known as adjectives. Adjectives paint pictures and modify. A
modifier is a word that describes or qualifies another word in a way that limits or changes the
other word’s meaning. For example, if I say: ‘I bought a dress yesterday.’ The sentence does
not provide much information about the dress because of the absence of adjectives. However,
if I say: ‘I bought a beautiful pink dress yesterday,’ the addition of the adjectives ‘beautiful’
and ‘pink’ adds some colour and changes what is known about the dress.

Defining Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun by limiting its meaning.
Adjectives help to explain what makes something one of a kind and why something is unique
An adjective answers any of the following questions about a noun or pronoun:

What kind?: This is a red van; They serve continental dishes here.
Which one or ones?: Ben Okri won a prestigious award.
How many or how much?: The men shook hands and went their several ways.

Adjectives help us see, feel, taste, hear, and smell all the experiences we read about. In the
examples below, consider how adjectives make the second sentence more descriptive than the
first.
▪ During the strike, the workers confronted their employers.
▪ During the strike, the irate workers confronted their egocentric employers.

Types of Adjectives
Adjectives usually tell us something about the colour, size, quantity, quality, classification,
etc., of a noun or pronoun. In other words, there are different types of adjectives.
(i) A qualitative/descriptive adjective says something about a quality that someone or
something has. Examples: She is an honest student

Beyonce is an exceptional singer.

(ii) A classifying adjective says something about the group that someone or something
belongs to. Examples: This is not an egalitarian society.

She has a psychological problem.

(iii) A quantifying adjective says something about the amount of a thing. It is usually used
for describing things which cannot be counted as well as things that can be counted. There are
two sub-classes of quantifying adjectives:

(a) Definite Adjectives of Quantity: Two, ten, fifteen, third, seventh, both, double.

▪ The divers found two bodies.

▪ The three friends slept on a double bed on the second day.
(b) Indefinite Adjectives of Quantity: All, any, several, few, many, much, some.

▪ I have to buy a few things at the shop.

▪ There are only so many hours in the working day.
(iv) A colour adjective describes the colour of something. Examples:

▪
She wore a grey blouse.
▪
He has found his white shirt.
(v) An emphatic adjective emphasizes a person’s or thing’s feeling about something. It
may also emphasize the degree of something. Examples:

▪The driver is a complete idiot.

▪The event was a total nightmare.
(vi) An interrogative adjective is used to ask questions about the noun or pronoun it
qualifies. Examples:

▪ Which bag are you looking for?

▪ Whose shoes are those?
▪ What kind of student are you?
(vii) A demonstrative adjective points out the thing or person it qualifies. Examples:

▪ That book is mine.

▪ These boys are brilliant.
(viii) A possessive adjective shows that something belongs to something or someone.
Examples:

▪ These are my cousins.

 ▪ The gifts are for your dad.
▪ The children love their nanny.

The Different Forms of Adjectives

Many adjectives have different forms to indicate their degree of comparison. Adjectives
generally have three degrees: Positive, Comparative and Superlative.

Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree

Big Bigger Biggest
Cold Colder Coldest
Small Smaller Smallest
Lazy Lazier Laziest
Early Earlier Earliest
Far Father Farthest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Famous More famous Most famous
Careful More careful Most careful
Pleasant Pleasanter /more pleasant Pleasantest /most pleasant
Likely Likelier /more likely Likeliest / most likely
Better Best
Good
Bad Worse Worst
Much More Most
Many More Most

The positive is the simplest form of the adjective. It is descriptive, simply describing a noun or
pronoun (e.g. a big bag, a young girl). The comparative is used when comparing two things,
creatures or groups (e.g. the bigger of the two, cats are smaller than dogs). You add -er to
adjectives which do not end in e and --r to those adjectives which end in e (e.g. fast, faster;
late, later). The superlative is used when comparing three or more things, creatures or groups.
(e.g. the shortest of the three; the sharpest of the them) It is formed by adding -est to any
adjective which does not end in e and -st to adjectives which end in e (e.g. fastest, latest).

Most adjectives of more than two or three syllables form their comparative by adding more;
and superlative by adding most to the adjective (e.g. difficult, more difficult, and most difficult).
Some others adjectives allow the addition of either -er/-est or more/most (e.g. politer/more
polite; politest/most polite).

There are some adjectives which do not form their comparative and superlative by adding
more/-er and most/-est respectively. Rather, these adjectives form their comparative and
superlative in other ways as shown in the table for adjectives like good, bad, much and many.
These adjectives are referred to as irregular Adjectives.

Give the comparatives and superlatives of the following adjectives:

Happy, cheerful, clever, little, comfortable

 Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
happy Happier Happiest
cheerful more cheerful most cheerful
clever Cleverer Cleverest
little Less Least
Comfortable more comfortable most comfortable

Position and Order of Adjectives

Position of adjectives

Adjectives can appear in different positions within a sentence. An adjective could be placed
before a noun (an attributive adjective) or linked to a noun it qualifies by a verb (a predicative
adjective). A few adjectives appear immediately after the noun they modify (postpositive or
post-modifiers).

Attributive adjectives: To use an adjective attributively, you place it immediately before the
noun it modifies or qualifies. In the examples below, the underlined adjectives are used
attributively:

The handsome man just left.

You kept the busy woman waiting.

Mandela was in jail for twenty-seven years

They live in a big Victorian house.

There are some adjectives you can use only in the attributive position. The underlined
adjectives in the examples below are those used only in the attributive position:

Our main concern is that the soldiers are safe.

Polls have shown the senator to have a commanding lead
But never:

*Our concern is main.

*The senator’s lead is commanding

Predicative Adjective: To use an adjective in a predicative position, you use a verb to link the
adjective to the relevant noun that the adjective modifies. Predicative adjectives are so called
because they are part of the predicate and help to form the predicate. The underlined adjectives
are predicative adjectives:

I’m so grateful for all your help.

The gift is precious to me.

The car was abandoned at Ikeja.

The car is blue.

There are also some adjectives you can use only in the predicative position. The underlined
adjectives in the examples below are those used only in the predicative position:

The woman is afraid.

Grandpa fell asleep watching TV.

But never:

*The afraid woman is my mother.

* My asleep grandpa is tired.

Postpositives or Post-modifiers: To use an adjective in a postpositive position, you place it

immediately after the relevant noun that the adjective modifies. The underlined adjectives in
the sentences below are postpositive adjectives:

Anyone intelligent can do that.

We are expecting the president elect.

He was sworn-in as the attorney general yesterday.

Bako is considered the governor’s political heir apparent.

It is important to note that some adjectives can be used in the three positions. Consider the
following examples:

They had a light dinner – attributive

The dinner they had was light – predicative

Give them something light – postpositive

Order of adjectives

When many adjectives are used to qualify the same noun, they have to be placed in a particular
order. The usual order is quality adjectives (e.g. new, useful), followed by length (e.g. long,
short), and weight (e.g. heavy, light), and size (e.g. big, small,), and shape (e.g. round, square),
and age (old, young), and colour (e.g. brown, purple), and origin (e.g. Nigerian, western), and
finally, the noun that is being described. The following examples show the usual order of
adjectives:

They live in a beautiful big white house.

The woman wore an elegant short pink dress.

There is a small narrow triangular pool in the garden.

They slept on a big varnished and painted oak bed.

Gradable and Non-gradable Adjectives

Most adjectives are gradable. Regular adjectives such as big, small, lazy, etc. which have
comparative and superlative forms (e.g. big, bigger, biggest) and can also be modified by
adverbs that increase or lessen the quality they name (e.g. quite big; very small) are referred to
as gradable adjectives. However, there are some adjectives that name absolute or extreme
qualities. Such adjectives do not have comparative forms and cannot be expressed in degrees.
This category of adjectives is known as non-gradable adjectives. Some examples of non-
gradable adjectives are: perfect, real, right terrible, fatal, superior, ghastly, unique, utter,
inferior, fake.

The clothes were a perfect fit.

The house was a real mess.

That was a unique achievement.

He suffered a fatal injury to the neck.

Gradable adjectives are adjectives which have comparative and superlative forms (e.g. small,

smaller, smallest) and can also be modified by adverbs that increase or lessen the quality they

name (e.g. quite huge; so cute). Non-gradable adjectives do not have comparative and

superlative forms and they cannot be modified by adverbs that increase or lessen the quality

they name. Examples of non-gradable adjectives are: fatal, atomic, hydrochloric, etc.

Summary

You have learnt that:

- An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun. Examples are:

bright, excellent, third, green, asleep, etc.
- There are different types of adjectives: adjectives of colour, adjectives of quantity,
adjectives of quality, demonstrative adjectives, emphatic adjectives, interrogative
adjectives, etc.
- Adjectives have three forms: positive, comparative and superlative.
- Adjectives can be placed in three different positions in a sentence: attributive,
predicative and postpositive positions.
- There are gradable and non-gradable adjectives. Gradable adjectives are adjectives

which have comparative and superlative forms (e.g. small, smaller, smallest) and can

also be modified by adverbs that increase or lessen the quality they name (e.g. quite
 huge; so cute). Non-gradable adjectives do not have comparative and superlative forms

and they cannot be modified by adverbs that increase or lessen the quality they name.

Examples of non-gradable adjectives are: fatal, atomic, hydrochloric, etc.

CONJUNCTIONS

In the preceding study sessions, we started our discussion of the units or constituents that make
up a stretch of utterance such as morphemes and words so we already know that words can
belong to different categories traditionally known as parts of speech. In study session 4, we
dealt with nouns (a noun is the name of any person, animal, place or thing) and in study session
5, attention was given to the category known as pronoun which is a word form that may be
used in place of a noun, such as I, we, you, he, she, it and they etc. In study session 6, you
learnt different things about verbs. Verbs are the heart of language and because of them, our
words take action and we able to express who we are and how we feel. A verb is therefore a
word that expresses action or a state of being (that is, existence) or condition and is required to
make a sentence. In the study session on verbs, we also discussed action and auxiliary verbs,
the different forms of a verb as well as tense, mood voice and agreement in relation to verbs.
In study session 7, we continued our examination of the different word classes by discussing
the word class known as adjectives (good, kind, big, first, etc). Adjectives paint pictures and
modify. A modifier is a word that describes or qualifies another word in a way that limits or
changes the other word’s meaning. In study session 8, we examined the category of words
known as adverbs. An adverb is a word that modifies or gives more information about a verb,
an adjective or another adverb by making its meaning clearer or more specific.

Sentences are made up of smaller units known as words. When we speak, we combine words
to communicate simple ideas. These simple ideas are further combined with other words and
phrases to form more complicated structures by making use of connective words known as
conjunctions. In this study session, conjunctions are the focus of our discussion.

Defining Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word used to connect or link words, groups of words, clauses or sentences.
They are language’s tape that connects words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

Examples are: although, because, and, but, yet, so as, before, for, if, lest, neither, nor, only,
or.
Types of Conjunction

There are two main kinds of conjunctions: conjunctions which join words, groups of words
and clauses of equal grammatical status in a sentence, and conjunctions which join principal
clauses to subordinate clauses.

Let us start by discussing the first type, that is, conjunctions that join words, phrases,
clauses and sentences of equal value. This category of conjunctions is of three types:

a) Coordinating Conjunctions (also known as coordinators) join words or groups of

words of equal status. Common coordinating conjunctions are: and, but for, or, nor,
so, yet. In the following examples, the underlined words are coordinating
conjunctions.
1. The man and his family won the contest.
2. She is very intelligent but humble
3. David won a scholarship to Yale, for a Professor there recognised his potential.
4. You can have fruit salad or cake at the end of the meal.

b) Correlative Conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal
grammatical weight. Examples are both…and; not only…but (also); either…or;
neither…nor; just as…so; whether…or.
1. Both she and her brother were playing outside.
2. I speak not only Hausa but also Fulfude.
3. Either Titi or Kayode left the door open.
4. Neither Mariam nor Kemi deserves the promotion.
5. She was uncertain whether to stay or leave.

c) Conjunctive Adverbs are used to clarify the relationship between clauses of equal
grammatical status in a sentence. They are usually stronger than coordinating
conjunctions because they explain more precisely the relationship between the two
clauses. The difference between coordinators and conjunctive adverbs becomes clearer
when you compare the two sentences below:

The boy was poor, he couldn’t pay his school fees and he dropped out of school.
(Coordinator)
 The boy was poor, and he couldn’t pay his school fees; consequently he dropped out of
school. (Conjunctive Adverb)

There are different types of Conjunctive Adverbs and they can be used in the following ways:

i. also, besides, furthermore, moreover can be used to replace and:

Bola runs a catering company and she plans parties.

Bola runs a catering company; also, she plans parties.

I don’t mind picking up your things from the store and the walk will be good for me.

I don’t mind picking up your things from the store; besides, the walk will be good for
me.

ii. however, nevertheless, still can be used to replace but:

This is a cheap and simple process but there are dangers.

This is a cheap and simple process; however, there are dangers.

What you said was true but it was a little unkind.

What you said was true; nevertheless, it was a little unkind.

iii. consequently, therefore, so, thus can be used to state result:

There was no fighting and consequently no casualties

My car was bigger and therefore more comfortable.

Durban has an ideal climate, and so it is not surprising that it has become a tourist
paradise.

They diluted the drug thus reducing its potency.

iv. equally, likewise, similarly can be used to state equality:

We want the economy to grow, but equally we want low inflation.

The jollof rice was delicious; likewise, the egg sauce was excellent.
 The boy followed his father’s example and, similarly, the girl modelled herself on her
mother.

Let us now turn to the second type of conjunctions, that is, conjunctions which join
principal clauses to subordinate clauses. This type is known as subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions form a much larger group. Subordinating conjunctions mainly
join clauses together although they do this in a rather different way from coordinating
conjunctions. Like prepositions, they can be simple or complex. Here is a selection of
subordinating conjunctions:

After as long as If so that when

Although as soon as in as much as Than whenever
as far as as though in case That where
As because in order that Though whereas
assuming that before provided that Unless wherever
as if considering Since Until while
(that)

Subordinating conjunctions occur at the beginning of clauses: when a subordinating

conjunction introduces a clause in this way it has the effect of making that clause subordinate
to another clause in the same sentence (and the sentence will be complex). A subordinating
conjunction joins two clauses or ideas in a way that makes one grammatically dependent on
the other. In the following examples, the underlined words are subordinating conjunctions:

He decided to take a room in Sheraton, although he knew he could not really afford it.

I saw her a few days before she travelled.

I saw Funke as she was getting off the bus.

He met Jolie while working on the production of Heroes.

Many prepositions share the same forms as adverbs. Similarly, some prepositions share the
same forms as subordinating conjunctions. However, whereas prepositions normally
introduce a noun phrase, a subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate or dependent
clause (a grammatical unit which contains a verb element) that cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence.
The following examples show how since can be a preposition, an adverb or a subordinating
conjunction:

I haven’t slept since yesterday preposition

I woke up at 3am and haven’t slept since adverb

I haven’t slept since the visitors arrived subordinating conjunction

Since the session began, I haven’t taken a break subordinating conjunction

Mention the different types of conjunctions and give two examples of each.

There are two main kinds of conjunctions:

1. Conjunctions which join words, groups of words, clauses and sentences of equal
grammatical status in a sentence. There are three types of this category of conjunctions:

(a) Coordinating Conjunctions (also known as coordinators) join words or groups of

words of equal status. Examples are: and, but

The man and his wife love each other.

She is rich but humble.

(b) Correlative Conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words of
equal grammatical weight. Examples are: both…and; not only…but.

Both she and her brother passed the exam.

Not only is she rude but also arrogant

(c) Conjunctive Adverbs are used to clarify the relationship between clauses of
equal grammatical status in a sentence. Examples are: thus, still

Many documents were lost in the fire; thus it would be almost impossible to
prove her innocent.

The guest house was terrible; still, we were lucky to have a place to stay.

2. Conjunctions which join principal clauses to subordinate clauses. This type of

conjunctions is known as a subordinating conjunction. A subordinating
 conjunction joins two clauses or ideas in a way that makes one grammatically
dependent on the other. Examples are while, as if

They guests arrived while we were having dinner.

The Principal looked as if he was going to explode

Functions of the Different Types of Conjunction

1. Conjunctions that show time: After, before, since, until, till, when, whenever, while, now,
that, as.

Examples:

a) After the house mistress left the room the student turned on the light.
b) The team had a heavy lunch before boarding the plane.
c) Since I have known him he has never been late for a meeting.
d) We will wait until the rain stops.
e) The girls were going to school when they saw their friends.
2. Conjunctions that show similarity or close relationship: and, also, besides, as well as,
both…and, not only…but also, etc.

Examples:

a) Tayo and Chike are brilliant students.

b) I enjoy not only reading novels but also writing them.
c) Besides singing in the choir, he also plays the guitar
3. Conjunctions that show the reason for an action: As, for, because, lest, since.

Examples:

a) As she was in a hurry to catch her flight she could not see the exhibition.
b) We know they were to blame for the chaos because we were there when it happened.
c) Do not give her the money since she can’t be trusted.
4. Conjunctions that express concession/contrast: Although, even if, though, whether … or,
while, as.

Examples:

a) Although he has failed twice, he has not given up hope of succeeding.

 b) I would not attend the party even if I were invited.
c) Though she is almost fifty, she still plans to complete her graduate programme.
d) They have to leave whether they like it or not.
5. Conjunctions that express condition: Except, if, unless, or else

Examples:

a) She felt fine except for being a little tired.

b) Let me know if you wish to go.
c) That miser will not give her anything unless he is compelled.
6. Conjunctions that express manner or degree: as, as … as, as if, as though, so … as, than.

Examples:

a) He sounds as if he’s been really ill.

b) The boys lay as though they were dead.
c) He is taller than I am.
7. Conjunctions that express purpose: in order that, lest, so that, that.

Examples:

a) The students worked hard in order that they might pass their test.
b) I sent Bola some money so that he could buy some food.
c) You go to school that you may become enlightened.
8. Conjunctions that express consequence/ result: so that, so … that.

Examples:

a) He lowered his voice so that Kema could not hear him.

b) I’m so tired that I could sleep for a week.
9. Conjunctions that express choice: or, either…or

Examples:

a) Would you like bread or yam?

b) Either Femi or Dayo will assist you.

c) We will resume either in December or January.

Mention four different functions of conjunctions and provide two examples for each function.

1. Conjunctions that show time:

a) Now that you are ready, let us go home.

b) As I was leaving the market, the rain started falling.

2. Conjunctions that show concession:

a) While we should condemn corruption, we should praise integrity.

b) He could not solve the mathematical equation, as clever as he was.

3. Conjunctions that show consequence/ result:

a) As a result of their hard work, they did very well in their exams.

b) The boy was sleepy so he went to bed early.

4. Conjunctions that show contrast:

a) Our teacher is very strict but kind.

b) Although he got to the airport late, he caught his flight.

Summary
You have learnt that:
- A conjunction is a word used to connect or link words, groups of words, clauses or
sentences. They are the tape of language that links words, phrases, clauses and
sentences. Examples are: although, because, and, but, yet, so as, before, for, etc.
- There are two main kinds of conjunctions: conjunctions which join words, groups of
words and clauses of equal grammatical status in a sentence, and conjunctions which
join principal clauses to subordinate clauses. The first category of conjunctions are of
three types:
(a) Coordinating Conjunctions which join words or groups of words of equal status.
Examples are: and, but, or (b) Correlative Conjunctions which work in pairs to join
words and groups of words of equal grammatical weight. Examples are: both…and;
not only…but, and (c) Conjunctive Adverbs which are used to clarify the
relationship between clauses of equal grammatical status in a sentence. Examples are:
thus, still, etc.
 The second types of conjunctions are those which join main clauses to subordinate
clauses.
Examples are: as, as soon as, before, after, while, etc.

- Conjunctions can perform different functions in a sentence. They can show time,
contrast, similarity, reason for an action, result of an action, choice, purpose, etc.
Identify the conjunctions in each of the following sentences and indicate the words or
groups of words that each conjunction joins.
(i) Kunle washed and ironed his school uniforms.
(ii) You can either use a pair of scissors or a blade to cut the cloth.
(iii) She walked quickly but silently.
(iv) Neither Victor nor Dunni is competent enough to do the work.
(v) Seye can play the piano and even played it for a gospel band.
(vi) The man owns a car but he doesn’t own a house.
(vii) She sells dresses in various designs and colours.
(viii) She got to church when it was raining
(ix) Time waits for no one but one waits for time.
(x) The questions were interesting yet challenging.
Identify the conjunction and state the type of conjunction used in each of the following
sentences.
(i) Either buy the bag or leave it.
(ii) Tom and Jerry are good friends.
(iii) It does not matter whether he goes or leaves.
(iv) He woke up late, and he missed the train; consequently, he got to work late.
(v) Sam had fever yet he went to the office.
(vi) Kareem washed his hands before eating his food.
(vii) You tell me the truth or I shall punish you.
(viii) The old man staggered because he was drunk.
(ix) We both love and respect our parents.
(x) I accidentally locked myself out of my office so I have to break the lock.
Identify and state the function of each conjunction as used in the following sentences.
(i) The First lady is not only smart, she is also beautiful.
(ii) The man is very firm but polite
(iii) The students were punished because they were rude.
 (iv) Bola had a flu, so she went to see the doctor.
(v) Would you like butter or jam?
(vi) The phone rang as I was putting the pot on the stove.
(vii) You will be late for work unless you leave now.
(viii) My mother sells both fruits and vegetables at the market.
(ix) As a result of her timidity, she lost the contest.
(x) Although the car is old, it still runs well.

PREPOSITIONS AND EXCLAMATIONS

In this study session, we will be treating prepositions and interjections, two of the word classes
that also feature prominently in the grammar of English. While no new prepositions are likely
to emerge in the language for centuries to come, it is quite possible for new interjections –
otherwise called exclamations – to come up as English users react to new experiences.

Prepositions and interjections are a crucial feature of contemporary English usage. As words
that help language users to show the relationship between entities in their utterances and
sentences, prepositions are particularly ubiquitous, showing up in virtually every utterance
made or sentence written.

On their part, exclamations call attention to human expressivity, to the depths of our feelings,
even as they also point us to one of the hypothetical origins of language: That humans started
developing language from the spontaneous noises they made as they felt pain, pleasure or
sadness, among other such visceral responses to internal or external stimuli.
And as humans continue to respond instinctually to their environment, it is the case that more
exclamations can be expected to turn up in different languages. In the case of English, which
appears to be the most flexible language in today’s world since it borrows heavily from
numerous other languages, more exclamations or interjections are very likely to emerge as
Western pop culture increasingly gets assimilated across the globe.

Definition of Preposition
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two grammatical entities in a sentence or
an utterance. In the light of this definition, do not assume that a preposition is no different from a
conjunction, which links two grammatical entities – whether words, phrases, clauses or sentences –
depending on the type of conjunction. A preposition shows a relationship rather than just link two items.
Consider the examples below:

1. John is inside the room.

2. Boris is at home.
3. Trump is loved by conservatives.
4. Beside the house is a gas plant.
5. The drinks were for Joseph.

In the above examples, the underlined words in italics are examples of prepositions. In [1] the
relationship shown is between ‘John’ and ‘the room’, thus telling us John’s location. Similarly,
for [2] the relationship shown is between ‘Boris’ and ‘home’. Moreover, in [3] the relationship
is between ‘is loved’ and ‘conservatives’, with ‘Trump’ being the recipient of the said love. In
[4] beside helps us to tell the location of a particular gas plant, that is, close to ‘the house’.
Finally, in [5] for helps to specify the owner of the said drinks. In each of these instances, we
can tell – even if roughly – that some kind of relationship exists between at least two
grammatical entities.

By indicating the position of a person or thing in relation to another, the time of an action or
the direction in which somebody or something is moving, a preposition shows a relationship
between two grammatical entities in an utterance or a sentence. Consider the examples below:
i. The cup is on the table.
ii. We ate rice in the morning.
iii. We all ran towards the goalpost.

In [i] on shows the relationship between ‘cup’ and ‘the table’; in [ii] in shows the relationship
between ‘ate rice’ and ‘the morning’, while in [iii] towards shows the relationship between
‘ran’ and the goalpost.

Types of Preposition

We may identify a broad range of prepositions by their semantic functions in utterances or

sentences. However, three types are most common: prepositions of time, place and
movement/direction.
Preposition of Time

A preposition of time gives information about when something happens. Examples of such
prepositions are by, during, about, throughout, until, at, around, on, in, before, after:

6. She came by noon.

7. During the attack, the police lines were engaged.
8. The baby didn’t cry throughout the night.
9. The unions held out until the government shifted ground.
10. At 5 p.m. local time, the president took his oath.

Preposition of Place

A preposition of place states the location of something or someone. Examples of such

prepositions include on, at, in, with, inside, outside, by, opposite, under, within, below, above,
over:
11. Keep the plate on the table please.
12. “Your child is with us now,” said the police officer.
13. The kids were playing within the compound.
14. Well, all of the grilled chicken is in my belly!
15. I saw a ball by the window last night.

Preposition of Movement/Direction

A preposition of movement or direction indicates to which location somebody or something is

moving, such as to, into, through, across, up, over, onto, down, around, off, past, down:

16. A dog just ran across the lawn.

17. He was coming onto me.
18. The kids were free to move around the camp.
19. Squirrels scampered through the bushes during the explosion.
20. The winner jumped up immediately.

Occurrence of Prepositions with other Word Classes

In the English language, certain words are more likely to occur with others; this is called
collocation. With regard to prepositions, some word classes select specific prepositions.
Occurrence with Nouns

Although there is a limited number of prepositions in English, there is no restriction to the

number of potential nouns in the language. As such, we can only take a few examples of nouns
requiring specific prepositions:

• recurrence of
• request for
• aversion to
• problem with
• attempt at/to
• advocacy for
• disgust for

Occurrence with Verbs

Certain verbs also select specific prepositions, as follows:

• defer to
• bow to
• remonstrate against (a thing)
• remonstrate with (a person)
• frown on (a person’s behaviour or an idea)
• frown at (a person or something concrete)
• trust in
• excel at
• aim at
• agree with (a person)
• agree on (a point)
• brood over

Occurrence with Adjectives

Some adjectives also take specific prepositions, as follows:

• good at
• good for
• good to
• good with
• married to
• superior to
• better than
• disappointed in/with (a person)
• disappointed at/about (something)
• scared of
• oblivious of
• open to
 • allergic to
• averse to

If you want to gain more familiarity with how certain word classes go with specific
prepositions, it is always best for you to listen very frequently to highly competent native
speakers of English, especially via the news media. You should also cultivate the habit of
reading linguistically and technically accomplished literary writings.

The Prepositional Phrase

The prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and ending with a
noun or noun phrase:
• in the morning
• at noon
• within a few minutes
• in the red shirt
• outside the house
• on the lawn
• for musicians
• by dawn
• at ease
• beside your house
• for outings
The prepositional phrase has the structure HQ, where H stands for the preposition itself as the
Head and Q stands for the noun or noun phrase that follows it, known as the Qualifier. For
example, the structure of of Bisola’s first three children, on my couch, for their attention, at
the government’s service and before us may be highlighted thus:

Structure of the Prepositional Phrase

HEAD QUALIFIER
Of Bisola’s first three children
On my couch
for their attention
at the government’s service
before Ss

Prepositional phrases may function as a distinct sentence element, that is, as an adjunct or be
embedded within the structure of a noun phrase:

21. The president visited us in the morning. (Adjunct)

 22. By dusk the party will be over. (Adjunct)
23. He lives beside the filling station. (Adjunct)
24. The boy in the red shirt has won the prize. (Qualifier in a noun phrase)
25. These aren’t clothes for outings. (Qualifier in a noun phrase)
Usage Issues with Prepositions
Non-native speakers of English tend to make more mistakes when using prepositions,
compared to native speakers. If you are keen on improving your knowledge of prepositions,
your best bet is to consult the dictionary more often and to listen more to model native English
speech or to read high-quality writing by native speakers.

At times you may use the inappropriate preposition, such as to shoot at sight instead of to shoot
on sight.

At other times you may use a preposition where it is unnecessary, such as to advocate for
instead of to advocate. At other times you may fail to use a preposition when you in fact need
to, such as to arrive the venue instead of to arrive at the venue.

Structure of Prepositions
Prepositions come in two forms – as single words (simple) and as a combination of two or
more words (complex).

• Simple Prepositions
A simple preposition exists as s single word, like all the examples we have already cited – at,
in, for, by, within, to, under, on etc.
• Complex Prepositions
A complex preposition contains two or more words, such as:
• in spite of
• owing to
• due to
• because of
• instead of
• other than
• in front of
• up to
• apart from
• on account of
• in place of
• near to
• out of
Definition of Interjection/Exclamation

An interjection/exclamation is a word that expresses a sudden strong feeling of excitement,

such as pain, pleasure, grief, shock, awe, wonder etc. Beyond conveying feeling, interjections
mean little else in English, as in other languages. Most times we follow exclamations with the
exclamation mark (!).

Some of the more common interjections are as follows: hi, duh, gosh, oh, wow, please,
hallelujah, ouch, hey, what, damn, yippee, yuck, such, hooray.

26. Hooray! Kola is 20!

27. Ouch – that really hurt!
28. What insolence!
29. Hi, Fanny!
30. Oh, I missed the bus!

In this study session, we have treated two word classes that appear to occupy the lower rungs
of the ladder in English vocabulary: prepositions and exclamations/interjections. In reality, we
very commonly use prepositions in our daily utterances and sentences. And because
interjections are an instinctual means by which we express some of our deepest feelings and
attitude to phenomena, we tend to use them much more frequently than we realise.

Summary

You have learnt that:

1) a preposition is a word that shows the relationship between two grammatical entities in
a sentence or an utterance;
2) there are different types of preposition in English;
3) some prepositions co-occur with certain other word classes; and
4) interjections/exclamations express sudden feelings.