ELEC0029 - Electric Power System Analysis

The synchronous machine

(detailed model)

Thierry Van Cutsem

t.vancutsem@ulg.ac.be www.montefiore.ulg.ac.be/~vct

February 2020

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 The synchronous machine

Objectives

Extend the model of the synchronous machine considered in course ELEC0014:

more detailed
appropriate for dynamic studies
includes the effect of damper windings
applicable to machines with salient-pole rotors (hydro power plants)

Relies on the Park transformation, also used for other power system components.

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 The synchronous machine The two types of synchronous machines

The two types of synchronous machines

Round-rotor generators (or turbo-alternators)

Driven by steam or gas turbines, which rotate at high speed

one pair of poles (conventional thermal units) or two (nuclear units)
cylindrical rotor made up of solid steel forging
diameter << length (centrifugal force !)
field winding made up of conductors distributed on the rotor, in milled slots
even if the generator efficiency is around 99 %, the heat produced by Joule
losses has to be evacuated !
Large generators are cooled by hydrogen (heat evacuation 7 times better than
air) or water (12 times better) flowing in the hollow stator conductors.
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The synchronous machine The two types of synchronous machines

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 The synchronous machine The two types of synchronous machines

Salient-pole generators

Driven by hydraulic turbines (or diesel engines), which rotate at low speed
many pairs of poles (at least 4) ⇒ it is more convenient to have field
windings concentrated and placed on the poles
air gap is not constant: min. in front of a pole, max. in between two poles
poles are shaped to also minimize space harmonics
diameter >> length (to have space for the many poles)
rotor is laminated (poles easier to construct)
generators usually cooled by the flow of air around the rotor.
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The synchronous machine The two types of synchronous machines

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 The synchronous machine The two types of synchronous machines

Damper windings and eddy currents in rotor

Damper windings (or amortisseur)

round-rotor machines: copper/brass bars placed in the same slots at the field
winding, and interconnected to form a damper cage (similar to the squirrel
cage of an induction motor)
salient-pole machines: copper/brass rods embedded in the poles and
connected at their ends to rings or segments.
Why?
in perfect steady state: the magnetic fields produced by both the stator and
the rotor are fixed relative to the rotor ⇒ no current induced in dampers
after a disturbance: the rotor moves with respect to stator magnetic field
⇒ currents are induced in the dampers. . .
. . . which, according to Lenz’s law, create a damping torque helping the rotor
to align on the stator magnetic field.

Eddy currents in the rotor

Round-rotor generators: the solid rotor offers a path for eddy currents, which
produce an effect similar to those of amortisseurs.
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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Number of rotor windings = degree of sophistication of model. But:

more detailed model ⇒ more data are needed
while measurement devices can be connected only to the field winding.

Most widely used model: 3 or 4 rotor windings:

f : field winding d1 , q1 : amortisseurs
q2 : accounts for eddy currents in rotor; not used in (laminated) salient-pole
generators.
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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Remarks

In the sequel, we consider:

a machine with a single pair of poles, for simplicity.
This does not affect the electrical behaviour of the generator
(it affects the moment of inertia and the kinetic energy of rotating masses)

the general case of a salient-pole machine.

For a round-rotor machine: set some parameters to the same value in the d
and q axes (to account for the equal air gap width)

the configuration with four rotor windings (f , d1 , q1 , q2 ).

For a salient-pole generator : remove the q2 winding.

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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Relations between voltages, currents and magnetic fluxes

Stator windings: generator convention:

dψa dψb dψc
va (t) = −Ra ia (t) − vb (t) = −Ra ib (t) − vc (t) = −Ra ic (t) −
dt dt dt
In matrix form:
d
vT = −RT iT − ψT with RT = diag(Ra Ra Ra )
dt
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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Rotor windings: motor convention:

dψf
vf (t) = Rf if (t) +
dt
dψd1
0 = Rd1 id1 (t) +
dt
dψq1
0 = Rq1 iq1 (t) +
dt
dψq2
0 = Rq2 iq2 (t) +
dt
In matrix form:
d
vr = Rr ir + ψr with Rr = diag(Rf Rd1 Rq1 Rq2 )
dt

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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

Inductances

Saturation being neglected, the fluxes vary linearly with the currents according to:
    
ψT LTT (θr ) LTr (θr ) iT
= T
ψr LTr (θr ) Lrr ir

LTT and LTr vary with the position θr of the rotor

but Lrr does not
the components of LTT and LTr are periodic functions of θr obviously
the space harmonics in θr are assumed negligible = sinusoidal machine
assumption.

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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

LTT (θr ) =

−Lm − L1 cos 2(θr + π6 ) −Lm − L1 cos 2(θr − π6 )

 
L0 + L1 cos 2θr
 −Lm − L1 cos 2(θr + π ) L0 + L1 cos 2(θr − 2π ) −Lm − L1 cos 2(θr + π ) 
6 3 2
−Lm − L1 cos 2(θr − π6 ) −Lm − L1 cos 2(θr + π2 ) L0 + L1 cos 2(θr + 2π
3 )

Lo , L1 , Lm > 0
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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

LTr (θr ) =
 
Laf cos θr Lad1 cos θr Laq1 sin θr Laq2 sin θr
 Laf cos(θr − 2π ) Lad1 cos(θr − 2π ) Laq1 sin(θr − 2π ) Laq2 sin(θr − 2π ) 
3 3 3 3
Laf cos(θr + 2π 2π 2π 2π
3 ) Lad1 cos(θr + 3 ) Laq1 sin(θr + 3 ) Laq2 sin(θr + 3 )

Laf , Lad1 , Laq1 , Laq2 > 0

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 The synchronous machine Modelling of machine with magnetically coupled circuits

 
Lff Lfd1 0 0
 Lfd1 Ld1d1 0 0 
Lrr = 
 0

0 Lq1q1 Lq1q2 
0 0 Lq1q2 Lq2q2

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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

Park transformation and equations

Park transformation

is applied to stator variables (denoted .T ) to obtain the corresponding Park

variables (denoted .P ):
vP = P vT

ψP = P ψT
iP = P iT
r  cos θr cos(θr − 2π cos(θr + 2π

2 3 ) 3 )
where P = sin θr sin(θr − 2π
3 )
2π
sin(θr + 3 ) 
3 √1 √1 √1
2 2 2

 T
vP = vd vq vo
 T
ψP = ψd ψq ψo
 T
iP = id iq io

It is easily shown that: P PT = I ⇔ P −1 = P T

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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

Interpretation

Total magnetic field created by the currents ia , ib et ic :

r
2π 4π 3
projected on d axis: k (cos θr ia + cos(θr − ) ib + cos(θr − ) ic ) = k id
3 3 2
r
2π 4π 3
projected on q axis: k (sin θr ia + sin(θr − ) ib + sin(θr − ) ic ) = k iq
3 3 2

The Park transformation consists of replacing

the (a, b, c) stator windings by three equivalent
windings (d, q, o):
the d winding is attached to the d axis
the q winding is attached to the q axis
the currents id and iq produce together the
same magnetic
q field, to the multiplicative
3
constant 2.

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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

Park equations of the synchronous machine

d
vT = −RT iT − ψT
dt
d
P vP = −Ra I P iP − (P −1 ψP )
−1 −1
dt
d d
vP = −Ra PP −1 iP − P ( P −1 )ψP − PP −1 ψP
dt dt
d
= −RP iP − θ˙r P ψP − ψP
dt
 
0 1 0
with: RP = RT P =  −1 0 0 
0 0 0
dψd
By decomposing: vd = −Ra id − θ˙r ψq −
dt
dψ q
vq = −Ra iq + θ˙r ψd −
dt
dψo
vo = −Ra io −
dt
θ˙r ψd , θ˙r ψq : speed voltages dψd /dt, dψq /dt : transformer voltages
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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

Park inductance matrix

    
ψT LTT LTr iT
= T
ψr LTr Lrr ir
−1
P −1 iP
    
P ψP LTT LTr
= T
ψr LTr Lrr ir
−1
       
ψP P LTT P P LTr iP LPP LPr iP
= T −1 =
ψr LTr P Lrr ir LrP Lrr ir

 
Ldd Ldf Ldd1

 Lqq Lqq1 Lqq2 
   Loo 
LPP LPr  
 Ldf
= Lff Lfd1 
LrP Lrr 
 Ldd1 Lfd1 Ld1d1 
 
 Lqq1 Lq1q1 Lq1q2 
Lqq2 Lq1q2 Lq2q2

(zero entries have been left empty for legibility)

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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

with:
3
Ldd = L0 + Lm + L1
2
3
Lqq = L0 + Lm − L1
r 2
3
Ldf = Laf
2
r
3
Ldd1 = Lad1
2
r
3
Lqq1 = Laq1
2
r
3
Lqq2 = Laq2
2
Loo = L0 − 2Lm

All components are independent of the rotor position θr . That was expected !
There is no magnetic coupling between d and q axes
(this was already assumed in LTr and Lrr : zero mutual inductances between
coils with orthogonal axes).
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 The synchronous machine Park transformation and equations

Leaving aside the o component and

grouping (d, f , d1 ), on one hand, and (q, q1 , q2 ), on the other hand:

θ˙r ψq
        
vd Ra id ψd
 −vf  = −  Rf   if  −  0  − d  ψf 
dt
0 Rd1 id1 0 ψd1
θ˙r ψd
        
vq Ra iq ψq
 0  = −   iq1  +  0  − d
Rq1  ψq1 
dt
0 Rq2 iq2 0 ψq2

with the following flux-current relations:

    
ψd Ldd Ldf Ldd1 id
 ψf  =  Ldf Lff Lfd1   if 
ψ d1 Ldd1 Lfd1 Ld1d1 id1
    
ψq Lqq Lqq1 Lqq2 iq
 ψq1  =  Lqq1 Lq1q1 Lq1q2   iq1 
ψq2 Lqq2 Lq1q2 Lq2q2 iq2

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 The synchronous machine Energy, power and torque

Energy, power and torque

Balance of power at stator:
dWms
pT + pJs + = pr →s
dt
pT : three-phase instantaneous power leaving the stator
pJs : Joule losses in stator windings
Wms : magnetic energy stored in the stator windings
pr →s : power transfer from rotor to stator (mechanical ? electrical ?)

Three-phase instantaneous power leaving the stator :

pT (t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic = vTT iT = vPT PP T iP = vPT iP = vd id + vq iq + vo io

dψd dψq dψo
= − (Ra id2 + Ra iq2 + Ra io2 ) − (id + iq + io ) +θ˙r (ψd iq − ψq id )
| {z } | dt dt dt }
pJs
{z
dWms /dt

⇒ pr →s = θ˙r (ψd iq − ψq id )

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 The synchronous machine Energy, power and torque

Balance of power at rotor:

dWmr dWc
Pm + pf = pJr + + pr →s +
dt dt
Pm : mechanical power provided by the turbine
pf : electrical power provided to the field winding (by the excitation system)
pJr : Joule losses in the rotor windings
Wmr : magnetic energy stored in the rotor windings
Wc : kinetic energy of all rotating masses.

Instantaneous power provided to field winding:

pf = vf if = vf if + vd1 id1 + vq1 iq1 + vq2 iq2

dψf dψd1 dψq1 dψq2
= (Rf if2 + Rd1 id1
2 2
+ Rq1 iq1 2
+ Rq2 iq2 ) + if + id1 + iq1 + iq2
| {z } | dt dt {z dt dt }
pJr
dWmr /dt

dWc
Pm − = θ˙r (ψd iq − ψq id )
dt
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 The synchronous machine Energy, power and torque

Equation of rotor motion:

d 2 θr
I = Tm − Te
dt 2
I : moment of inertia of all the rotating masses
Tm : mechanical torque applied to the rotor by the turbine
Te : electromagnetic torque applied to the rotor by the generator.

Multiplying the above equation by θ˙r :

I θ˙r θ¨r = θ˙r Tm − θ˙r Te

dWc
= Pm − θ˙r Te
dt
Pm : mechanical power provided by the turbine.

Hence, the (compact and elegant !) expression of the electromagnetic torque is:

Te = ψd iq − ψq id

Note. The power transfer pr →s from rotor to stator is of mechanical nature only.
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 The synchronous machine Energy, power and torque

The various components of the torque Te

Te = Ldd id iq + Ldf if iq + Ldd1 id1 iq − Lqq iq id − Lqq1 iq1 id − Lqq2 iq2 id

(Ldd − Lqq ) id iq : synchronous torque due to rotor saliency

exists in salient-pole machines only
even without excitation (if = 0), the rotor tends to align its direct axis with
the axis of the rotating magnetic field created by the stator currents,
offering to the latter a longer path in iron
a significant fraction of the total torque in a salient-pole generator.

Ldd1 id1 iq − Lqq1 iq1 id − Lqq2 iq2 id : damping torque

due to currents induced in the amortisseurs
zero in steady-state operation.

Ldf if iq : only component involving the field current if

the main part of the total torque in steady-state operation
in steady state, it is the synchronous torque due to excitation
during transients, the field winding also contributes to the damping torque.
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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

The synchronous machine in steady state

Balanced three-phase currents of angular frequency ωN flow in the stator

windings
a direct current flows in the field winding subjected to a constant excitation
voltage:
Vf
if =
Rf
the rotor rotates at the synchronous speed:

θr = θro + ωN t

no current is induced in the other rotor circuits:

id1 = iq1 = iq2 = 0

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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Operation with stator opened

ia = ib = ic = 0
⇒ id = iq = io = 0
⇒ ψd = Ldf if and ψq = 0

Park equations:

vd = 0
vq = ωN ψd = ωN Ldf if

Getting back to the stator voltages, e.g. in phase a :

√
r
2
va (t) = ωN Ldf if sin(θro + ωN t) = 2Eq sin(θro + ωN t)
3
ωN Ldf if
Eq = √ = e.m.f. proportional to excitation current
3
= RMS voltage at the terminal of the opened machine.

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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Operation under load

√ √ 2π √ 2π
va (t) = 2V cos(ωN t +θ) vb (t) = 2V cos(ωN t +θ−
) vc (t) = 2V cos(ωN t +θ+
)
3 3
√ √ 2π √ 2π
ia (t) = 2I cos(ωN t + ψ) ib (t) = 2I cos(ωN t + ψ − ) ic (t) = 2I cos(ωN t + ψ + )
3 3

2√
r
2π 2π
id = 2I [cos(θro + ωN t) cos(ωN t + ψ) + cos(θro + ωN t − ) cos(ωN t + ψ − )
3 3 3
2π 2π
+ cos(θro + ωN t + ) cos(ωN t + ψ + )]
3 3
I 4π 4π
= √ [cos(θro + 2ωN t + ψ) + cos(θro + 2ωN t + ψ − ) + cos(θro + 2ωN t + ψ + )
3 3 3
√
+3 cos(θro − ψ)] = 3I cos(θro − ψ)

Similarly:
√
iq = 3I sin(θro − ψ) io = 0
√ √
vd = 3V cos(θro − θ) vq = 3V sin(θro − θ) vo = 0

In steady-state, id and iq are constant. This was expected !

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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Magnetic flux in the d and q windings:

ψd = Ldd id + Ldf if
ψq = Lqq iq

The electromagnetic torque:

Te = ψd iq − ψq id

is constant. This is important from mechanical viewpoint (no vibration !).

Park equations:

vd = −Ra id − ωN Lqq iq = −Ra id − Xq iq

√
vq = −Ra iq + ωN Ldd id + ωN Ldf if = −Ra iq + Xd id + 3Eq
vo = 0

Xd = ωN Ldd : direct-axis synchronous reactance

Xq = ωN Lqq : quadrature-axis synchronous reactance
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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Phasor diagram

The Park equations become:

V cos(θro − θ) = −Ra I cos(θro − ψ) − Xq I sin(θro − ψ)
V sin(θro − θ) = −Ra I sin(θro − ψ) + Xd I cos(θro − ψ) + Eq
which are the projections on the d and q axes of the complex equation:

Ēq = V̄ + Ra I¯ + jXd I¯d + jXq I¯q

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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Particular case : round-rotor machine: Xd = Xq = X

Ēq = V̄ + Ra I¯ + jX (I¯d + I¯q ) = V̄ + Ra I¯ + jX I¯

Such an equivalent circuit cannot be derived for a salient-pole generator.

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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Powers

o π
Ēq = Eq e j(θr − 2 )
o id o o π iq o
I¯d = I cos(θro − ψ)e jθr = √ e jθr I¯q = I sin(θro − ψ)e j(θr − 2 ) = −j √ e jθr
3 3
id iq o
I¯ = I¯d + I¯q = ( √ − j √ )e jθr
3 3
jθro vd o o π vq o
V̄d = o
V cos(θr − θ)e = √ e jθr V̄q = V sin(θro − θ)e j(θr − 2 ) = −j √ e jθr
3 3
vd vq jθro
V̄ = V̄d + V̄q = ( √ − j √ )e
3 3
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 The synchronous machine The synchronous machine in steady state

Three-phase complex power produced by the machine:

vd vq id iq
S = 3V̄ I¯? = 3 ( √ − j √ )( √ + j √ ) = (vd − j vq )(id + j iq )
3 3 3 3
⇒ P = vd id + vq iq Q = vd iq − vq id

P and Q as functions of V , Eq and the internal angle δ, assuming Ra ' 0 ?

vd
vd = −Xq iq ⇒ iq = −
Xq
√
√ vq − 3Eq
vq = Xd id + 3Eq ⇒ id =
Xd
√ o
√
vd = 3V cos(θr − θ) = − 3V sin δ
√ √
vq = 3V sin(θro − θ) = 3V cos δ

Eq V 3V 2 1 1 Eq V sin2 δ cos2 δ
P=3 sin δ+ ( − ) sin 2δ Q=3 cos δ−3V 2 ( + )
Xd 2 Xq Xd Xd Xq Xd
Eq V Eq V V2
Case of a round-rotor machine: P=3 sin δ Q=3 cos δ − 3
X X X
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 The synchronous machine Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Stator

nominal voltage UN : voltage for which the machine has been designed (in
particular its insulation).
The real voltage may deviate from this value by a few %
nominal current IN : current for which machine has been designed (in
particular the cross-section of its conductors).
Maximum current that can be accepted without limit in time
√
nominal apparent power: SN = 3UN IN .

Conversion of parameters in per unit values:

base power: SB = SN
√
base voltage: VB = UN / 3
base current: IB = SN /3VB
base impedance: ZB = 3VB2 /SB .

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 The synchronous machine Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Orders of magnitude

(more typical of machines with a nominal power above 100 MVA)

(pu values on the machine base)

round-rotor salient-pole
machines machines
resistance Ra 0.005 pu
direct-axis reactance Xd 1.5 - 2.5 pu 0.9 - 1.5 pu
quadrature-axis reactance Xq 1.5 - 2.5 pu 0.5 - 1.1 pu

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 The synchronous machine Nominal values, per unit system and orders of magnitudes

Park (equivalent) windings

base power: SN
√
base voltage: 3VB
SN √
base current: √ = 3IB (single-phase formula !)
3VB
With this choice:
√
id 3 I
idpu = √ =√ cos(θro − ψ) = Ipu cos(θro − ψ)
3IB 3 IB
Similarly:

iqpu = Ipu sin(θro − ψ) vdpu = Vpu cos(θro − θ) vqpu = Vpu sin(θro − θ)

o o
I¯ = I¯d + I¯q = (id − j iq )e jθr V̄ = V̄d + V̄q = (vd − j vq )e jθr

√
All coefficients 3 have disappeared
hence, the Park currents (resp. voltages) are exactly the projections on the
machine d and q axes of the phasor I¯ (resp. V̄ )
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