3.

1 DIODE AS SWITCH
The Diode is a two terminal PN junction that can be used in various applications. One of the
applications of diode is an electrical switch. The PN junction, when forward biased acts as
closed circuit with finite forward resistance, said to be in ON state. The PN junction, when
reverse biased acts as open circuit with high reverse resistance, said to be in OFF state.
Factors that affect diode switching times:
 Diode Capacitance – The PN junction capacitance changes depending upon the bias
conditions.
 Diode Resistance − The resistance offered by the diode while change of its state.
 Doping Concentration − The level of doping of the diode, affects the diode switching times.
 Depletion Width − The narrower the width of the depletion layer, the faster the switching will
be.
Applications:
There are many applications in which diode switching circuits are used, such as
 High speed rectifying circuits
 High speed switching circuits
 RF receivers
 General purpose applications
 Consumer applications
 Automotive applications
 Telecom applications etc.

3.2 INTRODUCTION
3.2.1 Block Diagram of DC Power Supply
For the operation of most of the electronic devices and circuits, a d.c. source is required. So, it is
advantageous to convert domestic a.c. supply into d.c. voltages. The process of converting a.c.
voltage into d.c. voltage is called as rectification. This is achieved with i) Step-down
Transformer, ii) Rectifier, iii) Filter and iv) Voltage regulator circuits. These elements constitute
d.c. regulated power supply shown in the Fig. 3.1 below.

Fig. 3.1: D.C. regulated power supply

Transformer:
The transformer step-up or step-down the input voltage into required voltage, and it also isolates
the rectifier unit from power line and reduces the electrical shock. The step-down transformer
steps down 230V AC mains to low voltage AC.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Rectifier:
A rectifier is a device which converts a.c voltage into pulsating d.c voltage using one or more
PN-junction diodes. The rectifier is the heart of d.c power supply.
Filter:
The output of rectifier is not pure d.c. It contains both d.c components and a.c components (a
part of a.c). A filter is a circuit, which removes the ripples (or unwanted a.c components) present
in the rectifier output.
Regulator:
It is a circuit, which maintains output voltage constant even if the input voltage or load current
varies.

An ideal regulated power supply is an electronics circuit designed to provide a predetermined

d.c. voltage Vo which is independent of the load current and variations in the input voltage ad
temperature. If the output of a regulator circuit is a AC voltage then it is termed as voltage
stabilizer, whereas if the output is a DC voltage then it is termed as voltage regulator.
3.2.2 RECTIFIER
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high
resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable of
converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional
Waveform, with a non-zero average component. A rectifier is a device, which converts a.c.
voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c. voltage (Unidirectional).
Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:
There are two types of output currents. They are average or d.c. current and RMS currents.
i) Average or DC current: The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of
one cycle of the curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as
Area over one period
Average value/dc value/mean value = Total time period
T
1
T 0
V dc  V d ( wt )

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S current: The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared of a periodic
function of time is given by the area of one cycle of the curve, which represents the square of the
function divided by the base.
T
1
Vrms  
T 0
V 2 d ( wt )

iii) Peak factor: It is the ratio of peak value to RMS value

peakvalue
Peak Factor = rmsvalue
iv) Form factor: It is the ratio of RMS value to average value
Rmsvalue
Form factor= averagevalue
v) Ripple Factor (r): It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c.
component in the output is known as “Ripple Factor”.
V
  ac
Vdc

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Vac  Vrms
2
Vdc2
vi) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
withstand without destroying the junction.
vii) Efficiency (  ): It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies, how
efficiently the rectifier circuit converts a.c. power into d.c. power.
o / p power

i / p power

viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF): The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a
rectifier circuit decides the rating of the Transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer
utilization factor is defined as
Pdc
TUF 
p ac(rated )
ix) % Regulation: The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is
called regulation. The percentage regulation is defined as
V  VFL
%regulation  NL *100
VFL
For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.
CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:
Rectifiers may be classified into two categories depending upon the period of conduction. Using
one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full – Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier

3.2.3 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

A single phase half wave rectifier circuit is shown in Fig. 3.2 which converts a.c. voltage into a
pulsating voltage using only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage. It consists of a
transformer, a diode and a load resistor RL.
The step down transformer reduces the available a.c voltage into required level of smaller a.c
voltage. The diode D and the load resistor R L are in series with secondary of the transformer.
The primary of the transformer is connected to the single phase a.c supply. An a.c voltage is
induced in the secondary of transformer by mutual induction. The voltage across the secondary
is given by vin = Vm sin ωt. Fig. 3.3 shows how this voltage varies with time. It has an alternate
positive and negative half cycles. Voltage Vm is the peak value of this alternating voltage.

Fig. 3.2. Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Operation:

During positive half cycle of a.c input voltage, terminal A is positive with respect to terminal B.
The diode D is forward biased and it acts as closed circuit. Sinusoidal current i L flows through
the load resistor RL in clock wise direction as shown in Fig. 3.3.

During negative half cycle of the input voltage, terminal B is positive with respect to terminal
A.The diode D is revere biased and it acts as open circuit. No current flows through load resistor
RL. Thus we get a unidirectional current through RL which flows in the form of half sinusoidal
pulses. The load voltage being the product of load current and load resistance will also be in the
form of half sinusoidal pulses. The input and output waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3. Input and Output Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier

Mathematical Analysis

In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )
6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. Form factor
11. Output frequency

Let the sinusoidal input voltage Vin is applied to the input of the rectifier.

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 (∵ 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.

Let the diode be idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward
direction i.e., in the ON state and Rr (= ∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state.

The instantaneous load current iL through RL is given by,

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 𝑉𝑚
𝑖𝐿 = sin 𝜃 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0  𝜃  𝜋
𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿
𝑖𝐿 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋  𝜃  2𝜋

𝑉𝑚
Where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿
𝑅𝑓 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑅𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

DC or Average Current:

The average DC current over one complete cycle is given by,

1 2𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 0
1 𝜋 2𝜋
= [∫0 𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝜃 + ∫𝜋 𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋
𝜋
1
= [∫ 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
2𝜋 0
𝐼
𝑚
= 2𝜋 (− cos 𝜃|𝜋0 )
𝑚 𝐼
= 2𝜋 [(− cos 𝜋) − (− cos 0)]
𝑚 𝐼
= 2𝜋 [(−(−1)) − (−1)]
𝐼𝑚
∴ 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋

DC or Average Voltage:

The average or DC voltage across the load is given by,

𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
𝜋 𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑚 1
∴ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 (1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑓
∴ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (∵ 𝑅 ≪ 1)
𝜋 𝐿

RMS or AC Current:

The RMS value of load current is given by

1 2𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √2𝜋 ∫0 𝑖𝐿2 𝑑𝜃

1 𝜋 2𝜋
= √2𝜋 [∫0 𝑖𝐿2 𝑑𝜃 + ∫𝜋 𝑖𝐿2 𝑑𝜃]

1 𝜋
= √2𝜋 [∫0 (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃]

𝜋 2
𝐼𝑚
= √ 2𝜋 [∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃]

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 2 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= √ 2𝜋 [∫0 ( 2 ) 𝑑𝜃]
2 𝜋 𝜋
𝐼𝑚
= √ 4𝜋 [∫0 𝑑𝜃 − ∫0 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
2 𝜋
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= √ 4𝜋 𝜃|𝜋0 ∵ ∫0 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0 ∴ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2

Rectifier Efficiency:

The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c input power.
𝐷𝐶 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑐

2𝑅
𝐼𝑚
2 𝐿
The DC Output Power, 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝜋2
2
𝐼𝑚
2
The AC Output Power, 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 ) = (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
4
The rectifier efficiency is given by,
2𝑅
𝐼𝑚 𝐿
𝑃𝑑𝑐 𝜋2
𝜂= = 2
𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝐼𝑚
(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
4
4 𝑅𝐿
= 2
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
0.406
𝜂= 𝑅
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝐿
The Percentage rectifier efficiency is given by,
0.406
%𝜂 = 𝑅
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝐿
If 𝑅𝑓 ≪ 𝑅𝐿 , the rectifier efficiency is maximum.
𝑅
The theoretical maximum rectifier efficiency is obtained when 𝑅𝑓 = 0 and is equal to 40.6%.
𝐿

Ripple factor:

The output of rectifier is not pure d.c. It contains both d.c components and a.c components (a
part of a.c). A measure of such a.c components (ripples) present in the rectifier output is given
by ripple factor γ. Smaller the ripple factor closer is the output to a pure d.c.

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝛾 = = =
𝐷𝐶 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = RMS value of ac component present in the output

It can be noted that the output current is composed of ac component as well as dc component.
2 2
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 + 𝐼𝑟2 𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
𝐼𝑟2 𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
− 𝐼𝑑𝑐

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 2
Dividing by 𝐼𝑑𝑐 on both sides, we get,
𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
( ) = ( ) −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝐼𝑑𝑐
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝛾 = √( ) −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐
This is the general expression for ripple factor and can be used for any rectifier circuit.

Ripple factor for HWR:

For a Half Wave Rectifier, we have,

𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
2 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝛾 = √( ) −1
𝐼𝑑𝑐

2
𝐼𝑚

𝛾 = √( 𝐼2𝑚 ) − 1
𝜋

𝜋 2
= √( ) − 1 = √1.467 = 1.21
2
This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 1.21 times the dc component i.e., 121%
of dc component.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

PIV is defined as maximum voltage across the diode in the reverse direction.
(or)
It is the reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction, during the
non-conducting period.

In a half wave rectifier, the reverse voltage across the diode during non-conducting period
equals the maximum value of transformer secondary voltage Vm. The diode must be selected
based on PIV rating and circuit specifications.

PIV of diode = Vm = Maximum value of transformer secondary voltage.

Peak Factor:
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =2
𝑉𝑚⁄
( 2)

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Form Factor:

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑉𝑚⁄
( 2)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.57
𝑉𝑚⁄
( 𝜋)

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
transformer used in the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = = 0.286
𝑃𝑎𝑐(𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)

The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully
utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver
1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.

Advantages of Half-Wave Rectifier:

1. It is simple and low cost circuit.

2. It requires only one diode.

Disadvantages of Half-Wave Rectifier:

1. The ripple factor is high.

2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.

3.3 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A full-wave rectifier converts an a.c. voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of
the applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in
this circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A
center-tap transformer is the one, which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude
and frequency but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding of the
transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the Fig. 3.4 below.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.4. Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same time
the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The load
current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows
through D2 and the voltage drop across R L will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the
load current flows in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the
load resistance.

Fig. 3.5. Input and Output Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier Circuit

Mathematical Analysis

In the analysis of a FWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.

1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency (η )
6. Ripple factor (γ )
7. Peak Factor

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. Form factor
11. Output frequency

Let the sinusoidal input voltage Vin is applied to the input of the rectifier.

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 (∵ 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡)

𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒.

Let the diode be idealized to piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward
direction i.e., in the ON state and Rr (= ∞) in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state.
The instantaneous load current iL1 through diode D1 and load resistor RL is given by,
𝑖𝐿1 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0  𝜃 < 𝜋
𝑖𝐿1 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋 < 𝜃  2𝜋

The instantaneous load current iL2 through diode D2 and load resistor RL is given by,
𝑖𝐿2 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0  𝜃 < 𝜋
𝑖𝐿2 = − 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜋 < 𝜃  2𝜋

The total current flowing through RL is the sum of two currents 𝑖𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝐿2 i.e.,
𝑖𝐿 = 𝑖𝐿1 + 𝑖𝐿2
DC or Average Current:

The average DC current over one half cycle is given by,

1 𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = ∫ 𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 0
𝜋
1
= [∫ 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
𝜋 0
𝐼𝑚
= (− cos 𝜃|𝜋0 )
𝜋
𝐼𝑚
= [(− cos 𝜋) − (− cos 0)]
𝜋
𝐼𝑚
= [(−(−1)) − (−1)]
𝜋
2𝐼𝑚
∴ 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋
DC or Average Voltage:

The average or DC voltage across the load is given by,

2𝐼𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅
𝜋 𝐿
2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝐿 2𝑉𝑚 1
∴ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = =
𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 (1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝑅𝐿
2𝑉𝑚 𝑅𝑓
∴ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = (∵ 𝑅 ≪ 1)
𝜋 𝐿

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
RMS or AC Current:

The RMS value of load current is given by

1 𝜋
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝜋 ∫0 𝑖𝐿2 𝑑𝜃

1 𝜋
= √𝜋 [∫0 (𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃]

𝜋 2
𝐼
= √ 𝑚𝜋 [∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃]
2 𝜋
𝐼 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
= √ 𝑚𝜋 [∫0 ( 2 ) 𝑑𝜃]

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐼𝑚
= √ 2𝜋 [∫0 𝑑𝜃 − ∫0 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃]

𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 𝐼𝑚
= √ 2𝜋 𝜃|𝜋0 ∵ ∫0 cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0 ∴ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

RMS Voltage:
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

Rectifier Efficiency:

The rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c input power.
𝐷𝐶 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑑𝑐
𝜂= =
𝐴𝐶 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑎𝑐
2𝑅
4𝐼𝑚
2 𝐿
The DC Output Power, 𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 = 𝜋2
2
𝐼𝑚
2
The AC Output Power, 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 ) = (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
2
The rectifier efficiency is given by,
2𝑅
4𝐼𝑚 𝐿
𝑃𝑑𝑐 𝜋2
𝜂= = 2
𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝐼𝑚
(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
2
8 𝑅𝐿
= 2
𝜋 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿
0.8106
𝜂= 𝑅
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝐿
The Percentage rectifier efficiency is given by,
81.06
%𝜂 = 𝑅
(1 + 𝑅𝑓 )
𝐿
If 𝑅𝑓 ≪ 𝑅𝐿 , the rectifier efficiency is maximum.
𝑅
The theoretical maximum rectifier efficiency is obtained when 𝑅𝑓 = 0 and is equal to 81.06%.
𝐿

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Ripple factor for FWR:

For a Full Wave Rectifier, we have,

𝐼𝑚 2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
√2 𝜋
𝐼 2
𝑅𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝛾 = √( 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ) − 1
𝑑𝑐

𝐼𝑚 2

𝛾 = √( 2𝐼√2𝑚 ) − 1
𝜋

𝜋 2
= √( ) − 1 = √0.233 = 0.48
2√2
This indicates that the ripple contents in the output are 0.48 times the dc component i.e., 48% of
dc component.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

PIV is defined as maximum possible voltage across a diode when it is reverse biased. In a full
wave rectifier, consider that diode D1 is in forward biased condition and diode D2 is reverse
biased i.e., non-conducting. In this case a voltage, Vm is developed across the load resistor, RL.
Now, the voltage across the diode D2 is the sum of the voltage across load resistor R L.and voltage
across the lower half of transformer secondary Vm.
PIV of diode used in FWR= 2Vm

Peak Factor:
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑉𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = √2
𝑉
( 𝑚⁄ )
√2

Form Factor:
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑉
( 𝑚⁄ )
√2
𝜋
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = 1.11
2𝑉 2√2
( 𝑚⁄𝜋)

Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

In FWR, using center tapped transformer, the secondary current flows through each half
separately in every half cycle, while the primary of transformer carries current continuously.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Hence, TUF is calculated for primary and secondary windings separately, and then the average
TUF is determined.

𝐷𝐶 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑑𝑐

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑈𝐹 = =
𝐴𝐶 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑋 𝐼𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑋 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑃𝑎𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = ==
√2 √2 2
2
2
4𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 =
𝜋2
2𝑅
4𝐼𝑚 𝐿
𝜋2 8
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 2 (𝑅 +𝑅 ) = 𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑚 𝑓 𝐿
𝜋 2 (1 + 𝑅 )
2 𝐿
0.812
𝑇𝑈𝐹 = 𝑅𝑓
(1 + 𝑅 )
𝐿
𝑅𝑓
The maximum secondary TUF can be obtained if 𝑅 = 0, 𝑖𝑒. 0.812
𝐿
The primary of the transformer feeds two HWR’s separately. These two HWR’s work
independently of each other , but feeds a common load.
0.286
Primary TUF = 2 X TUF of HWR = 2 X 𝑅𝑓
(1 + 𝑅 )
𝐿
𝑅𝑓
The maximum primary TUF can be obtained if 𝑅 = 0, 𝑖𝑒. 0.572
𝐿

The average TUF for FWR using center tapped transformer

𝑇𝑈𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 + 𝑇𝑈𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑇𝑈𝐹 =
2
0.812 + 0.572
= = 0.692
2
Transformer is utilized 69.2% in FWR using center tapped transformer.

Regulation:

Variation of 𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐼𝑑𝑐 for FWR is obtained as follows:

2𝐼𝑚 2𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = =
𝜋 𝜋(𝑅𝑓 + 𝑅𝐿 )
2𝑉𝑚
= 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓 + 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 = − 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓 (∵ 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝐿 )
𝜋
2𝑉𝑚 2𝑉
− 𝜋𝑚 + 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓
𝜋
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2𝑉𝑚 𝑋 100 %
− 𝐼 𝑅
𝑑𝑐 𝑓
𝜋

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓
= 2𝑉𝑚 𝑋 100 %
− 𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓
𝜋
1
= 2𝑉𝑚 𝑋 100 %
−1
𝜋𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑅𝑓
1
= 2𝑉𝑚 𝑋 100 %
2𝑉𝑚 −1
𝜋 𝑅
𝜋(𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 ) 𝑓

1
= (𝑅𝑓 +𝑅𝐿 )
𝑋 100 %
−1
𝑅𝑓
1
= 𝑅𝐿 𝑋 100 %
𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑓
% 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋 100 %
𝑅𝐿
Advantages:

1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)

2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem.

Disadvantages:

1) Requires center tapped transformer.

3.4 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit
above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four
individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the
desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special
center tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is
connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle.

Fig. 3.6. Bridge Rectifier Circuit

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3
and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Fig. 3.7: Bridge rectifier
circuit operation during Positive Half Cycle of the Supply

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.

Fig. 3.8: Bridge rectifier circuit operation during Negative Half Cycle of the Supply

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.9: Input and Output Waveforms of Bridge rectifier circuit

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load
is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the
average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax. However, in reality, during each half cycle the
current flows through two diodes instead of just one. So, the amplitude of the output voltage is
two voltage drops (2 x 0.7 = 1.4V) less than the input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is
now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100 Hz for a 50 Hz supply).
Advantages of Bridge type Full Wave Rectifier
1. Transformer with center tap in secondary is not required. This leads to reduction in cost and
weight.
2. PIV rating is one half of the center tap diode, so smaller and cheaper diodes can be used.
Disadvantage of Bridge type Full Wave Rectifier
1. The only disadvantage of bridge rectifier is it requires four diodes as compared to center tap full
wave rectifier.

Comparison between Rectifiers:

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 S.No. Parameters Half wave Centre tapped Bridge type full
rectifier full wave wave rectifier
rectifier
1. Idc Im/ π 2 Im / π 2 Im /π
2. Vdc Vm/π 2 Vm / π 2 Vm / π
3. Irms Im /2 Im /√2 Im /√2
4. %Efficiency 40.6% 81.06% 81.06%
5. Ripple Factor 1.21 0.482 0.482
Ripple f 2f 2f
6.
frequency
Peak inverse Vm 2Vm Vm
7.
Voltage
Voltage Rf Rf 2R f
8.
Regulation RL RL RL
9. Number of diodes 1 2 4

10. Necessity of
No Yes No
transformer
11. Cost Low Costly Less costly

3.5 FILTERS
3.5.1 Need for a Filter Circuit in power supply

Fig. 3.10: Filter circuit

The output of a rectifier consists of a d.c component and an a.c component (also known as
ripple). The a.c component is undesirable and must be kept away from the load. To do so, a
filter circuit is used. A filter circuit is a device which removes the a.c component of rectifier
output, but allows the d.c component to reach the load. Obviously, a filter circuit should be
connected between the rectifier and the load as shown in Fig. 3.10. A filter circuit is
generally a combination of inductors (L) and capacitors(C). The filtering action of L and C
depends upon the basic electrical properties.
Some of the important filters are:
1. Inductor filter
2. Capacitor filter
3. LC or L section filter
4. CLC or Π-type filter
Note:
1. The main function of filter is to minimize the ripple content in the rectifier output.
2. The ideal inductor acts as short circuit for d.c, therefore it cannot be placed in shunt across

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 the load; otherwise the d.c will be shorted. Hence, in a filter circuit the inductor is always
connected in series with the load.
3. Similarly, the ideal capacitor acts as open circuit for d.c, i.e. it blocks d.c, and therefore it
cannot be connected in series with the load. It is always connected in parallel with the load.
4. The inductor used in filter circuits is also called choke.

3.5.2 CAPACITOR FILTER

This is the simplest form of the filter circuit and in this arrangement a high value capacitor C
is placed directly across the output terminals, as shown in Fig. 3.11. During the conduction
period it gets charged and stores energy, during non-conduction period it gets discharged
through load resistor. Through this process, the time duration during which the capacitor C
gets charged to the peak is low, because there is no resistance (except the negligible forward
resistance of diode) in the charging path. But the discharging time is quite large (roughly 100
times more than the charging time depending upon the value of R L) because it discharges
through load resistance RL.
The function of the capacitor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The large value
capacitor C offers a low impedance shunt path to the ac components or ripples but offers high
impedance to the dc component. Thus, ripples get bypassed through capacitor C and only dc
component flows through the load resistance RL
Capacitor filter is very popular because of its low cost, small size, light weight and good
characteristics.

Fig. 3.11: CAPACITOR FILTER

Fig. 3.12: HWR with CAPACITOR FILTER

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.13: Input and Output Waveforms of HWR with CAPACITOR FILTER

Capacitor Filter With FWR

Fig. 3.14: FWR with CAPACITOR FILTER

Fig. 3.15: Output Waveforms of FWR with Capacitor Filter

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
The worth noting points about shunt capacitor filter are:
1. For a fixed-value of filter capacitance, larger the load resistance R L, larger will be the
discharge time constant CRL and therefore, lower the ripples and more the output voltage. On
the other hand, lower the load resistance (or more the load current), lower will be the output
voltage.
2. Similarly, smaller the filter capacitance, the less charge it can hold and more it will
discharge. Thus, the peak-to-peak value of the ripple will increase, and the average dc level
will decrease. Larger the filter capacitance, the more charge it can hold and the less it will
discharge. Hence the peak-to-peak value of the ripple will be less, and the average dc level
will increase. But, the maximum value of the capacitance that can be employed is limited by
another factor.
3. The larger the capacitance value, the greater is the current required to charge the capacitor
to a given voltage. The maximum current that can be handled by a diode is limited by the
figure quoted by the manufacturer. Thus, the maximum value of the capacitance, which can
be used in the shunt filter capacitor, is limited.

3.5.3 SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER

In this arrangement a high value inductor or choke L is connected in series with the rectifier
element and the load, as illustrated in Fig. 3.17. The filtering action of an inductor filter de-
pends upon its property of opposing any change in the current flowing through it. When the
output current of the rectifier increases above a certain value, energy is stored in it in the
form of magnetic field and this energy is given up when the output current falls below the
average value. Thus, by placing a choke coil in series with the rectifier output and load, any
sudden change in current that might have occurred in the circuit without an inductor is
smoothed out by the presence of the inductor L.

Fig. 3.16: Output Waveforms of FWR with InductorFilter

Fig. 3.17: HWR with Inductor Filter

The function of the inductor filter may be viewed in terms of impedances. The choke offers
high impedance to the ac components but offers almost zero resistance to the desired dc
components. Thus, ripples are removed to a large extent. Nature of the output voltage
without filter and with choke filter is shown in Fig. 3.16.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
3.5.4 L-SECTION FILTER

A simple series inductor reduces both the peak and effective values of the output current and
output voltage. On the other hand a simple shunt capacitor filter reduces the ripple voltage
but increases the diode current. The diode may get damaged due to large current and at the
same time it causes greater heating of supply transformer resulting in reduced efficiency. In
an inductor filter, ripple factor increases with the increase in load resistance R L, while in a
capacitor filter it varies inversely with load resistance RL. From economical point of view
also, neither series inductor nor shunt capacitor type filters are suitable.
Practical filter-circuits are derived by combining the voltage stabilizing action of shunt
capacitor with the current smoothing action of series choke coil. By using combination of
inductor and capacitor, ripple factor can be lowered, diode current can be restricted and
simultaneously ripple factor can be made almost independent of load resistance (or load
current). Two types of most commonly used combinations are choke-input or L-section
filter-and capacitor-input or Pi-Filter.
Choke-Input (L-Section) Filter Description
Choke-input filter consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier and a capacitor
C connected across the load. This is also sometimes called the L-section filter because in this
arrangement inductor and capacitor are connected, as an inverted L. In Fig. 3.18, only one
filter section is shown. But several identical sections are often employed to improve the
smoothing action.

Fig. 3.18: Input and Output Waveforms of FWR with L-Section Filter
The choke L on the input side of the filter readily allows dc to pass but opposes the flow of
ac components because its dc resistance is negligibly small but ac impedance is large. Any

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
fluctuation that remains in the current even after passing through the choke are largely by-
passed around the load by the shunt capacitor because Xc is much smaller than RL. Ripples
can be reduced effectively by making XL greater than Xc at ripple frequency. However, a
small ripple still remains in the filtered output and this is considered negligible if it is less
than l%. The rectified and filtered output voltage waveforms of a full-wave rectifier with
choke-input filter are shown in Fig. 3.18.

3.5.5 CAPACITOR-INPUT FILTER (PI-FILTER)

Capacitor Input filter consists of a shunt capacitor C1 at the input followed by an L-section
filter formed by series inductor L and shunt capacitor C2. This is also called the Π-filter
because the shape of the circuit diagram for this filter appears like Greek letter Π (pi). Since,
the rectifier feeds directly into the capacitor, it is also called capacitor input filter.

Fig. 3.19: Input and Output Waveforms of FWR with Pi - Filter

A capacitor-input or pi- filter is characterized by a high voltage output at low current drains.
Such a filter is used, if, for a given transformer, higher voltage than that can be obtained from
an L-section filter is required and if low ripple than that can be obtained from a shunt
capacitor filter or L-section filter is desired. In this filter, the input capacitor C1 is selected to
offer very low reactance to the ripple frequency. Hence major part of filtering is
accomplished by the input capacitor C1. Most of the remaining ripple is removed by the L-
section filter consisting of a choke L and capacitor C2.
The action of this filter can best be understood by considering the action of L-section filter,
formed by L and C2, upon the triangular output voltage wave from the input capacitor C1.
The charging and discharging action of input capacitor C1 has already been discussed. The
output voltage is roughly the same as across input capacitor C1 less the dc voltage drop in
inductor. The ripples contained in this output are reduced further by L-section filter. The
output voltage of pi-filter falls off rapidly with the increase in load-current and, therefore, the

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 voltage regulation with this filter is very poor.
Salient Features of L-Section and Pi-Filters:
1. In pi-filter the dc output voltage is much larger than that can be had from an L-section
filter with the same input voltage.
2. In pi-filter ripples are less in comparison to those in shunt capacitor or L-section filter. So,
smaller valued choke is required in a pi-filter in comparison to that required in L-section
filter.
3. In pi-filter, the capacitor is to be charged to the peak value hence the RMS current in
supply transformer is larger as compared in case of L-section filter.
4. Voltage regulation in case of pi-filter is very poor, as already mentioned. So, pi-filters are
suitable for fixed loads whereas L-section filters can work satisfactorily with varying loads
provided a minimum current is maintained.
5. In case of a pi-filter PIV is larger than that in case of an L-section filter.
Comparison of Filters
1) A capacitor filter provides Vm volts at low load current. But regulation is poor.
2) An Inductor filter gives high ripple voltage for low load currents. It is used for high
load currents.
3) L – Section filter gives a ripple factor independent of load current. Voltage Regulation
can be improved by the use of bleeder resistance.
4) Multiple L – Section filters or π filters give much less ripple than the single L –Section
Filter.

3.6 ZENER AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR

The ideal DC power supply maintains constant voltage at its output terminals, in spite of changes
in load current or line voltage. But practically, in a power supply without regulator, the load
voltage varies with various factors, such as load current (IL), the line voltage (Vin). The load
regulation parameter specifies the variation in the output DC voltage as a function of load
current.
The Zener diode when operated in reverse break down region maintains constant voltage
irrespective of change in current. So, zener diode can be employed in voltage regulator.
Zener voltage regulator provides regulation with varying line voltage and also with varying load
current.
Regulation with varying line voltage:
Zener voltage regulator circuit with varying line voltage is shown in Fig. 3.20. In this case load
resistance is constant, So, 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑧 , and is constant.
𝑉0 𝑉𝑧
𝐼𝐿 = = , 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑧
Now, if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 increases, then the total current 𝐼 increases. But, 𝐼𝐿 is constant as 𝑉𝑧 is constant.
Hence, the current 𝐼𝑍 increases to keep 𝐼𝐿 constant.
As long as 𝐼𝑍 is in between 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the output voltage 𝑉0 remains constant.
Similarly, if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 decreases, then the total current 𝐼 decreases. But, 𝐼𝐿 is constant as 𝑉𝑧 is constant.
Hence, the current 𝐼𝑍 decreases to keep 𝐼𝐿 constant.
As long as 𝐼𝑍 is in between 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the output voltage 𝑉0 remains constant.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.20: Zener Voltage Regulator with varying line voltage

Regulation with varying load:

Zener voltage regulator circuit with varying load is shown in Fig. 3.21. In this case input voltage
or line voltage is constant, So, 𝑉𝑖𝑛 , 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑧 , is constant.
Then for the constant Load resistance, R, the current 𝐼 is given by

𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑍
𝐼= = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑧 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
𝑅
Now, if 𝑅𝐿 increases, then the load current 𝐼𝐿 decreases. To keep 𝐼 constant, 𝐼𝑧 increases. As
long as 𝐼𝑍 is in between 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the output voltage 𝑉0 remains constant.
Similarly, if 𝑅𝐿 decreases, then the load current 𝐼𝐿 increases. To keep 𝐼 constant, 𝐼𝑧 decreases. As
long as 𝐼𝑍 is in between 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝐼𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the output voltage 𝑉0 remains constant.

Fig. 3.21: Zener Voltage Regulator with varying load

3.7 CLIPPER CIRCUITS

The A Clipper circuit is a circuit that rejects the part of the input wave specified while allowing
the remaining portion. The cut off voltage determines, the portion of the wave above or below
the cut off voltage is clipped off or cut off.

The clipping circuits consist of linear and non-linear elements like resistors and diodes but not
energy storage elements like capacitors. These clipping circuits have many applications as they
are advantageous.

 The main advantage of clipping circuits is to eliminate the unwanted noise present in the
amplitudes.

 These can work as square wave converters, as they can convert sine waves into square waves
by clipping.

 The amplitude of the desired wave can be maintained at a constant level.

Among the Diode Clippers, the two main types are positive and negative clippers.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate positive portions of the input signal can be
termed as a Positive Clipper. Among the positive diode clipper circuits, we have the following
types −

 Positive Series Clipper

 Positive Series Clipper with positive reference voltage, Vr

 Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

 Positive Shunt Clipper

 Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

 Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr

 Two-way Clipper
Positive Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates
the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Series Clipper. The Fig. 3.22
represents the circuit diagram for positive series clipper.

Fig. 3.22: Positive Series Clipper with its Input and Output Waveforms

During Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the
input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode
reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor
becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero.

During Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the
circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence it
conducts like a closed switch. Thus, the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the
applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

Practical and Ideal Waveforms:

In the Fig. 3.22, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand that only a portion of the
positive peak was clipped. This is because of the voltage across R, V0. But, the ideal output was
not meant to be so.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in the practical output due to
the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v. Hence there will be a difference in the practical and
ideal output waveforms.

Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Series Clipper with positive Vr. The Fig. 3.23 represents the circuit diagram for
positive series clipper when the reference voltage applied is positive. During the positive cycle
of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference voltage appears at the output. During
its negative cycle, the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a closed switch. Hence the
output waveform appears as shown in the Fig. 3.23.

Fig. 3.23: Positive Series Clipper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is
termed as Positive Series Clipper with negative Vr. The Fig. 3.24 represents the circuit diagram
for positive series clipper, when the reference voltage applied is negative.

Fig. 3.24: Positive Series Clipper with Negative Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and the reference voltage
appears at the output. As the reference voltage is negative, the same voltage with constant
amplitude is shown. During its negative cycle, whenever input signal is greater than the
reference voltage, the diode gets forward biased and conducts like a closed switch. Hence the
input signal that is greater than the reference voltage, appears at the output.

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Positive Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates
the positive portions of the waveform, is termed as Positive Shunt Clipper. The Fig. 3.25
represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper.

Fig. 3.25: Positive Shunt Clipper and its Input and Output Waveforms

During Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the
input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode
forward biased and hence it conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load
resistor becomes zero as no current flows through it and hence V0 will be zero ideally.

During Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the
circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it
behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be equal to the
applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

Practical and Ideal Waveforms:

In the above Fig. 3.25, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand that only a portion of
the positive peak was clipped. This is because of the voltage across R2, V0. But the ideal output
was not meant to be so. Let us have a look at the following figures.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the positive cycle is present in the practical output due to
the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v. Hence there will be a difference in the practical and
ideal output waveforms.

Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is termed
as Positive Shunt Clipper with positive Vr. The Fig. 3.26 represents the circuit diagram for
positive shunt clipper when the reference voltage applied is positive.

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 Fig. 3.26: Positive Shunt Clipper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and nothing but the
reference voltage appears at the output. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased
and behaves as an open switch. The whole of the input appears at the output. Hence the output
waveform appears as shown in the above Fig. 3.26.

Positive Shunt Clipper with Negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the positive portions of the waveform, is
termed as Positive Shunt Clipper with negative Vr.

The Fig. 3.27 represents the circuit diagram for positive shunt clipper, when the reference
voltage applied is negative.

Fig. 3.27: Positive Shut Clipper with Negative Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input, the diode gets forward biased and the reference voltage
appears at the output. As the reference voltage is negative, the same voltage with constant
amplitude is shown. During its negative cycle, whenever input signal greater than the reference
voltage, the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open switch. Hence, the input signal
that is greater than the reference voltage, appears at the output.

Negative Clipper

The Clipper circuit that is intended to attenuate negative portions of the input signal can be
termed as a Negative Clipper. Among the negative diode clipper circuits, we have the following
types.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Negative Series Clipper
 Negative Series Clipper with positive reference voltage Vr
 Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr
 Negative Shunt Clipper
 Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr
 Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr
Negative Series Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and that attenuates
the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Series Clipper. The Fig. 3.28
represents the circuit diagram for negative series clipper.

Fig. 3.28: Negative Series Clipper and its Input and Output Waveforms

During Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the
input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode
forward biased and hence it acts like a closed switch. Thus, the input voltage completely appears
across the load resistor to produce the output V0.

During Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the
circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode reverse biased and hence it
acts like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor will be zero making V0 zero,
ideally.

Practical and Ideal Waveforms:

In the Fig. 3.28, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand that only a portion of the
negative peak was clipped. This is because of the voltage across R, V0. But, the ideal output was
not meant to be so.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the negative cycle is present in the practical output due
to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v. Hence, there will be a difference in the practical
and ideal output waveforms.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Negative Series Clipper with Positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Series Clipper with positive Vr. The Fig. 3.29 represents the circuit diagram
for negative series clipper when the reference voltage applied is positive.

Fig. 3.29: Negative Series Clipper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input, the diode starts conducting only when the anode voltage
value exceeds the cathode voltage value of the diode. As the cathode voltage equals the
reference voltage applied, the output will be as shown.

Negative Series Clipper with Negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in series to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Series Clipper with negative Vr. The Fig. 3.30 represents the circuit diagram
for negative series clipper, when the reference voltage applied is negative.

Fig. 3.30: Negative Series Clipper with Negative Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets forward biased and the input signal appears
at the output. During its negative cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and hence will not conduct.
But the negative reference voltage being applied, appears at the output. Hence the negative cycle
of the output waveform gets clipped after this reference level.

Negative Shunt Clipper

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and that attenuates
the negative portions of the waveform, is termed as Negative Shunt Clipper. The Fig. 3.31
represents the circuit diagram for negative shunt clipper.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.31: Negative Shunt Clipper and its Input and Output Waveforms

During Positive Cycle of the Input − When the input voltage is applied, the positive cycle of the
input makes the point A in the circuit positive with respect to the point B. This makes the diode
reverse biased and hence it behaves like an open switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor
equals the applied input voltage as it completely appears at the output V0.

During Negative Cycle of the Input − The negative cycle of the input makes the point A in the
circuit negative with respect to the point B. This makes the diode forward biased and hence it
conducts like a closed switch. Thus the voltage across the load resistor becomes zero as no
current flows through it, ideally.

Practical and Ideal Waveforms:

In the Fig. 3.31, if the waveforms are observed, we can understand that just a portion of the
negative peak was clipped. This is because of the voltage across V0. But the ideal output was
not meant to be so.

Unlike the ideal output, a bit portion of the negative cycle is present in the practical output due
to the diode conduction voltage which is 0.7v. Hence there will be a difference in the practical
and ideal output waveforms.

Negative Shunt Clipper with Positive Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
positive reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Shunt Clipper with positive Vr. The Fig. 3.32 represents the circuit diagram
for negative shunt clipper when the reference voltage applied is positive.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.32: Negative Series Clipper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open
switch. So, whole of the input voltage, which is greater than the reference voltage applied,
appears at the output. The signal below reference voltage level gets clipped off. During the
negative half cycle, as the diode gets forward biased and the cycle gets completed, no output is
present.

Negative Shunt Clipper with Negative Vr

A Clipper circuit in which the diode is connected in shunt to the input signal and biased with
negative reference voltage Vr and that attenuates the negative portions of the waveform, is
termed as Negative Shunt Clipper with negative Vr. The Fig. 3.33 represents the circuit diagram
for negative shunt clipper, when the reference voltage applied is negative.

Fig. 3.33: Negative Shunt Clipper with Negative Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive cycle of the input the diode gets reverse biased and behaves as an open
switch. So whole of the input voltage, appears at the output Vo. During the negative half cycle,
the diode gets forward biased. The negative voltage up to the reference voltage, gets at the
output and the remaining signal gets clipped off.

Two-way Clipper

This is a positive and negative clipper with a reference voltage Vr. The input voltage is clipped
two-way both positive and negative portions of the input waveform with two reference voltages.
For this, two diodes D1 and D2 along with two reference voltages Vr1 and Vr2 are connected in
the circuit.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 This circuit is also called as a Combinational Clipper circuit. The Fig. 3.34 below shows the
circuit arrangement for a two-way or a combinational clipper circuit along with its output
waveform.

Fig. 3.34: Two way Clipper and its Output Waveform

During the positive half of the input signal, the diode D1 conducts making the reference
voltage Vr1 appear at the output. During the negative half of the input signal, the
diode D2 conducts making the reference voltage Vr2 appear at the output. Hence, both the
diodes conduct alternatively to clip the output during both the cycles. The output is taken across
the load resistor.

Applications:

 Used for the generation and shaping of waveforms

 Used for the protection of circuits from spikes

 Used for amplitude restorers

 Used as voltage limiters

 Used in television circuits

 Used in FM transmitters

3.8 CLAMPER CIRCUITS

A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. Actually, the positive and
negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using the clamping circuits, without
changing the actual appearance of the applied signal. As the DC level gets shifted, a clamper
circuit is called as a Level Shifter. Clamper circuits consist of energy storage elements like
capacitors. A simple clamper circuit comprises of a capacitor, a diode, a resistor and a DC
battery if required. In order to maintain the time period of the wave form, the τ must be greater
than, half the time period.

τ=RC
Where

 R is the resistance of the resistor employed

 C is the capacitance of the capacitor used

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 The time constant of charge and discharge of the capacitor determines the output of a clamper
circuit.
 In a clamper circuit, a vertical shift of upward or downward takes place in the output waveform
with respect to the input signal.
 The load resistor and the capacitor affect the waveform. So, the discharging time of the
capacitor should be large enough.
The DC component present in the input is rejected when a capacitor coupled network is used, as
a capacitor blocks dc. Hence, when DC needs to be restored, clamping circuit is used.
Types of Clampers
There are few types of clamper circuits, such as
 Positive Clamper
 Positive clamper with positive Vr
 Positive clamper with negative Vr
 Negative Clamper
 Negative clamper with positive Vr
 Negative clamper with negative Vr

Positive Clamper Circuit

A Clamping circuit restores the DC level. When a negative peak of the signal is raised above to
the zero level, then the signal is said to be positively clamped.

A Positive Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that
shifts the output signal to the positive portion of the input signal. The figure below explains the
construction of a positive clamper circuit.

Fig. 3.35: Positive Clamper circuit and its Input and Output Waveforms

Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode is reverse biased.
The output is not considered at this point of time. During the negative half cycle, at the peak
value, the capacitor gets charged with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The
capacitor is now charged to its peak value Vm. The diode is forward biased and conducts
heavily.

During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vm while the diode gets
reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 V0 = Vi + Vm

Hence the signal is positively clamped as shown in the Fig. 3.35. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.

Positive Clamper with Positive Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper with
positive reference voltage is constructed as below.

Fig. 3.36: Positive Clamper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive half cycle, the reference voltage is applied through the diode at the output
and as the input voltage increases, the cathode voltage of the diode increase with respect to the
anode voltage and hence it stops conducting. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets
forward biased and starts conducting. The voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage
together maintain the output voltage level.

Positive Clamper with Negative Vr

A Positive clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the positive clamper with
positive reference voltage is constructed as below.

Fig. 3.37: Positive Clamper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

During the positive half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor and the reference voltage together
maintain the output voltage level. During the negative half-cycle, the diode conducts when the
cathode voltage gets less than the anode voltage. These changes make the output voltage as
shown in the Fig. 3.37.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
Negative Clamper

A Negative Clamper circuit is one that consists of a diode, a resistor and a capacitor and that
shifts the output signal to the negative portion of the input signal. The Fig. 3.38 explains the
construction of a negative clamper circuit.

Fig. 3.38: Negative Clamper Circuit and its Input and Output Waveforms

During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value Vm. The diode is
forward biased and conducts. During the negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and
gets open circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be
V0=Vi+Vm

Hence the signal is negatively clamped as shown in the Fig. 3.38. The output signal changes
according to the changes in the input, but shifts the level according to the charge on the
capacitor, as it adds the input voltage.

Negative clamper with positive Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some positive reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper
with positive reference voltage is constructed as below.

Fig. 3.39: Negative Clamper with Positive Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

Though the output voltage is negatively clamped, a portion of the output waveform is raised to
the positive level, as the applied reference voltage is positive. During the positive half-cycle, the
diode conducts, but the output equals the positive reference voltage applied. During the negative
half cycle, the diode acts as open circuited and the voltage across the capacitor forms the output.

Negative Clamper with Negative Vr

A Negative clamper circuit if biased with some negative reference voltage, that voltage will be
added to the output to raise the clamped level. Using this, the circuit of the negative clamper
with negative reference voltage is constructed as below.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.39: Negative Clamper with Negative Reference Voltage and its Input and Output
Waveforms

The cathode of the diode is connected with a negative reference voltage, which is less than that
of zero and the anode voltage. Hence, the diode starts conducting during positive half cycle,
before the zero voltage level. During the negative half cycle, the voltage across the capacitor
appears at the output. Thus the waveform is clamped towards the negative portion.

Applications

 Used as direct current restorers

 Used to remove distortions

 Used as voltage multipliers

 Used for the protection of amplifiers

 Used as test equipment

 Used as base-line stabilizer

3.9 PEAK DETECTOR

A peak detector is a series connection of a diode and a capacitor outputting a DC voltage equal
to the peak value of the applied AC signal.

Peak Detector Operation Analysis

The Peak Detector circuit is shown in the Fig. 3.41. An AC voltage source applied to the peak
detector, charges the capacitor to the peak of the input. The diode conducts during positive “half
cycles,” charging the capacitor to the waveform peak. When the input waveform falls below the
DC “peak” stored on the capacitor, the diode is reverse biased, blocking current flow from
capacitor back to the source. Thus, the capacitor retains the peak value even as the waveform
drops to zero. Another view of the peak detector is that it is the same as a half-wave
rectifier with a capacitor filter added at the output.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.41: Peak Detector Circuit

It takes a few cycles for the capacitor to charge to the peak as in the Fig. 3.42 due to the series
resistance (RC “time constant”). Ideally, it would charge to 5 V if an “ideal diode” is
considered. However, the silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 0.7 V which subtracts
from the 5 V peak of the input.

Fig. 3.42: Capacitor charges to peak within a few cycles

3.10 THE VOLTAGE DOUBLER

A Voltage Doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit which has a voltage multiplication factor of
two. The circuit consists of only two diodes, two capacitors and an oscillating AC input voltage.
This simple diode-capacitor pump circuit gives a DC output voltage equal to the peak-to-peak
value of the sinusoidal input, ie., double the peak voltage value.

Fig. 3.43: DC Voltage Doubler Circuit

The circuit shows a half wave voltage doubler. During the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal
input waveform, diode D1 is forward biased and conducts charging up the pump
capacitor, C1 to the peak value of the input voltage, (Vp). Because there is no return path for
capacitor C1 to discharge into, it remains fully charged acting as a storage device in series with
the voltage supply.

During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is reverse biased blocking the discharging of C1 while
diode D2 is forward biased charging up capacitor C2. But because there is a voltage across

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 capacitor C1 already equal to the peak input voltage, capacitor C2 charges to twice the peak
voltage value of the input signal.

During the negative half-cycle, D1 charges C1 to Vp, and on the positive half-cycle D2 adds the
AC peak voltage to Vp on C1 and transfers it all to C2. The voltage across
capacitor, C2 discharges through the load, Then, the voltage across capacitor, C2 can be
calculated as: Vout = 2Vp,

As capacitor C2 only charges up during one half cycle of the input waveform, the resulting
output voltage discharged into the load has a ripple frequency equal to the supply frequency,
hence the name half wave voltage doubler. The disadvantage of this is that it can be difficult to
smooth out this large ripple frequency in much the same way as for a half wave rectifier circuit.
Also, capacitor C2 must have a DC voltage rating at least twice the value of the peak input
voltage.

The advantage of “Voltage Multiplier Circuits” is that it allows higher voltages to be created
from a low voltage power source without a need for an expensive high voltage transformer.
However, while voltage multipliers can boost the voltage, they can only supply low currents to a
high-resistance (+100kΩ) load because the generated output voltage quickly drops-off as load
current increases.

By reversing the direction of the diodes and capacitors in the circuit we can also reverse the
direction of the output voltage creating a negative voltage output. Also, if we cascade the
multiplying circuits, we can continue to increase the DC output voltage in integer steps to
produce voltage triplers, or voltage quadruplers circuits, etc.

3.11 PROBLEM SOLVING RELATED TO DIODE APPLICATIONS

1. A HWR has a load of 3.5 kΩ. If the diode resistance and secondary coil resistance together
have a resistance of 800 Ω and the input voltage has a signal voltage of peak value 240 V.
Calculate (a) Peak, Average and rms value of current (b) DC power output (c) AC power input
(d) efficiency of the rectifier.

2. A HWR circuit supplies 100 mA DC to a load of 250 Ω. Find the DC output voltage, PIV
rating of a diode and the rms voltage for the transformer supplying the rectifier.

3. A voltage of 200coswt is applied to HWR with load resistance of 5 kΩ. Find the maximum
dc current component, rms current, ripple factor, TUF and rectifier efficiency.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 4. A diode has an internal resistance of 20 Ω and 1000 Ω load from a 110 V rms source of
supply. Calculate (a) efficiency of rectification (b) Percentage regulation from no load to full
load.

5. The transformer of a HWR has a secondary voltage of 30 Vrms with a winding resistance
of 10 Ω. The semiconductor diode in the circuit has a forward resistance of 100 Ω.
Calculate (a) No load DC voltage (b) DC output voltage at iL = 25 mA.
(c) Ripple voltage across the load (d) Ripple factor
(e) DC output power (f) PIV

6. A 230 V, 60 Hz voltage is applied to the primary of a 5:1 step down, center tap
transformer used in a FWR having a load of 900 Ω. If the diode resistance and secondary coil
resistance together has a resistance of 100 Ω. Determine
a) DC voltage across the load
b) DC current through the load
c) DC power delivered to the load
d) PIV across each diode
e) Ripple voltage and its frequency
f) Rectification efficiency

7. In a FWR, the required dc voltage is 9 V and the diode drop is 0.8 V. Calculate AC rms
input voltage required in case of bridge rectifier circuit and center tapped FWR circuit.

8. A FWR circuit uses two Si diodes with a forward resistance of 20 Ω each. A DC voltmeter
connected across the load of 1 k Ω reads 55.4 V.
Calculate (a) rms current (b) Average voltage across each diode (c) ripple factor.

9. For zener voltage regulator with 𝑅 = 1𝑘𝛺, 𝑅𝐿 = 10𝑘𝛺, 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 24 𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
5 𝑚𝐴 . Determine the range of input voltage that maintains the output voltage constant at 10V.

10. For zener voltage regulator with 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 40 𝑉, 𝑅 = 1𝑘𝛺, 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 24 𝑚𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
5 𝑚𝐴 . Determine the range of load current and load resistance values that maintain the output
voltage constant at 10V.

9. Practice Quiz

1. A rectifier is used to

a) convert AC voltage to pulsating DC voltage

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 b) convert DC voltage to AC voltage

c) regulate voltage

d) amplify voltage

2. The ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is

a) 1.21

b) 0.48

c) 0.406

d) 0.121

3. The efficiency of a half-wave rectifier is

a) 40.6%

b) 81.2%

c) 1.12%

d) 48.2%

4. Rectifier is used as a

a) Amplifier

b) oscillator

c) switch

d) wave form generator

5. The output is available only half cycle for the applied input signal is called

a) full wave rectifier

b) half wave rectifier

c) bridge wave rectifier

d) none

6. Full wave bridge rectifier having the number of diodes

a) 2

b) 1

c) 4

d) 5

7. The ratio of output power to the input power is called

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 a) efficiency

b) ripple factor

c) transformer utilization factor

d) regulation

8. The PIV of full wave bridge rectifier is

a) 2Vm

b) Vm

c) 4Vm

d) Vm/2

9. The circuit construction of half wave rectifier is

a) complex

b) simple

c) large

d) none

10. The ratio of rms value of ac components to the dc component is called

a) efficiency

b) ripple factor

c) transformer utilization factor

d) regulation

11. The ac ripples present in output of rectifier is suppressed using

a) regulator

b) filter

c) load resistor

d) transformer

12. The circuit which rejects the specified part of the input wave and allows remaining
portion of the wave is called

a) regulator

b) Clipper

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 c) Clamper

d) filter

13. A circuit that adds dc level to an ac signal and places the peak of signal at desired level is
called

a) regulator

b) Clipper

c) Clamper

d) filter

14. The circuit which is used to detect the peak of the signal is called

a) regulator

b) filter

c) transformer

d) peak detector

15. The ripple frequency of full wave rectifier is

a) f

b) 2f

c) f/2

d) f/4

10. Assignments

S.No Question BL CO

Explain the operation of Half Wave Rectifier with neat diagrams and derive
1 the expressions for DC current, RMS Current, Ripple Factor, Efficiency. 4 3

(a) Explain the operation of the bridge rectifier with neat diagrams. 4
2 3
(b) Compare Half wave, center tapped and bridge full wave rectifiers.
5
Explain the operation of the following circuits with neat diagrams.

3 (a) Clipper Circuits 4 3

(b) Clamper Circuits

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 4 Explain the operation of different types of filters with neat diagrams. 4 3

Explain the operation of

5 (a) Peak Detector 4 3

(b) Voltage Doubler

11. Part A- Question & Answers

B
S.No Question& Answers CO
L

1 How the diode works as switch?

Ans. Ideally Diode under forward bias acts as short circuit and under reverse bias
acts as open circuit. Hence, the forward biased diode acts as ON switch and reverse 3 3
biased diode acts as OFF switch.

2 List any four applications of PN diode?

Ans.
a. Switch
b. Rectifier
3 3
c. Clipper
d. Clamper
e. Peak Detector
f. Voltage Doubler
3 What is Clipper and list its applications?
Ans. A Clipper circuit is a circuit that rejects the part of the input wave specified
while allowing the remaining portion.
Applications:
 Used for the generation and shaping of waveforms
 Used for the protection of circuits from spikes 3 3
 Used for amplitude restorers
 Used as voltage limiters
 Used in television circuits
 Used in FM transmitters

4 What is Clamper and list its applications?

Ans. A Clamper Circuit is a circuit that adds a DC level to an AC signal. Actually,
the positive and negative peaks of the signals can be placed at desired levels using
the clamping circuits, without changing the actual appearance of the applied signal.
Applications 3 3
 Used as direct current restorers
 Used to remove distortions
 Used as voltage multipliers
 Used for the protection of amplifiers

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  Used as test equipment
 Used as base-line stabilizer

5 What is a dc power supply? What are its basic elements?

Ans. The dc power supply converts the ac voltage. It consists of the following
elements: The transformer, rectifier, filter and voltage regulator.

3 3

6 Define Rectifier and give its classification.

Ans. Rectifier: A rectifier is a circuit that converts AC into pulsing DC. It uses
unidirectional conducting devices like PN diodes.
Half Wave Rectifier (HWR): HWR converts AC to pulsating DC voltage by using 3 3
only one half of the applied AC voltage.
Full Wave Rectifier (FWR): FWR converts AC to pulsating DC voltage by using
both half cycles of the applied AC voltage.

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7 What is the purpose of filter in DC power supply? List the different types of
filters and explain with brief overview.
Ans. A filter circuit is a device which removes the AC component but allows the DC
components of the rectifier to reach the load.
Ripples can be removed by one of the following filtering methods.
i. A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides a easier bypass for the ripples due to
low impedance to AC at ripple frequency and leave the DC appear across the
load.
ii. An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of ripples due to high
impedance at ripple frequency, while allowing the DC due to low resistance to
DC.
iii. Various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such has L-section filter, π- 3 3
section filter, etc., which make use of both the properties depicted above.
Types of filter circuits: Depending upon the components used in the filter circuits and
the way they are connected, the filter circuits are classified as:
i. Shunt capacitor filter
ii. Series inductor filter
iii. Choke-input (LC) filter
iv. Capacitor-input (π) filter.

8 Define efficiency, ripple factor, form factor and peak factor.

Ans.

Efficiency (  ): It is defined as the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power.

Pdc
Efficiency (  ) = Pac

Ripple factor :(  ): It is defined as the ratio of RMS values of AC components to

that of DC components.
Vrm s
 = Vdc 3 3

Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of RMS value to the average value.
RMS value
Form factor= Average value
Peak factor: It is defined as the ratio of peak value to the RMS value.
Peak value
Peak factor = RMS value

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9 Compare HWR, FWR and Bridge rectifier.
Ans.
Parameter Half Wave Center Bridge
Rectifier tapped Rectifier
Full Wave
Rectifier
Number of 4
1 2
diodes
No load dc 2Vm/π
Vm/π 2Vm/π 4 3
Voltage
PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Efficiency of 81.2%
40.6% 81.2%
rectifier
Ripple frequency f 2f 2f

10 Define Voltage regulation?

Ans. The degree to which the dc output voltage changes under varying load
condition is measured by voltage regulation. It is defined as the variation of the dc
output voltage as a function of the load current. 5 3
% Regulation= (Vno load-Vfull load)/Vfull load

12. Part B- Questions

S.No Question BL CO
1 Explain the operation of a Half Wave Rectifier and derive the IDC, VDC, 4 3
PDC, IRMS, Ripple factor, efficiency and PIV.

2 Explain the operation of full wave rectifier with input capacitor filter 4 3
and derive the equation for ripple factor.

3 Explain Full wave rectifier operation and derive all the necessary 4 3
parameters of Full wave rectifier. (IDC, VDC, PDC, IRMS, Ripple factor,
efficiency and PIV).

4 a) Explain the operation of Full wave rectifier with C, L, L-section 4 3

and pi filters with neat diagrams.

b) In a full wave rectifier the required D.C voltage is 9V and the

diode drop of 0.8V. Calculate a.c r.m.s input voltage required in

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 case of bridge rectifier and center tapped full wave rectifier circuit.

5 a) Explain the operation of Clamper. 4 3

b) Explain the operation of Peak detector.

13. Supportive Online Certification Courses

1. “Semiconductor Devices and Circuits” – Conducted by NPTEL Course, IISc Bangalore – 12
weeks.

14. Real Time Applications

S.No. Applications CO

1 Voltage multipliers can be found Mosquito Bats, etc. 3

2 Inverters, Battery chargers, etc. 3
3 Voltage Stabilizers 3
4 Distortion removal, dc level restorers, etc. 3

15. Contents Beyond the Syllabus

Full Wave Voltage Multiplier

The circuit in Fig. 3.43 shows a basic symmetrical voltage multiplier circuit made up from two
half-wave rectifier circuits. By adding a second diode and capacitor to the output of a standard
half-wave rectifier, we can increase its output voltage by a set amount. This type of voltage
multiplier configuration is known as a Full Wave Series Multiplier because one of the diodes
is conducting in each half cycle, the same as for a full wave rectifier circuit. When the
sinusoidal input voltage is positive, capacitor C1 charges up through diode D1 and when the
sinusoidal voltage is negative, capacitor C2 charges up through diode, D2. The output
voltage 2VIN is taken across the two series connected capacitors.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21
 Fig. 3.44: Full Wave Voltage Multiplier Circuit

The voltage produced by a voltage multiplier circuit is in theory unlimited, but due to their
relatively poor voltage regulation and low current capability they are generally designed to
increase the voltage by a factor less than ten.

16. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

1. Text Books:
1. Donald A Neamen, “Electronic Circuits – analysis and design”, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill
(India), 2019.
2. J. Milliman and C Halkias, “Integrated electronics”, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw Hill,
1991.

2. References:
1. Behzad Razavi, “Microelectronics”, 2nd edition, Wiley, 2013.
2. R.L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” 9th Edition,
Pearson, 2006.
3. Jimmie J Cathey, “Electronic Devices and Circuits,” Schaum’s outlines series, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill (India), 2010.

3. Web References:
1. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/blog/voltage-multiplier-circuit.html

17. Mini Project Suggestion

1. Design of zener voltage regulator for the given specifications.

2. Design of Regulated DC power supply for the given specifications.

BTECH_ECE-SEM 21