EE-153 IEE Lab Manual Jan 2022

Laboratory Manual
EE-153L – Introduction to Electrical Engineering
Instructor
Dr. Muhammad Riaz
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences
Islamabad, Pakistan
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EE-153 Introduction to Electrical Engineering Lab Manual
LABORATORY REGULATION AND SAFETY RULES
The following regulation and Safety rules must be observed in Laboratory.
1. Safety is everyone's responsibility. Everyone must cooperate to create the safest possible
working conditions. Where your personal life and good health are concerned, safety
becomes your responsibility. Safety rules are common sense ideas that help prevent injury.
When you work with electricity, treat it with respect. If electricity is properly used, it will
work for you. Abuse it and you may have trouble.
Be sure that all the equipment is properly working before using them for laboratory
exercise. Any defective equipment must be reported immediately to the Lab Instructor.
2. Instruction during Lab experiment: Make sure that last connection to be made is your
circuit is the power supply and first thing to be disconnected is also power supply. Before
giving power supply, always check for short circuit conditions. Equipment should not be
removed, transferred to any location without permission from the laboratory staff. Hold
test probes by their insulated areas. Some components, such as Resistors, Heat Sinks can
get very hot. Always give them time to cool before touching them.
3. Responsibility: it is responsibility of each student working on allocated work station:
Switch off the equipment, place the tools & components on their proper place before
leaving the laboratory.
4. Lab Report: Report of each lab experiment required to be verified before next experiment,
late report submission will NOT be evaluated in the end. Follow the lab report format as
recommended by Lab Instructor.
5. Make Up Lab: There will be No Make up lab for individual or a group of students in case
of Leave or absent from regular lab session.
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EE-153 Introduction to Electrical Engineering Lab CLOs
CLO CLO Attributes Bloom Performance Indicators

Illustrate Knowledge: Use  Correct use of needed instruments (signal
generator, oscilloscope, etc.)
CLO the technology/tools and
P2  Study and complete pre-lab tasks
1 instruments needed for lab  Follow safety instructions for handling the
instruments.
demonstration
GRS  Proper designing, wiring of the circuit as per
requirement.
CLO Skills: Construct and  Analyzing the circuit and recording the data.
P3  Performing the necessary calculation required in
2 Analyze basic circuits.
the lab.
 Investigate effect of various changes.
 Take his/her part in the group.
Demonstrate: teamwork  Report is structured properly
 Figures and Graphs annotated
CLO and communication skills in
Report A2  Relate experiment with theoretical concept
3 lab execution and laboratory discussed in class
 Discuss discrepancies between theoretical,
report writing, respectively.
simulation and experimental results
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List of Experiments
Exp. No Title of Experiment

Introduction to Electrical Laboratory, DC Sources and Metering
1
2 To Study the Resistor Color Code
3 Verification of Ohm’s Law
4 Verification of KVL and Series Resistive Circuit
5 Verification of KCL and Parallel Resistive Circuit
6 Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem
7 Introduction to Oscilloscope and AC Wave Form
8 Determining the Capacitive Reactance in series RC Network
9 I-V Characteristics of Silicon Diode
10 Implementation of Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
11 Implementation of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit
12 Design of DC Power Supply
13 BJT Voltage Divider Biasing and DC Load Line
14 BJT Common Emitter Amplifier
15 Applications of Operational Amplifier - I
16 Applications of Operational Amplifier - II
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Experiment 1
Introduction to Electrical Laboratory, DC Sources and Metering
1.1 Objective
The objective of this exercise is to become familiar with the operation and usage of basic DC
electrical laboratory devices, namely DC power supplies and digital multimeters.
1.2 Equipment
 Digital Multimeter model:_________________________ SRN:__________________

 Analog / Digital Trainer Model; ___________________ SRN: ___________________
 Adjustable DC Power Supply model:________________ SRN:__________________
1.3 Bread Board
The breadboard consists of two terminal strips and two bus strips (often broken in the center). The
connections are spaced 0.1 inch apart which is the standard spacing for many semiconductor chips.
These are clustered in groups of five common terminals to allow multiple connections. The
exception is the common strip which may have dozens of connection points. These are called buses
and are designed for power and ground connections. Interconnections are normally made using
small diameter solid hookup wire, usually AWG 22 or 24. Larger gauges may damage the board
while smaller gauges do not always make good connections and are easy to break.
Figure 1.1: Bread Board
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1.4 Analog / Digital Trainer
 Multi-rail DC power supply

 A four range digital volt meter.
 Function generator along with a large area of breadboard.
 Logic switches and LED indicators.
 Bread Board
Figure 1.2: Analog / Digital Lab Trainer
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1.3 Digital Multimeter
Multi Meter is an instrument used to measure current, voltage, resistance etc. Below table
indicate the rotary switch positions
Figure 1.3: Digital Multi Meter
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 DC/AC Voltage Measurement
o Insert red test lead into the V terminal and black test lead into the COM terminal
o Set the rotary switch to V; DC measurement is default or press BLUE button to switch
between DC and AC measurement mode.
o Connect the test lead across with the object being measured. The measured value
shows on the display.
 DC/AC Current Measurement
o When the testing leads are connected to the current terminals, do not parallel them
across any circuit.
o Insert the red test lead into the mA or A input terminal and the black test lead into the
COM terminal.
o Set the rotary switch to A, mA, or A.
o The Meter defaults to DC current measurement mode. To toggle between DC and AC
current measurement function, press BLUE button.
o Connect the test lead in serial to the return circuit to be tested. The measured value
shows on the display.
 Measuring Resistance
o Insert the red test lead into the terminal and the black test lead into the COM terminal.
o Set the rotary switch to resistance measurement (Ω) is default or press BLUE button
to select measurement mode.
o Connect the test leads across with the object being measured. If there is lead on the
resistor. The measured value shows on the display.
 Testing for Continuity
o Insert the red test lead into the Ω terminal and the black test lead into the COM
terminal.
o Set the rotary switch to and press BLUE button to select measurement mode.
o The buzzer sounds continuously if the resistor to be tested is <10 Ω .
o The buzzer does not sound if the resistor to be tested is >35 Ω.
 Testing Diodes
o Insert the red test lead into the Ω terminal and black test lead into the COM terminal
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o Set the red rotary switch to and press BLUE button to select measurement
mode.
o For forward voltage drop reading on any semiconductor component, place the red test
lead on the anode and black lead on the cathode. The measured value shows on the
display.
1.4 DC Power Supply
 This is a triple output DC Power supply.

 You can use the output voltage of 0-30Vdc dual with current rating of 0-3A and fix 5Vdc
with the current rating of 3A.
 Before the connection in circuit adjust the variable voltage, the voltage reading will be
displayed on the screen but verify the voltage using DMM.
Figure 1.4:DC Power Supply
 Measure the voltage between the positive terminal (red) and negative terminal (Black). For
use of positive power supply shorts the negative terminal (Black) and ground terminal
(Green).
 For use of negative power supply shorts the positive terminal (Red) and ground terminal
(Green).
 Limit the current before using the power supply.
 Don’t vary the voltage when the circuit is working.
 You can get two power supplies in series and parallel connection as mark Master and Slave
on it.
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Procedure
 Set the adjustable power supply to 2.2 volts. Use both the Coarse and Fine controls to get
as close to 2.2 volts as possible.
 Record the displayed voltage in the first column of Table below. Using the DMM set to
the DC voltage function, set the range to 20 volts full scale. Measure the voltage at the
ouput jacks of the power supply.
 Be sure to connect the DMM and power supply red lead to red lead, and black lead to black
lead. Record the voltage registered by the DMM in the middle column of. Reset the DMM
to the 200 volt scale, re-measure the voltage, and record in the final column
 Draw diagram of the Bread board here
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Experiment 2
To Study the Resistor Color Code
2.1 Objective
The objective of this exercise is to become familiar with the calculating resistance through
color code and measurement of resistance values using a digital multimeter (DMM).
2.2 Theory Overview
The resistor is perhaps the most fundamental of all electrical devices. Its fundamental
attribute is the restriction of electrical current flow: The greater the resistance, the greater the
restriction of current. Resistance is measured in Ohms. The measurement of resistance in
unpowered circuits may be performed with a digital multimeter. Like all components,
resistors cannot be manufactured to perfection. That is, there will always be some variance
of the true value of the component when compared to its nameplate or nominal value. For
precision resistors, typically 1% tolerance or better, the nominal value is usually printed
directly on the component. Normally, general purpose components, i.e. those worse than 1%,
usually use a color code to indicate their value.
The resistor color code typically uses 4 color bands. The first two bands indicate the precision
values (i.e. the mantissa) while the third band indicates the power of ten applied (i.e. the
number of zeroes to add). The fourth band indicates the tolerance. It is possible to find
resistors with five or six bands but they will not be examined in this exercise. Examples are
shown below:It is important to note that the physical size of the resistor indicates its power
dissipation rating, not its ohmic value. Each color in the code represents a numeral.
0 Black 1 Brown 2 Red 3 Orange 4 Yellow
5 Green 6 Blue 7 Violet 8 Gray 9 White
For the fourth, or tolerance, band:

5% Gold 10% Silver 20% None
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Fig 2.1 Resistors color code chart
For example, a 470 k 5% resistor would have the color code yellow-violet-yellow-gold.
Measurement of resistors with a DMM is a very straight forward process. Simply set the
DMM to the resistance function and choose the first scale that is higher than the expected
value. Clip the leads to the resistor and record the resulting value.
2.3 Equipment
1. Digital Multimeter
2. Resistance (10 Nos)
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2.4 Procedure
1. Given the nominal values and tolerances in Table 2.1, determine and record the
corresponding color code bands.
2. Given the color codes in Table 2.2, determine and record the nominal value, tolerance and
the minimum and maximum acceptable values.
3. Obtain random resistor of any value. Determine the minimum and maximum acceptable
values based on the nominal value and tolerance using color coding. Record these values
in Table 2.3. Using the DMM, measured the actual value of the resistor and record it in
Table 2.3. Determine the deviation percentage of this component and record it in Table 2.3.
The deviation percentage may be found via: Deviation = 100 * (measured-
nominal)/nominal. Circle the deviation if the resistor is out of tolerance.
4. Repeat Step 3 for the remaining 10 resistors.
Table 2.1
Value Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4
27 @ 10%
56 @ 10%
180 @ 5%
390 @ 10%
680 @ 5%
1.5 k @ 20%
3.6 k @ 10%
7.5 k @ 5%
10 k @ 5%
47 k @ 10%
820 k @ 10%
2.2 M @ 20 %
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Table 2.2
Colors Nominal Tolerance Minimum Maximum
red-red-black-silver
blue-gray-black-gold
brown-green-brown-gold
orange-orange-brown-silver
green-blue-brown –gold
brown-red-red–silver
red-violet-red–silver
gray-red-red–gold
brown-black-orange–gold
orange-orange-orange–silver
blue-gray-yellow–none
green-black-green-silver
Table 2.3
Resistor Value Minimum Maximum Measured Deviation
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2.5 Questions
1. What is the largest deviation in Table 3.3? Would it ever be possible to find a value that is
outside the stated tolerance? Why or why not?
2. If Steps 3 and 4 were to be repeated with another batch of resistors, would the final two
columns be identical to the original Table 3.3? Why or why not?
3. Do the measured values of Table 3.3 represent the exact values of the resistors tested? Why
or why not?
2.6 Conclusion
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Experiment 3
Verification of Ohm’s Law
3.1 Objective
This exercise examines Ohm’s law, one of the fundamental laws governing electrical circuits. It
states that voltage is equal to the product of current times resistance.
3.2 Theory Overview

Ohm’s law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the voltage across the two points.
3.3 Equipment
DMM
Digital Trainer
Resistors 03 Nos: 470 Ω resistor, 1 kΩ resistor. 3.3 kΩ resistor
3.4 Procedure
1. Using color code find the value of each resistor and then measure using DMM and record
in table below.
Color Codes Tolerance Value Measured Values
(Using Color Codes) (Using DMM)
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2. Build the circuit of Figure 3.1 using the 470 Ω resistor. Set the DMM to measure DC
current and insert it in-line between the source and resistor. Set the source for zero volts.
Measure and record the current in Table 3.1. Note that the theoretical current is 0 and any
measured value other than 0 would produce an undefined percent deviation.
Figure 3.1
3. Setting E at 2 volts, determine the theoretical current based on Ohm’s law and record this
in Table 3.1. Measure the actual current, determine the deviation, and record these in Table
3.1. Note that Deviation = 100 * (measured – theory) / theory.
4. Repeat step 3 for the remaining source voltages and record values in table 3.1.
Table 3.1 (470 Ω)

E (volts) I theoretical (mA) I measured (mA) Deviation (mA)
10
12
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5. Remove the 470 Ω and replace it with the 1 kΩ. Repeat steps 2 through 4 and record values
in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 (1 KΩ)
10
12
6. Remove the 1 KΩ and replace it with the 3.3 kΩ. Repeat steps 2 through 4 and record
values in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 (3.3 KΩ)
10
12
7. Using the measured data from Tables 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, create a plot of current versus
voltage. Then plot all three curves on the same graph. Voltage is the horizontal axis and
current is the vertical axis.
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3.5 Questions
1. Does Ohm’s Law appear to hold in this exercise?
2. Is there a linear relationship between current and voltage?
3. What is the relationship between the slope of the plot line and the circuit resistance?
3.6 Conclusion
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Experiment 4
Verification of KVL and Series Resistive Circuit

4.1 Objective
The focus of this exercise is an examination of basic series DC circuits with resistors. A key
element is Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law which states that the sum of voltage rises around a loop must
equal the sum of the voltage drops. The voltage divider rule will also be investigated.
4.2 Theory Overview

A series circuit is defined by a single loop in which all components are arranged in daisy-chain
fashion. The current is the same at all points in the loop and may be found by dividing the total
voltage source by the total resistance. The voltage drops across any resistor may then be found by
multiplying that current by the resistor value. Consequently, the voltage drops in a series circuit
are directly proportional to the resistance.
4.3 Equipment
 DMM
 Digital Trainer
 Resistors 03 Nos: 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ. 3.3 kΩ
4.4 Procedure
1. Circuit Resistance:
a. Find value of each resistor using color code and then using DMM, name lowest
value as R1 and onward.
R1 (Color Code)=__________________ R1 (DMM):___________________
R2 (Color Code)=__________________ R2 (DMM):____________________
R3 (Color Code)=__________________ R3 (DMM):____________________
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b. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure 4.1. Calculate the total Resistance using
formula 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 , Use lowest resistance as R1 and onward.
𝑅𝑇 = _______________Ω
c. Now, connect DMM at point A & B and measure total resistance of the series circuit
𝑅𝑇 = _______________Ω
Figure 4.1 Series Resistive Circuit

d. Comments about the Resistance connected in series.
2. Circuit Voltage: Connect circuit as in fig. 4.2 and apply 15 VDC.

a. Connect circuit in such way that R1 =1 kΩ, R2 = 2.2 kΩ. R3 = 3.3 kΩ.
b. Calculate VR1 using voltage divider rule and measure VR1.
Calculation (VDR)
VR1(Calculated) =__________________ V
VR1(measured) =___________________ V
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c. Calculate VR2 using KVL and measure VR2.
Calculation (KVL)
VR2(Calculated) =__________________ V
VR2(measured) =___________________ V
A R1 B
I1 1kΩ
R1
R2 1kΩ
V1 V1
15 V 15 V
R2
C
R3
R3
1kΩ
Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3
d. Calculate VR3 using ohm’s law and measured VR3.

Calculation (Ohm’s Law)
VR3(Calculated) =__________________ V
VR3(measured) =___________________ V
Voltage Theory Measured Deviation
VR1
VR2
VR3
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e. Verify that ∑ 𝑉𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 = ∑ 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝
f. Comment about the voltage in series resistive circuit.
3. Circuit Current:
𝑉
a. Calculate I1, I2, and I3 using Ohm’s law: 𝐼 = 𝑅 (𝐴)
I1 (Calculated)= 𝐼1 = 𝑉1 /𝑅1 =__________________ mA
I2 (Calculated) = 𝐼2 = 𝑉2 /𝑅2 =__________________ mA
I3 (Calculated) = 𝐼3 = 𝑉3 /𝑅3 =__________________ mA
b. Calculate IT using Ohm’s law and measure using DMM as shown in figure 4.3
IT (Calculated)= 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐸/𝑅𝑇 =__________________ mA
IT (measured) =___________________ mA
c. Comments about the Current in series resistive circuit
4. Power in Series Circuit

a. Calculate power delivered by the source:
𝑃 = 𝐸 × 𝐼𝑇 = _________________ mWatt
b. Calculate power dissipation of resistive elements.
𝑃1 = (𝐼1 )2 × 𝑅1 = __________________ mWatt
𝑃2 = (𝐼2 )2 × 𝑅2 = __________________ mWatt
𝑃3 = (𝐼3 )2 × 𝑅3 = __________________ mWatt
c. Verify that 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3
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d. Comments about the power in series circuit
5. Questions
1. For the circuit of Figure 4.2, what is the expected current measurement at point B?
2. In Figure 4.2, R3 is approximately twice the size of R2 and about three times the size of
R1. Would the voltages exhibit the same ratios? Why/why not? What about the currents
through the resistors?
3. If a fourth resistor of 10 kΩ added below R3 in Figure 4.2, how would this alter VAC and
VB? Show work.
4. Is KVL satisfied in Tables of Voltage measurement?
6. Conclusion
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Experiment 5
Verification of KCL and Parallel Resistive Circuit

5.1 Objective
The focus of this exercise is an examination of basic parallel DC circuits with resistors. A key
element is Kirchhoff’s Current Law which states that the sum of currents entering a node must
equal the sum of the currents exiting that node. The current divider rule will also be investigated.
5.2 Theory Overview

A parallel circuit is defined by the fact that all components share two common nodes. The voltage
is the same across all components and will equal the applied source voltage. The total supplied
current may be found by dividing the voltage source by the equivalent parallel resistance. It may
also be found by summing the currents in all of the branches. The current through any resistor
branch may be found by dividing the source voltage by the resistor value. Consequently, the
currents in a parallel circuit are inversely proportional to the associated resistances.
5.3 Equipment
 DMM
 Digital Trainer
 Resistors 03 Nos: 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ. 3.3 kΩ , 6.8 kΩ
5.4 Procedure
a) Using the circuit of Figure 5.1 with R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 2.2 kΩ and E = 8 V, determine the
theoretical voltages at points A, B, and C with respect to ground. Record these values in
Table 5.1. Then measure all voltage using DMM
Table 5.1
Voltage Theoretical Measured
VA
VB
VC
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Figure 5.1
b) Apply Ohm’s law to determine the expected currents through R1 and R2. Record these
values in the Theory column of Table 5.2. Also determine and record the total current.
Then measure current using DMM connecting in series to the resistor.
Table 5.2
Current (mA) Theoretical Value Measured Value Deviation
𝐼𝑅1 = 𝑉1 /𝑅1
𝐼𝑅2 = 𝑉2 /𝑅2
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐸/𝑅𝑇
c) Consider the circuit of Figure 5.2 with R1 = 1 kΩ, R2 = 2.2 kΩ, R3 = 3.3 kΩ, R4 = 6.8 kΩ
and E = 10 volts. Using the Ohm’s law, determine the currents through each of the four
resistors and record the values in Table 5.3 under the Theory column. Note that the larger
the resistor, the smaller the current should be. Also determine and record the total supplied
current and the current Ix. Note that this current should equal the sum of the currents
through R3 and R4.
d) Set the DMM to measure DC current. Place the DMM probes in-line with R1 and measure
its current. Record this value in Table 5.3. Also determine the deviation. Repeat this
process for the remaining three resistors. Also measure the total current supplied by the
source by inserting the ammeter between points A and B.
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Figure 5.2: Parallel Circuit
Table 5.3
Current Theory Measured Deviation
𝐸
𝑰𝑻 𝐼1 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠𝐿𝑎𝑤𝐼𝑇 = =______________
𝑅𝑇
𝑅𝑇
𝑰𝑹𝟏 𝐼1 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐷𝑅 𝐼𝑋 = 𝐼=__________________
𝑅𝑋
𝑉2
𝑰𝑹𝟐 𝐼2 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠𝐿𝑎𝑤𝐼𝑅2 = =_____________
𝑅2
𝑉
𝑰𝑹𝟑 𝐼3 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝑂ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠𝐿𝑎𝑤𝐼𝑅3 = 𝑅3 =_____________
3
𝑰𝑹𝟒 𝐼4 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝐿 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 + 𝐼4=_______
𝑰𝑿 𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 =____________________________
e) To find Ix, insert the ammeter at point X with the black probe closer to R3. Record this
value in Table 5.3 with deviation.
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5.5 Questions
1. For the circuit of Figure 5.1, what is the expected current entering the negative terminal
of the source?
2. For the circuit of Figure 5.2, what is the expected current between points B and C?
3. In Figure 5.2, R4 is approximately twice the size of R3 and about three times the size of
R2. Would the currents exhibit the same ratios? Why/why not?
4. If a fifth resistor of 10 kΩ was added to the right of R4 in Figure 5.2, how would this alter
𝑰𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 and Ix? Show work.
5. Is KCL satisfied in Tables 5.2 and 5.3?
5.6 Conclusion
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Experiment 6
Verification of Thevenin’s theorem
6.1 Objective
At the completion of this experiment, you will be able to simplify one- and two-source circuits by
using Thevenin's theorem.
6.2 Theory Review

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex,
to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected to a load.
The qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in the Superposition Theorem, where all the
underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots). If we’re dealing with passive
components (such as resistors, and later, inductors and capacitors), this is true. However, there are
some components (especially certain gas-discharge and semiconductor components) which are
nonlinear: that is, their opposition to current changes with voltage and/or current. As such, we
would call circuits containing these types of components, nonlinear circuits.
6.3 Equipment
 Dual Power Supply
 Digital Multimeter
 Resistors: 1K, 2.2 kΩ, 1.8 kΩ, 6.8 kΩ
6.4 Procedure
1. Thevenizing a Single Source Network
a) Connect the circuit shown and adjust positive variable supply (Vs) to 10 Vdc.
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b) Which components make(s) up the network to be thevenized?
____________________________________________________
c) Calculate the value of RTH by removing the R3 = RL and short circuiting the voltage
source. Show calculation work here:
Rth = _____________________ Ω
d) Calculate the value of VTH? Show calculation work here:
Vth = _____________________ V
e) Based on your calculated values of VTH and RTH, What is the load resistance (R3) current
also measure the current through R3.
Calculation for IR3
IR3(measured)=____________________
f) Connect R4 in parallel with RL to change the load, measure VRL and then calculate the
Current through load now. Show calculation here
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2. Thevenizing a Dual Source Network
a) Connect the circuit shown and apply VS1 and VS2.
b) R2 is part of the network circuit. Calculate value of RTH?

Show calculation work here:
Rth = _____________________ Ω
c) Short both voltages sources (while removing from the power supply) and measure RTH.
Rth (measured)= _____________________ Ω
d) Calculate the VTH1 and VTH2 and then VTH.

Show calculation work here:
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e) Place VS1 and VS2 back into your circuit. Measure VTH. Is the measured and calculated
value about the same?
f) Calculate and measure VRL and IRL.
VRL = ____________________
IRL = ____________________
g) Draw the thevenin’s equivalent circuit and measure
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6.5 Questions
1. Do the load voltages for the original and Thevenized circuits match for both loads? Is it
logical that this could be extended to any arbitrary load resistance value?
2. Assuming several loads were under consideration, which is faster, analyzing each load
with the original circuit of Figure 6.2 or analyzing each load with the Thevenin
equivalent circuit?
3. How would the Thevenin equivalent computations change if the original circuit contained
more than one voltage source?
6.6 CONCLUSION
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Experiment 7
Introduction to Oscilloscope and AC Wave Form
OBJECTIVE
Completing this you will be able to operate the AC wave form generator. You will verify your
result through oscilloscope.
DISCUSSION
Every generator has output characteristic impedance. The output impedance or source impedance
(Rs) can be viewed as internal resistance placed in series between generator and output
Equipment: Function Generator, Power Supply, DMM and Bread Board

Components: Resistor
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Turn on the Function Generator and set the frequency to 60 Hz with the amplitude of 6VPP.
3. Connecting the Ch1 probe of oscilloscope across R1.
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4. The peak to peak value of the voltage will be displayed on oscilloscope find its peak value.
5. Calculate the RMS value of this waveform.
6. Calculate the Average values of this waveform
7. Remove the oscilloscope probe and measure the voltage using DMM (selecting AC voltage
measurement).
8. DMM measure which one value of the voltage.
CONCLUSION
 Oscilloscope measurement is taken from the top of a peak to the top of a valley to
compensate for thickness of the trace.
 The peak to peak value of an ac waveform is measured from a positive peak to a negative
peak. The peak value s half of peak to peak value.
 The rms value of a sine wave is 0.707 of the peak value.
 The average value of a sine wave is 0.637 of the peak value
Most multimeter displayed the rms value of an ac waveform
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Experiment 8
Determining the Capacitive Reactance in series RC Network
OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this unit, you will be able to determine the characteristics of resistive
capacitive (RC) circuits by using an oscilloscope and given information.
DISCUSSION
 Capacitors pass ac current but present an opposition to current flow in the form of impedance.
The impedance produced by a capacitor is referred to as capacitive reactance (XC) and is
calculated using this equation.
XC = 1 / (2πfC
where XC is the reactance measured in ohms, f is frequency in hertz, C is capacitance in farads,
2 π is a constant that indicates that the equation is valid for sine waves only.
 Capacitive reactance depends on the frequency of the signal and the capacitance.
 Capacitive reactance and circuit capacitance are inversely proportional.
 Capacitive reactance is independent of the amplitude of the applied signal.
Equipment: Function Generator, Power Supply, DMM and Bread Board

Components: Resistor (1.5kΩ) and Capacitor (0.22µF)
PROCEDURE
Part (A) Capacitive Reactance
1. Connect the circuit shown. Apply sinusoidal signal of 5 VPP @ 1 kHz.
1.5kΩ
4 Vpk
1kHz 220nF
0°
2. Calculate XC for the various frequency signals like 500 Hz and 1, 2 KHz.
3. Measure the current passing through the series circuit.
4. Measure the Voltage across the capacitor using DMM.
5. Calculate XC using voltage and current formula.
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Part (B) Series RC Circuits
1. Connect the circuit shown.
1.5kΩ
4 Vpk
1kHz 220nF
0°
2. Measure the current flowing through the series circuit IRMS using DMM.
3. Calculate the rms value of the applied voltage.
4. Calculate the practical value of the circuit Impedance using Z = V /I.
5. Calculate the capacitive reactance.
6. Calculate the theoretical value of Impedance.
CONCLUSION
 Capacitive Reactance (Xc) can be calculated or measured.
 Capacitive reactance depends on the value of capacitance and on the frequency of the applied
signal.
 Capacitive reactance is independent of the amplitude of the applied signal.
 In a series RC circuit the circuit impedance is not equal to the sum of the total resistance (RT)
and a capacitive reactance (XCT) but is equal to the square root of the sum of the square of
(RT) and XCT
 The circuit impedance of a series RC circuit is equal to the applied generator voltage divided
by the total circuit current
 The square root of the sum of the square of the voltage drops in a series RC circuit equals the
amplitude of the applied signal
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Experiment 9:
I-V Characteristics of Silicon Diode
9.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab are:
• to connect a diode in a typical circuit
• to draw the characteristic curves of the diode
9.2 Background
Diode characteristic curves graph the current flow versus applied voltage. The right side of the
graph shows the diode operating in the forward bias condition. The left portion of the graph
illustrates the reverse bias condition. Voltage and current scales on the characteristic curve vary
by region, ranging from milliamps to Pico amps or milli volts to volts. Forward voltages below the
barrier voltage will not forward bias the diode. In silicon diodes, conduction begins when the
forward voltage reaches between 0.5 and 0.7V. Germanium diodes require a forward voltage of
about 0.3V. Once forward voltage produces conduction, small increases in voltage produce large
current increases. This nearly constant voltage is called the forward voltage drop (VF). Reverse
biased diodes will have very small current flows. The current flow is due to the presence of
minority carriers and is referred to as leakage current. Breakdown voltage is the reverse voltage
that causes large current flow through reverse biased diodes. The current can be large enough to
damage the diode. In general, for calculations, the forward voltage drop of a silicon diode is 0.6V,
and 0.3V for a germanium diode. Forward resistance is the ratio of the increase in voltage drop
divided by the increase in forward current. Since forward resistance, or dynamic forward
resistance, of a diode is very small, a resistor is included in the circuit to prevent damage to the
diode. The highest current value that can pass through the diode without causing damage is referred
to as maximum forward current (IF(max)). Ohmmeters cannot accurately measure the resistance of
a diode junction therefore; diode junctions are tested by checking for continuity only. A forward
biased junction will register a very low resistance indicating continuity. A reverse biased junction,
or damaged diode, will indicate a very high resistance or an overload, indicating a lack of
continuity. Included in this exercise are instructions for testing diodes with the following meters.
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9.3 Pre-Lab
Reading of lecture notes about diode characteristics
Read the lecture notes on diode characteristics.
9.4 Equipment
• 2 Diodes 1N4007
• 2 resistors of 1KΩ
• Multimeter
• Oscilloscope
9.5 Procedure
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 9.1.

1. Check meter reading while selecting Ohms Scale of Your Multimeter
Figure 9.1: Reverse biased impedance checking.
2. Your meter reading indicates that the diode is forward bias or Reverse Bias.
3. Reverse the meter probes than your meter reading indicates that diode is Conducting.
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2 below and adjust VA to negative 10.00 VDC.
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Figure 9.2: Forward and reverse biasing of diodes.
1. Measure the voltage across R1: VR1 = _________________

2. Measure the voltage across R2: VR2= _________________
3. Current flow Through D1 or D2? Explain Why?
Connect the circuit as shown in figure below and adjust VA to positive 10 Vdc.
4. Measure the voltage across R1: VR1 = _________________

5. Measure the voltage across R2: VR2= _________________
6. Current flow Through D1 or D2? Explain Why?
7. Using Ohm’s law, find the current through R2: IR2= _________________
Perform the following steps to draw the characteristics of a diode

1. Disconnect the Diode D1. Adjust VA to -20 Vdc.
2. Note down the current ID through R2 and voltage across the diode (D2 here).
3. Complete the four columns of Table 2.1 by adjusting the VA accordingly.
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9.6 Lab Report
A typeset (not hand-written), group lab report (not exceeding 5 pages including title page) is
required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the Lab.
9.7 Results
Table 2.1: Current profile of the diode against different voltages.
VA (Volts) VR2 ID2 VD2 ID2 = VR2 / R2 VD = VA – VR2
-20
-15
-10
- 5
0
0.25
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2
5
7.5
10
 Sketch a graph between VD and ID2.
 Now verify measured results by completing the last columns of the above table
computationally.
 Plot the computed values of the VD and ID2 on the same graph.
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Experiment 10:
Implementation of Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit
10.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab is:
• to develop and analyze a half wave rectifier using a diode
10.2 Background
Half-wave rectification converts an AC signal to a pulsating dc output. The circuit consists
of a diode and a load resistance. Either positive or negative pulsating dc output can be produced,
depending on the way the diode is connected to the circuit. Rectification is the process of
converting ac to dc. Half-wave rectification occurs when conduction is for only one half of every
ac cycle. DC output can be significantly lower than the ac input since the forward voltage drop of
the diode must be reached before conduction occurs and voltage appears across the load. Half-
wave rectification will be observed on an oscilloscope. Oscilloscope voltage measurements are
peak-to-peak; therefore, the following conversion factor is used to convert the observed peak
voltages to their corresponding average and rms values.
V0( pk )
For average voltage: V0( avg) 

V0( pk )
For rms voltage: V0( rms) 
2
Variations in the pulsating dc output of a half-wave rectifier are referred to as ripple. Half-wave
voltage rectifiers have ripple that is the same frequency as the input voltage frequency. The reverse
recovery time (tRR) of the diode can have an adverse affect on the output of a half-wave rectifier
at frequencies larger than 1 kHz. Reverse recovery time causes an output voltage pulse in a
direction opposite that of the normal half-wave pulse.
10.3 Pre-Lab
Read the lecture notes about the half wave rectification using diode. Calculate the output voltage
theoretically using constant voltage drop model and draw waveform of the following circuits to
compare it with the practical results.
10.4 Equipment
• 2 Diodes 1N4007
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• 2 resistors of 1KΩ
• Multimeter
• Oscilloscope
10.5 Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure. Disconnect D2 branch.
Fig. 3A.1: Half wave rectification (D1 and D2 for positive and negative phase rectifications,
respectively)
2. Set the generator for a 1000 Hz sine wave with a minimum input signal (VI) of
approximately 0 V.
3. Use oscilloscope DC coupling and set the calibrated vertical sensitivity of channel to 50 mV.
4. Use the channel one of oscilloscope for ac input of the circuit.
5. Now adjust the generator for a 2 VPP input signal.
6. Observe the waveform across D1 with reference to the input ac signal.
7. Observe the waveform across R1 with reference to the input ac signal.
8. Write down the reason that why there is no positive half wave from D1 during the positive
swing of input signal?
9. Now connect D2 branch and disconnect D1 branch.

10. Observe the waveform across D2 with reference to the input ac signal.
11. Observe the waveform across R2 with reference to the input ac signal.
12. Write down the reason that why there is no negative half cycle from D2 during the negative
swing of input signal?
13. On the oscilloscope screen measure the peak voltage of the positive dc pulsating output
signal.
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VO(p)= _________________
14. What is a difference between the ac input signal positive peak voltage (1 Vp) and the output
signal peak voltage, measure in above step?
V = _________________
15. Increase the input signal to 4VPP. Measure the VO(p) and find its difference from the ac input
signal positive peak voltage (2 Vp).
VO(p)= _________________ V = _________________
16. Adjust the generator for a peak output voltage VO(p) of 3 Vdc.
17. Calculate the average output voltage.
VO(avg)= _________________
18. Using DMM measure the average dc voltage across R2.
VO(avg)= _________________
10.6 Lab Report

required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the Lab.
10.7 Results
1. Draw the output waveforms observed at R1 and D1 along with the input signal.
2. Draw the output waveforms observed at R2 and D2 along with the input signal.
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Experiment 11:
Implementation of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit
11.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab is:
• to develop and analyze a full wave bridge rectifier using diodes
11.2 Background
A full-wave rectifier converts positive and negative alternations of an ac signal into a pulsating dc
signal, as shown above.
A full-wave bridge rectifier is a circuit that performs full-wave rectification. The input to the
bridge rectifier circuit is usually the secondary coil of a power transformer. The transformer
isolates the bridge rectifier from the ac source and serves to step up (increase) or step down
(decrease) the ac input to the bridge rectifier.
Diode bridges contain four diodes, designated D1 through D4, configured so that two diodes
conduct during each half-cycle of the input ac signal and produce a pulsating dc output.
The pulsating dc output flows through the load resistance in one direction, independent of which
ac cycle the current is derived. Two input terminals, usually labeled with a sine wave symbol, and
two output terminals, labeled with positive and negative symbols, are present on the bridge
rectifier. Diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased during the positive half-cycle of the ac input signal.
Diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased during the negative half-cycle of the ac input signal. Each
diode pair conducts for one half-cycle of the ac input signal, resulting in full-wave rectification.
Since there are two dc pulses for one complete cycle of the input ac waveform, the output pulse
frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice the ac input frequency. The following relationships apply
to full-wave diode bridge rectifiers. Peak output voltage (Vo(pk)) equals the peak input voltage
(Vi(pk)) minus the forward voltage drop (VF) of the two conducting diodes.
 Vo(pk) = Vi(pk) − 2VF
Output rms voltage (Vo(rms) ) equals 0.707 times the peak output voltage.
 Vo(rms) = 0.707 x Vo(pk)
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Output average (Vo(avg)) voltage equals 0.636 times the peak output voltage.
 Vo(avg) = 0.636 x Vo(pk)
11.3 Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below.
2. Adjust the generator for a 20 Vpp, 100 Hz Sine wave at the T1 secondary coil.
3. Compare the transformer secondary peak to peak voltage with primary voltage and check
that both signals are inphase.
4. Use the step up transformer that adjusts secondary voltage of 20 voltage when primary
voltages are 16 peak to peak voltages.
5. Observe the output across R1 by connecting the oscilloscope probe on the (+) output test
point of the bridge rectifier.
6. Measure the frequency of the dc output pulsations across the load resistor R1.
f=_____________ Hz
7. Measure the peak dc out put voltage.
VO(p)= _________________
8. Find the conduction angle, fraction of a cycle for which each diode conducts, Vavg and Iavg.
Verify your results experimentally.
Conduction Angle = _____________ Fraction of a Cycle = _____________
Vavg = _____________ Iavg = _____________
9. Now measure the dc voltage using DMM.

VO(avg)= _________________
10. What is difference between transformer secondary coil voltage and output voltage? State the
reason of difference?
11. During the positive and negative half cycle of the wave form observe the output across D2.
12. Draw the wave form of voltage that you observe on oscilloscope of input and across D2.
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13. When D2 is conducting, measure VD2 with reference to ground.
V(D2)= _________________
14. When D2 is forward bias which another one Diode is also forward bias.
11.4 Lab Report

required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the DEE office.
11.5 Results
Draw the waveforms as obtained in the last section.
11.6 Conclusion
A full wave diode bridge rectifier converts both phases of an ac input voltage to pulsating dc output
voltage. The output dc ripple frequency is two times the ac input frequency. The four diodes that
form a full wave bridge rectifier are paired so that current flows in only two diodes at a time. The
two conducting diodes steer the voltage so that the load current is always in the same direction.
The peak dc output voltage is less than the peak ac input voltage by the forward voltage drop of
the two conducting diodes. The average voltage is 0.636 times the peak output voltage.
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Experiment 12:
Design a DC Power Supply
12.1 Objectives
The purpose of the experiment is to design a different DC regulated power supply delivering up to
1A of current to the load. Also to determine the load regulation and efficiency of the regulated
power supply
12.2 Theory
 Every electronic circuit is designed to operate off of supply voltage, which is usually
constant.
 A regulated power supply provides this constant DC output voltage and continuously
holds the output voltage at the design value regardless of changes in load current or input
voltage.
 The power supply contains a rectifier, filter, and regulator.
The rectifier changes the AC input voltage to pulsating DC voltage.
 The filter section removes the ripple component and provides an unregulated DC voltage
to the regulator section.
 The regulator is designed to deliver a constant voltage to the load under varying circuit
conditions.
 The two factors that can cause the voltage across the load to vary are fluctuations in input
voltage and changes in load current requirements.
 Load regulation is a measurement of power supply, showing its capacity to maintain a
constant voltage across the load with changes in load current.
 Line regulation is a measurement of power supply, showing its capacity to maintain a
constant output voltage with changes in input voltage.
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12.3 Design
 Design a 5 V DC regulated power supply to deliver up to 1A of current to the load with
5% ripple.
o The input supply is 50Hz at 230 V AC.
 Selection of Voltage regulator IC:
Fixed voltage linear IC regulators are available in a variation of voltages ranging from -
24V to +24V. The current handling capacity of these ICs ranges from 0.1A to 3A.
Positive fixed voltage regulator ICs have the part number as 78XX.
The design requires 5V fixed DC voltage, so 7805 regulator IC rated for 1A of output
current is selected.
 Selection of Bypass Capacitors:
The data sheet on the 7805 series of regulators states that for best stability, the input
bypass capacitor should be 0.33µF. The input bypass capacitor is needed even if the filter
capacitor is used. The large electrolytic capacitor will have high internal inductance and
will not function as a high frequency bypass; therefore, a small capacitor with good high
frequency response is required. The output bypass capacitor improves the transient
response of the regulator and the data sheet recommends a value of 0.1µF.
 Dropout voltage
The dropout voltage for any regulator states the minimum allowable difference between
output and input voltages if the output is to be maintained at the correct level. For 7805,
the dropout voltage at the input of the regulator IC is Vo +2.5 V. Vdropout = 5 + 2.5 = 7.5V
 Selection of Filter Capacitor:
The filter section should have a voltage of at least 7.5V as input to regulator IC.
That is Vdc = 7.5 V
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 Selection of Diodes:
1N4007 diodes are used as it is capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage, PIV of
1000V whereas 1N4001 has PIV of 50V.
 Selection of Transformer:
Maximum unregulated voltage, Vunreg(max) = Vdropout + Vr =
Two diodes conduct in the full-wave bridge rectifier, therefore peak of the secondary
voltage must be two diode drops higher than the peak of the unregulated DC.
Vsec(peak) = Vunreg(max) + 1.4V = ___________________
Vsec(rms) = 0.707 x Vsec(peak) = _______________________
The power supply is designed to deliver 1A of load current, so the secondary winding of
the transformer needs to be rated for 1A.
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12.4 Circuit Diagram
12.5 PRACTICE PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.
2. Apply 230V AC from the mains supply.
3. Observe the following waveforms using oscilloscope
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12.6 Result and Conclusion
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______
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Experiment 13:
BJT Voltage Divider Biasing and DC Load Line
OBJECTIVE
At the completion of this experiment, you will be able to demonstrate the operation of a
common emitter transistor amplifier circuit by using calculated and measured circuit
conditions. You will be able to determine the dc operating conditions of a common emitter
(CE) transistor circuit by using a typical CE circuit
FUNDAMENTALS
The emitter terminal is common to the input and output signals of the common emitter
(CE) transistor circuit.
The ac output signal of a CE circuit is 180º out of phase with the ac input signal.
After a base-emitter voltage (VBE) of about 0.6 Vdc, the base current (IB) increases
very rapidly. The transistor circuit ac and dc load lines intersect at the Q-point on the
collector current characteristic curves.
A voltage divider circuit uses a single dc power supply to provide a constant base
terminal voltage for the CE transistor. The CE circuit has high current, voltage, and
power gains. The input and output impedances are high.
Beta - the symbol used for the ratio of the dc collector current to the dc base current.
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DISCUSSION
The emitter terminal is common to both the input and output signals.
Base voltage (VB) can be calculated from the voltage divider equation.
Ohm’s law is used to calculate the emitter current (IE).
The emitter current and collector current (IC) are nearly equal. The exact collector
current can be found by subtracting the base current from the emitter current.
Current gain is the ratio of dc collector current to base current. Dc current gain is
represented by beta (βdc) or hFE and usually ranges in value between 10 and 500.
Design criteria for a common emitter circuit specify a collector voltage (VC) about
halfway between the power supply voltage (V A) and the emitter voltage (VE).
The saturation point occurs when the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is zero and
collector current is maximum (IC(SAT)).
Cuff off occurs when collector current is approximately zero.
The area on a transistor characteristic curve between saturation and cutoff is called
the active region.
The Q-point of a transistor is determined by its dc bias conditions. Q-point is the
where the dc load line intersects the base current, collector current, and the
collector-emitter voltage Curves.
The ideal location of the Q-point is at the midpoint of the dc load line.
PROCEDURE
19. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
20. Adjust Supply Voltage to 15 Vdc.

21. Calculate the base voltage (VB) of Q1.
VB = (VA) (R2 / R1+ R2)
22. Measure the base voltage with reference to the ground.
23. Does your measured and calculated values agreed.
24. Measure Collector Voltage (VC)
25. Measure the emitter voltage (VE) with reference to ground.
26. Do your measured values indicate that base emitter junction is forward bias and
base collector junction is reverse biased?
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27. Is the transistor operating in its active region?
28. Calculate the dc emitter current.
IE = VE / R5
29. Calculate the Collector current.
IC = (VA - VC) / R4
30. Are the emitter and collector currents are essentially the equal?
31. The operating point, or Q-point, is determined by the dc bias conditions of the
transistor. Using the voltage measured previously what is VCE.
32. Sketch the dc load line graph. (the graph will be between IC & VCE)
33. What is the value of VCE (Cutt Off)?
34. What is the IC(sat) Saturation?
35. Is the transistor properly biased
CONCLUSION
 A voltage divider circuit provides a constant dc base voltage that properly biased
the transistor.
 The emitter current is the sum of base and collector currents.
 Because the base current is very small, the emitter and collector currents are
essentially the equal
 For proper transistor operation is the active region, the base emitter junction is
forward biased, and the base collector junction is reverse biased.
 The dc load line describes the relationship between the collector current and the
collector- emitter voltage difference.
 The Q-point on the dc load line is at the intersection of the operating collector
current and the collector emitter voltage.
 The intersection of the dc load line and y-axis is the saturation point; the
intersection of the dc load line and x-axis is the cut-off point (Zero currents).
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Experiment 14:
BJT Common Emitter Characteristics
Objectives
To plot the characteristics curves of a BJT transistor in Common Emitter (CE) configuration.
Background
At the completion of this experiment, you will be able to test transistors and demonstrate a
transistor switch by using PNP and NPN transistor circuits. When you have completed this
exercise, you will be able to test a transistor by forward biasing and reverse biasing the junctions.
When another section of P or N type material is added to a PN diode junction, a three-section

device containing two junctions is formed. This three-section semiconductor device is a bipolar
transistor. The three sections are the emitter (E) and collector (C) on the ends and the base (B) in
the middle.
Transistors are classified by the arrangement of the P (positive) and N (negative) type materials.
Transistors are either PNP or NPN types, as shown. Each of the two PN junctions of a transistor
has forward and reverse voltage/current characteristics similar to a diode PN junction.
Q is the letter used to identify a transistor. The emitter arrows in the NPN and PNP transistor
symbols show the direction of conventional current flow. Electron current flow, which is in the
opposite direction of conventional current flow, is used in this course.
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The PNP transistor shown has the base and collector terminals negative with respect to the emitter
terminal. Because the negative (N) base material has a more negative voltage than the emitter, the
PN junction is forward biased and permits current to flow from the base to the emitter. The current
arrows indicate electron current flow. The base current permits collector current to flow to the
emitter because the collector is more negative than the emitter.
The NPN transistor shown has the base and collector terminals positive with respect to the emitter
terminal. Because the positive (P) base material has a more positive voltage than the emitter, the
PN junction is forward biased and permits current to flow from the emitter to the base. The base
current permits collector current from the emitter because the collector is more positive than the
emitter.
A transistor is a current-controlling device; the base-emitter junction has to be forward biased for
transistor current to flow. A small change in base current causes a large change in collector
current; this transistor property is current gain. The emitter current is the sum of the base and
collector currents: IE = IB + IC
BJTs are used to amplify current, using a small base current to control a large current between the
collector and the emitter. This amplification is so important that one of the most noted parameters
of transistors is the dc current gain, β, which is the ratio of collector current to base current: IC =
β∙IB. In this lab you will measure several such parameters, discussed in paragraphs below.
The terminology for transistors includes a lot of subscripts. Generally, the subscripts mean:
C → Collector
E → Emitter
B → Base
So, VCE is the collector-emitter voltage; VBE is the base-emitter voltage; and IB is the base current.
One relationship to keep in mind is that IC is always less than IE. In fact, IE = IC + IB.
Three configurations for connecting bipolar junction transistors are common-base, common-
emitter, and common-collector. A large number of transistor circuits use the BJT connected in the
common-emitter (CE) or grounded-emitter configuration. In the CE configuration, the input
current and output voltage are the independent variables, while the input voltage and output current
are the dependent variables.
In this experiment, the input and output characteristics of a transistor will be measured. The
output characteristics, often called the collector characteristics, are plots of IC versus VCE at
constant values of IB and have 3 basic regions of transistor operation. These regions are the
cutoff, the active, and the saturated regions. If a BJT transistor is to be used as an amplifier, it
will usually be operated in the active region, where the relationship between the input current, IB,
and the output current, IC, is nearly linear; that is, IC = β∙IB, where β is the gain. If the transistor is
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to be used in digital circuitry, it will be operated in the saturated or cutoff conditions and will
only be in the active region when switching from one condition to the other.
Pre-Lab
A hand-written, group lab report is required with simulation results at the time of lab. The
completed lab report is due at the time of next lab.
Equipment
o Dual DC supply
o 1 NPN BJT: 2N3904
o 2 Resistors: 1K and 15K each
o Multimeter
Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below.
2. User 1k Ohm resistance at the collector and 15K Ohm resistance at the base.
3. Set VBE to 0.5V and measure IB.
4. Change the values of VCE as per the table below and measure the corresponding values of
IC.
5. Repeat the last two steps for VBE = 0.6V, 0.7V, 0.75V and complete the table.
6. Plot the Input Characteristic curves (IB Vs VBE for each VCE = 2.5, 5, 8, 12).
7. Plot the Output Characteristic curves (IC Vs VCE for each VBE).
8. Conclude the results in your own words.
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Lab Report
required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the DEE office.
Results
S.no. VCE VBE = 0.5V . VBE = 0.6V . VBE = 0.7V . VBE = 0.75V .
IB = ______ IB = ______ IB = ______ IB = ______
IC IC IC IC
1 0.0
2 0.25
3 0.5
4 1.5
5 2.0
6 2.5
7 3.0
8 3.5
9 4.0
10 4.5
11 5.0
12 5.5
13 6.0
14 8.0
15 10.0
16 12.0
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Experiment 15-16:
Applications of Operational Amplifier
Objectives
To study the Operational amplifier as inverting, non-inverting, Adder, Subtractor and Comparator
Background
Components and Equipments required:
IC741,
Regulated DC power supply (2),
Resistors (10 k, 1k, )
Multimeter, Signal generator, Oscilloscope, Bread board and connecting wires.
Theory:
The Operational amplifier (Op-amp) is a high gain, direct coupled, differential amplifier with high
input resistance & low output resistance. It is named so as it can be used to perform a number of
mathematical operations, like addition, subtraction, comparison etc.
 A circuit in which the output voltage is sum of the inputs is called an adder.
 A circuit in which the output voltage is difference between the inputs is called a subtractor.
 A circuit which compares an input with a reference voltage is called a comparator.
 A circuit in which the output voltage is the same as the input is called a non-invertor.
 A circuit in which the output voltage is inverted is called an invertor.
Task 1: Inverting Amplifier Configuration

 Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
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Rf
1kΩ
VCC
12V
7 1 5
U1
3
6
R1 2
V1 1kΩ
4 LM741H
2.12 Vrms
VEE
1kHz
-12V
0°
 Apply the +12V VCC and -12V VEE at 7th and 4th terminal respectively.
 Apply input ac signal of 3VP at inverting terminal.
 Observed the input and output waveform on oscilloscope.
 Derive the voltage gain formula and calculate it.
Task 2: Non Inverting Amplifier Configuration

Rf
1kΩ
VCC
V1 12V
7 1 5
2.12 Vrms U1
1kHz 3
0° 6
R1 2
1kΩ
4 LM741H
VEE
-12V
 Apply the +12V VCC and -12V VCE at 7th and 4th terminal respectively.
 Apply input ac signal of 3VP at non inverting terminal.
Task 3: Inverting Adder Configuration
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Task 4: Non Inverting Adder Configuration

Task 5: Subtractor Configuration
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Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
Task 6: Comparitor Configuration

Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
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14.4 Result:
Complete the following table for each of the above tasks
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Annex-I
PIEAS Vision Statement

It is the vision of PIEAS to be recognized at the national and international level as an Institute of academic
excellence with high moral and ethical values, providing synergy between scientific research and
technological development for national security and socio-economic benefits, encouraging and fostering an
environment of mutual respect and free exchange of thoughts, where lack of resources on part of deserving
students is not an impediment to acquiring quality education.
PIEAS Mission Statement

PIEAS is committed to excellence in science and engineering education. We seek to impart education in
fields which are essential for the technological development of Pakistan and, in particular, to play a
pioneering role in fostering the establishment of educational programs in newly emerging technological
fields in the country. We accord the highest priority to meeting the current and future trained manpower
needs of PAEC and other technical organizations.
We aim to provide a learning environment that fully stimulates the students' intellectual capabilities and
also nurtures their personal development as future technological leaders. We are committed to ensuring the
highest quality in all our endeavors, encompassing teaching, research, skills and developmental activities
through an effective overarching quality enhancement framework.
66 | P a g e
Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs)
 PLO1. Engineering Knowledge: An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
 PLO2. Problem Analysis: An ability to identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
 PLO3. Design/Development of Solutions: An ability to design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design systems, components or processes that meet specified needs with appropriate
consideration for public health and safety, cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
 PLO4. Investigation: An ability to investigate complex engineering problems in a methodical way
including literature survey, design and conduct of experiments analysis and interpretation of
experimental data, and synthesis of information to derive valid conclusions.
 PLO5. Modern Tool Usage: An ability to create, select and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modeling, to complex
engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.
 PLO6. The Engineer and Society: An ability to apply reasoning informed by contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to professional engineering practice and solution to complex engineering
problems.
 PLO7. Environment and Sustainability: An ability to understand the impact of professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts and demonstrate knowledge of and
need for sustainable development.
 PLO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of engineering practice.
 PLO9. Individual and Team Work: An ability to work effectively, as an individual or in a team,
on multifaceted and /or multidisciplinary settings.
 PLO10. Communication: An ability to communicate effectively, orally as well as in writing, on
complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as
being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
 PLO11. Project Management: An ability to demonstrate management skills and apply
engineering principles to one’s own work, as a member and/or leader in a team, to manage projects
in a multidisciplinary environment.
 PLO12. Lifelong Learning: Ability to recognize importance of, and pursue lifelong learning in
the broader context of innovation and technological developments.
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Annex – II
Knowledge Domain
COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE PSYCHOMOTOR

DOMAIN DOMAIN DOMAIN
C1 Knowledge A1 Receiving P1 Perception
C2 Comprehension A2 Responding P2 Set
C3 Application A3 Valuing P3 Guided
Response
C4 Analysis A4 Organization P4 Mechanism
C5 Synthesis A5 Characterization P5 Complex Overt
by a Value or Response
Value Complex
C6 Evaluation P6 Adaptation
P7 Origination
68 | P a g e
Annex – III
Lab Rubrics
CL 1 5
Criterion 2 3 4
O (Very (Very
(Points) (Weak) (Moderate) (Strong)
No. Weak) Strong)
 Pre-lab tasks  Pre-lab tasks
 Pre-lab tasks
 Pre-lab tasks partially  Pre-lab tasks completed
completed
Pre-Lab not completed partially neatly and
with
(5 Points) completed with completed
mistakes
with no
mistakes mistakes
 Set-up of  Set-up of  Set-up of  All  All

equipment is equipment is equipment is equipment equipment
not accurate, generally generally accurately accurately
help is workable accurate with placed placed, very
required with with several 1 or 2 small neat and
several details that details that  Can used the organized
major details need need tools and
Set-up and refinement refinement instruments  Can use the
Equipment  Often with some tools and
Use requires help  Sometimes  Requires help help by the instruments
(5 Points) from the requires help from the instructor without
instructor to from the instructor to guide from
use the tools instructor use the tools the instructor
and and
1 instruments instruments
 Lacks the  Demonstrates  Demonstrates  Demonstrates  Demonstrates

appropriate general good sound very good
knowledge knowledge knowledge knowledge knowledge
of the lab of lab of the lab of lab of the lab
procedures procedures procedures procedures procedures
 Often  Requires help  Will ask  Will discuss  Gladly helps

requires help from peers for with peers to other
from the instructor help with solve students to
Following instructor to with some problems in problems in follow
Procedure even steps in lab procedures procedures
(10 Points) complete procedures procedures
basic  Carefully  Thoroughly
procedures  Works to follows each and carefully
follow each step follows each
step before step before
moving on to moving on to
the next step next step
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CL 1 5
Criterion 2 3 4
O (Very (Very
No. Weak) Strong)
 Unable to  Can perform  Can perform  Perform  Preform
design the required required required required
required calculations calculations calculations, calculations,
Design circuit and design and design design and design and
circuit with circuit analyze analyze the
(20 Points) errors circuit with required
minor circuit
omissions
 Measurement  Measurement  Measurement  Measurement  Measurement

s are s are s are mostly s are s are both
incomplete, somewhat accurate accurate with accurate and
inaccurate inaccurate reasonable precise
and and very  Observations precision
imprecise imprecise are generally  Observations
complete  Observations are very
Data  Observations  Observations are thorough thorough and
Collection are are  Work is may
(20 Points) incomplete incomplete organized recognize
or not or recorded possible
2
included in a errors in data
confusing collection
way
 Proper safety  Proper safety  Proper safety  Proper safety  Proper safety
precautions precautions precautions procedures precautions
Safety are are often are generally are are
(5 Points) consistently missed used consistently consistently
missed used used
 Needs to be
 Proper clean-  Consistently  Consistently
reminded
up uses proper uses proper
 Proper clean- about proper
procedures clean-up clean-up
up clean-up
generally procedures procedures,
Clean-up procedures procedures
used, and and station and station
(5 Points) are seldom and 1 or 2
station generally always left
used items left at
generally left neat and neat and
station or not
clean clean clean
cleaned
 Incorrect title  Correct title

 Incorrect title with no with missing  Correct title
Title, with missing missing information with no
 Title,
Abstract & information information missing
abstract or
 Abstract information
3 Introductio introduction
 Abstract does  Abstract includes all
n is missing  Abstract
not include includes key points
(5 Points) all key points some key with includes all
points mistakes key points
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CL 1 5
Criterion 2 3 4
O (Very (Very
No. Weak) Strong)
 Introduction  Introduction  Introduction and properly
not complete incomplete is complete written
but has
mistakes
 No steps are  Most steps  Most steps  Most steps

listed are listed are listed are listed  All steps are
Experiment incorrectly, clearly, in clearly, in listed clearly,
Procedure unclearly, or wrong order correct order in correct
(5 Points) in wrong order
order
 Results are  Results are  Results are  Results are

incompletely incompletely mostly discussed  Results are
Results & discussed discussed discussed and discussed
and and and interpreted and
Discussion
interpreted interpreted interpreted mostly interpreted
(10 Points) incorrectly mostly mostly correctly correctly
correctly correctly
 Report has  Report has  Report has  Report is  Report is

serious many some typed but has typed with
spelling, spelling, spelling, few spelling, good
formatting, formatting, formatting or formatting or spelling,
and grammar and grammar grammatical grammatical formatting,
mistakes mistakes errors errors and grammar
 Multiple  Many  All parts are  All parts are  All parts of
sections of sections of present but present but lab report are
the lab report the lab report not in correct some are not present in
are missing are missing order in correct correct order
Report order
Format  Symbols,  There are 3 or  Only 2 or 3  Includes
(10 Points) units and more minor minor errors  Includes appropriate
significant errors using using symbols, symbols,
figures are symbols, symbols, units and units and
not included units and units and significant significant
significant significant digits digits
 Rubric sheet digits or 2 digits
is not major errors  Rubric sheet  Rubric sheet
attached  Rubric sheet is attached is attached
 Rubric sheet is attached
is not
attached
71 | P a g e

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Laboratory Manual

EE-153L – Introduction to Electrical Engineering

Dr. Muhammad Riaz

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

The following regulation and Safety rules must be observed in Laboratory.

CLO CLO Attributes Bloom Performance Indicators

Exp. No Title of Experiment

2 To Study the Resistor Color Code

3 Verification of Ohm’s Law

4 Verification of KVL and Series Resistive Circuit

5 Verification of KCL and Parallel Resistive Circuit

6 Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem

7 Introduction to Oscilloscope and AC Wave Form

8 Determining the Capacitive Reactance in series RC Network

9 I-V Characteristics of Silicon Diode

10 Implementation of Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit

11 Implementation of Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Circuit

12 Design of DC Power Supply

13 BJT Voltage Divider Biasing and DC Load Line

14 BJT Common Emitter Amplifier

15 Applications of Operational Amplifier - I

16 Applications of Operational Amplifier - II

Introduction to Electrical Laboratory, DC Sources and Metering

 Digital Multimeter model:_________________________ SRN:__________________

1.3 Bread Board

Figure 1.1: Bread Board

 Multi-rail DC power supply

Figure 1.2: Analog / Digital Lab Trainer

Figure 1.3: Digital Multi Meter

1.4 DC Power Supply

 This is a triple output DC Power supply.

Figure 1.4:DC Power Supply

 Draw diagram of the Bread board here

To Study the Resistor Color Code

2.2 Theory Overview

0 Black 1 Brown 2 Red 3 Orange 4 Yellow

5 Green 6 Blue 7 Violet 8 Gray 9 White

For the fourth, or tolerance, band:

Verification of Ohm’s Law

3.2 Theory Overview

Table 3.1 (470 Ω)

1. Does Ohm’s Law appear to hold in this exercise?

2. Is there a linear relationship between current and voltage?

Verification of KVL and Series Resistive Circuit

4.2 Theory Overview

 Resistors 03 Nos: 1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ. 3.3 kΩ

R1 (Color Code)=__________________ R1 (DMM):___________________

R2 (Color Code)=__________________ R2 (DMM):____________________

R3 (Color Code)=__________________ R3 (DMM):____________________

Figure 4.1 Series Resistive Circuit

2. Circuit Voltage: Connect circuit as in fig. 4.2 and apply 15 VDC.

Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3

d. Calculate VR3 using ohm’s law and measured VR3.

Voltage Theory Measured Deviation

f. Comment about the voltage in series resistive circuit.

I1 (Calculated)= 𝐼1 = 𝑉1 /𝑅1 =__________________ mA

I2 (Calculated) = 𝐼2 = 𝑉2 /𝑅2 =__________________ mA

I3 (Calculated) = 𝐼3 = 𝑉3 /𝑅3 =__________________ mA

c. Comments about the Current in series resistive circuit

4. Power in Series Circuit

 Digital Multimeter model:_______ SRN:

R1 (Color Code)= R1 (DMM):_

R2 (Color Code)= R2 (DMM):__

R3 (Color Code)= R3 (DMM):__