Laboratory Exercises

to accompany the text

Basic Electronics for Scientists and Engineers

Dennis L. Eggleston
Occidental College
To the instructor:
The following lab manual consists of eight labs spread over nine lab sessions. Except for the
Multivibrator lab, they are designed to be completed in a single three-hour lab session. The
lab topics closely follow the topics in the textbook. In a semester-long course, I typically
cover the entire book with the exception of the chapter on field-effect transistors. A sample
schedule of topics and labs for such a course is shown below.

Week Lecture Topics Lab Topics

1 Resistors No Lab
2 Capacitors, Inductors, RC Circuits No Lab
3 Filters, Impedance Equipment Familiarization
4 Fourier analysis, Transformers LRC Circuits
5 Semiconductor band theory No Lab
6 Diodes, rectifiers No Lab
7 Regulators, SCRs Diode Circuits
8 Biploar Transistors Special Solid State Devices
9 Amplifiers Transistor Amps
10 Operational Amplifiers No Lab
11 Relaxation Oscillators 741 Op-Amp
12 555 Timer Multivibrator I
13 Digital Gates Multivibrator II
14 Digital Circuits Digital Counters

A large component of the electronics lab is learning to use the equipment skillfully. This set
of labs has been edited many times over the years to clarify meaning and include feedback
from students. In order to give sufficient detail in the lab instructions, I have written the labs
assuming a particular set of lab equipment, listed below. This means that you will probably
need to edit the labs to match your particular lab setup. However, the types of issues dealt
with in the instructions are common to most instruments of a particular kind, so you should
be able to adapt them directly with appropriate changes in the details.

List of major equipment used:

• Global Specialties 203A proto-board with built-in 5 and ±15 volt DC power supplies.
• Agilent 546220 100 MHz oscilloscope
• Tektronix CFG250 function generator
• Simpson 260 multimeter
• BK Precision Test Bench 388A digital multimeter
• Hewlett-Packard E3617A dual variable DC power supply
• Tektronics 575 transistor curve tracer
Electronics Lab 0
Lab Report Format

1. Please put your name, physics box number, the title of the lab, the date, and the lab station
letter (found on the left column of your lab workstation) at the top of the report.

2. Divide the report into sections (I, II, III,...) that follow the sections of the lab manual. For each
section, go through the following checklist to see if you have included all of the appropriate
information:

(a) Specify apparatus used and give circuit schematics.

(b) Experimental technique–what was measured and how?
(c) Data taken–presented in a clear manner. Include any observations or notes asked for in
the lab instructions.
(d) Graphs and sketches–use graph paper or Excel. Be sure to include axis labels, scales
and zero levels.
(e) Calculations and analysis–include an explaination of what you have done and why.
(f) Response to questions in the lab manual.

3. At the end of the report give a brief summary of your findings. This may include a discussion
of problems encountered, positive or negative remarks about the lab, and/or suggestions for
improving the lab.

4. Lab reports may be written in bound notebooks or on separate sheets of paper stapled
together. Use graph paper for the required waveform sketches.
Electronics Lab 1
Equipment Familiarization

The purpose of the first laboratory is to become familiar with the various instruments in this lab
and to discover some of their limitations.

I. Dual-Channel Oscilloscope – Turn-on Procedure

A. The Agilent 54622D oscilloscope is the primary laboratory instrument. Its full potential
is best realized through application. This part of the lab will help you to become
acquainted with the basic operation of this oscilloscope.
B. Turn on the oscilloscope using the power button at the lower right corner of the display
screen. While the oscilloscope is warming up, go on to the next part of this lab. (In
practice, the oscilloscope is turned on as soon as you enter the laboratory so that it will
be warmed up when you wish to use it.)

II. Proto-Board

A. The proto-board provides a quick and easy way to assemble electronic circuits. Most
electronic components will fit into the various holes and connections between components
are made either via the internal connections or external wires. The internal connections
are indicated in Fig. 1. External wires can be made by stripping off 1/200 of insulation
from a length of 18 gauge hookup wire.
B. Components should slide easily into the proto-board holes. If you have to force a com-
ponent into a hole, it probably means the hole has been damaged. Select another hole.
C. Since you will be using some of the electronic components more than once during the
term, you should take care not to mangle them. If possible, insert the components into
the proto-board without bending the electrical leads. Some components (e.g. resistors)
must be bent in order to fit in the proto-board. In this case, use the thin- nosed pliers
and bend the leads 90 degrees about 1/400 from the resistor body.
D. Many circuits, especially those using integrated circuit chips, require power supply volt-
ages of +5V, +15V, and -15V with respect to ground. These are provided at the top
of the proto-board. The connectors unscrew so that supply wires may be attached and
routed to the place on the proto-board where they are needed.

III. Simpson Model 260 and BK Model 388A Multimeters – DC Measurements

A. The Simpson and BK multimeters allow the user to measure resistance, DC voltages
and currents, and the RMS amplitude of AC voltages and currents. These functions are
selectable with the knob on the front of the meter, but also depend on which holes the
leads are plugged into. The measurement range is also selectable.
B. Measure the value of the 33kΩ and 47kΩ resistors with each meter. The zero level may
be set on the Simpson meter by shorting (i.e. connecting together) the test leads and ad-
justing the zero-ohms knob. Note that on both meters the accuracy of the measurement
depends on the range selected.
 Electronics— Lab 1 page 2

Figure 1: Internal Connections of Proto-Board. The

proto-board has two types of hole groupings. First
note the horizontal groups of five on either side of the
three vertical channels. The five holes of each group
are connected together internally. This is indicated
on one group of the figure by a short horizontal red
line. The second type of hole grouping is a long row
(or column) consisting of eight (or ten) groups of five
holes. All the holes in the row (or column) are con-
nected internally. Examples of these connections are
indicated in the figure by the long horizontal and and
vertical red lines.

C. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 2 using the Proto-Board. The 3V voltage source
is provided by two flashlight batteries in series. Set the Simpson meter for DC voltage
and use the 2.5V range. Measure VAB and VBC . Then, using the 10V range, measure
VAC . Note that VAC 6= VAB + VBC . Now repeat these measurements with the BK
multimeter. Explain any differences you observe (Hint: what is the input resistance of
the two meters?).
D. Measure the DC current flowing in the circuit with each meter. To do this, the meter
should be placed in series with the other components. Caution: the meters are easily
destroyed if they are placed in parallel with any component. If you are not sure how to
make the connection, ask the instructor! On the Simpson meter you will have to switch
the range to the 50µA setting and move the red test lead into the 50µA hole.

R1 47kΩ

V1 3V B

R2 33kΩ

C
Figure 2: Circuit for DC Measurements

IV. Tektronics Function Generator and BK Model 388A Multimeter – AC Measurements

A. The Tektronics CFG250 function generator can provide variable amplitude sine, square,
or triangle waves over a frequency range of 0.2 Hz to 2.0 MHz. Read pages 2-1 to 2-3
 Electronics— Lab 1 page 3

R1 47kΩ

5Vrms 300Hz B

C1 0.01µF

Figure 3: Circuit for AC Measurements

of the operator’s manual to familiarize yourself with the controls. Set the controls as
described on page 2-6, step 1, with the following exceptions: set the frequency to 300
Hz and the amplitude to roughly 3/4 of the maximum setting.
B. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 3 on the Proto-Board. Note that the black clip of the
function generator cable is at ground potential. Connect the BK multimeter across the
output of the signal generator and set it to measure frequency. Make any adjustments
necessary to the function generator to obtain a reading of 300 Hz. Comment on the
accuracy of the dial setting on the function generator.
C. Set the BK multimeter for AC voltage measurements. Measure VAC and adjust the
function generator amplitude control so that VAC ' 5.0Vrms. Now measure VAB and
VBC . Note that VAC 6= VAB + VBC . Explain this result. (Hint: it may be illuminating to
complete the oscilloscope part of the lab before trying to answer this question). Retain
this circuit for part V of this lab.

V. Dual Channel Oscilloscope – Usage

A. Locate the two oscilloscope probes. Attached the probe with the blue marker to channel
2 of the scope and the probe with the orange marker to channel 1. Connect the tip of
the blue probe to point A on the circuit and its grounding clip to point C. The orange
probe tip should be connected to point B on the circuit. Hit the Auto-scale button on
the scope. The scope will attempt to set appropriate initial scales for the signals it is
detecting. You should see something like the display of Fig. 4
B. Try adjusting the various controls to see how they work:
1. Horizontal. These adjust the time-per-division settings for the scope display, where
a division refers to the 1/200 -spaced lines on the screen. The shift knob moves the
display right/left. The settings for these knobs are displayed at the top of the screen.
2. Analog (i.e., Vertical). Each of the two scope channels has a volts-per-division
adjustment and a shift adjustment. The setting for each channel is displayed at the
top left of the screen. Note that as the shift knob is adjusted, the arrow on the left
edge of the screen moves up/down. This arrow tells you where ground is (i.e. zero
volts) for each channel.
3. Trigger. The triggering adjustment tells the scope where on the signal to start its
display. We will always use edge triggering for these labs and the Edge button should
be lit. If you adjust the trigger Level knob a horizontal line will appear on the scope
showing the voltage level at which the display triggers. Note that if you move this
 Electronics— Lab 1 page 4

Figure 4: Example of saved scope face

higher or lower than the channel 2 signal level, the display becomes unstable since
it does not know when to start.
4. Measure. There are three ways to make measurements with these oscilloscopes:
1) The first is the old fashioned way: count the number of divisions between two
points and multiply by the appropriate scale per division. 2) The second way is to use
the scope cursors. Pushing the Cursors button will produce a display on screen that
allows you to select the signal source (channel 1 or 2) and x- or y- measurements (i.e.
time or voltage). Two dashed cursor lines will appear on the screen and these can be
moved with the Entry Knob (marked by a circular arrow). You select which cursor
to move by selecting x1 or x2 (or y1, y2) on the screen. 3) Finally, you can make
some measurements using the Quick Meas button. Selecting this button produces a
screen display that allows you to select a signal source and a quantity to be measured.
After these are selected, hitting the Measure button will automatically measure the
selected quantity. You may use any of these to make your measurements, but until
you become confident that you are using them correctly, it would be prudent to
check your measurements using two or more techniques.
C. An important note on grounding. Voltages are always measured between two points.
The location where the probe tip is attached is one of the points and the other is always
the ground point. In other words, the oscilloscope always measures voltages with respect
to ground. If a ground point is already established in the circuit (e.g. one output of the
signal generator is always ground), then the ground clip of the oscilloscope probe must
be attached to that same point. There can only be one ground point in a circuit. If the
circuit has no ground point (e.g. the circuit of figure 2) then the ground point may be
established anywhere on the circuit by attaching the ground clip to that point. If you
want to use the oscilloscope to measure voltages in a circuit there must be a ground
point somewhere in the circuit.
 Electronics— Lab 1 page 5

D. Make a voltage vs. time sketch of the two signals, including all relevant scales and zero
voltage levels. Be sure to identify which trace corresponds to which signal (i.e. which is
VAC and which is VBC ).
E. Using the oscilloscope, measure the peak-to-peak amplitude and the frequency of VAC
Compare these with the values previously measured by the BK multimeter. Comment
on any discrepancies.
F. Measure the time delay between VAC and VBC . This may be done by noting the point
at which each signal crosses its zero level, and subtracting the two points. From this
measured time delay, calculate the phase difference (in degrees) between the two signals.
G. Vary separately the values of the resistance and the capacitance in the circuit. Describe
qualitatively the effect of these variations on the phase difference (i.e. does the phase
difference increase or decrease?). The effect will be easier to observe if you change your
values by a factor of two or so rather than larger factors.
Electronics Lab 2
LRC Circuits
The purpose of this laboratory is to explore some of the typical behaviors of circuits made of
combinations of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

I. Integrating and Differentiating Circuits

A series RC circuit can be used as a differentiator or an integrator depending on the relative
value of the components and the output connections:

A. Construct a differentiator using a 0.01µF capacitor and a 1000Ω resistor. Apply a square
wave to the input (approximately 200Hz, 10Vpp – oscilloscope accuracy is adequate for
setting these values) and verify that the output is proportional to the derivative of the
input. Use a dual-trace display with the input signal on channel 2 and the output signal
on channel 1. Make sure you trigger on channel 2 (do this by pushing the “edge” button
in the trigger group and verifying that box 2 on the screen is checked). Sketch the input
and output waveforms in your report, including the relevant scales and zeros. Repeat
this procedure for a sine wave input with the same frequency and amplitude. For this
case, also compare the amplitude of the output with that expected from theory (use
measured values of R and C rather than the nominal values).
B. Construct an integrator using a 0.1µF capacitor and a 470kΩ resistor. Proceed as in
part I.A ( but substitute “integral” for “derivative”).

Input

R Output

Figure 1: Differentiator

Input

C Output

Figure 2: Integrator
 Electronics— Lab 2 page 2

50kΩ

Function
Generator
33mH
0.001µF

Figure 3: Series LRC Circuit

II. Freely Oscillating Series Circuit

A. Introduction
A series combination of an inductor, capacitor and resistor can be excited into oscillation
by applying a sudden voltage change. The relative values of the inductance, capacitance,
and resistance determine whether the circuit will oscillate or respond with varying de-
grees of sluggishness to the voltage change. The oscillatory response to a sudden voltage
change is often referred to as “ringing”. The transition between the oscillatory and non-
oscillatory response is obtained for certain “critical values” of the circuit components.
The circuit for the investigation of these phenomena is as follows: A series LRC circuit
is shown driven by a function generator in Fig. 3. The “R” in this circuit is provided
by a potentiometer so that it may be easily varied. The dotted rectangle enclosing the
function generator shows a series resistor which represents the internal resistance of the
generator. Its value is 50Ω. The rectangle enclosing the inductor symbol on the diagram
also contains a resistor symbol which indicates that the inductor has resistance. This
resistance is an unavoidable property of an inductor and must be included as part of the
total resistance of the circuit when comparing experiment with theory.
B. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in the preceding diagram. The function generator should
be set to output a 200Hz, 5Vpp square wave (again, set this signal using the oscillo-
scope).
2. Display the output of the function generator on channel 2 and the voltage across
the capacitor on channel 1 of the oscilloscope.
3. Vary the resistance of the potentiometer over its entire range and observe the effect
on the capacitor voltage. You should be able to see the ringing, critically damped,
and overdamped cases. You may have to adjust the frequency of the square wave
in order to best display the wave form.
4. Set the potentiometer so that the ringing persists the longest. Adjust the oscilloscope
for best display of both channels. Include a sketch of these waveforms in your report.
Be sure to include the zero levels and proper scales. Measure the frequency of the
ringing (i.e. the frequency of the oscillations that damp with time) and compare
with theory (again, use measured values for L, R, and C).
5. Determine experimentally the circuit resistance necessary to obtain critical damping.
Critical damping occurs at the transition from oscillatory to non-oscillatory response
 Electronics— Lab 2 page 3

of thep
circuit. Compare the experimental condition with the theoretical condition
R = 2 L/C.

III. Driven Oscillating Series Circuits

A. Introduction
The current through a series combination of a resistor, capacitor, and inductor depends
upon the frequency of the applied voltage. At the so-called “resonant” frequency, the
current is a maximum which means that the impedance is a minimum; this further
implies that the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal.
B. Procedure
1. Use the same circuit as in Part II, but set the function generator for 20kHz, 5Vpp,
sine-wave output. Display this voltage on channel 2 of the oscilloscope.
2. Adjust the potentiometer for minimum resistance and display the voltage across
the capacitor on oscilloscope channel 1. By adjusting the frequency of the function
generator, determine the resonant frequency of the circuit. Measure the value
p of C
and then compute the inductance of the inductor using the equation ωres = 1/LC.
Compare this with the value measured by the lab inductance meter.
3. Measure and plot the amplitude of the capacitor voltage as a function of frequency
(at least seven data points). Compare the width of the resonance curve with theory.
Explain any discrepancies.
Electronics Lab 3
Diode Circuits

I. Diodes as Rectifiers
Diodes are commonly used to change A.C. voltage into D.C. voltage. Here we construct a
full-wave rectifier circuit using a center-tapped transformer. The output is smoothed with a
simple capacitor filter.

A D

+
33kΩ
From Line B
C E
6.3V
Variac
Figure 1: Rectifier Circuit with simple capacitor filter

1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 1, but do not yet include the capacitor. Turn the
variac on and set it to 70. Display VAB on channel 2 and VDE on channel 1 of the
oscilloscope. Sketch the waveforms in your report (include scales and zeros) and explain
why VDE has the shape and peak amplitude that it does.
2. Now add the capacitor to the circuit. First try C = 0.1µF and then C = 47µF . (When
adding the 47µF capacitor, be sure that the + side of the capacitor is attached as shown).
For each case, sketch the output waveform and explain its features in terms of the RC
time constant of the circuit.

II. Diode Clipper Circuit

The clipper circuit prevents signals larger than a certain amplitude from passing. This might
be used to protect amplitude sensitive circuit stages attached to the clipper output.

A 4.7kΩ D
From
B
6.3V
Transformer 1.5V 1.5V
C E
Figure 2: Diode Clipper Circuit

1. Using the same variac and transformer as in part I, construct the circuit shown in Fig. 2.
2. Turn on the variac and set it to 70. Display VAC and VDE on the oscilloscope. Sketch
the wave forms in your report and explain why VDE has the shape and peak amplitude
that it does (it may be helpful to disconnect the batteries from the circuit one at a time
and note the resultant change in the output waveform). Also note in your report the
qualitative behavior of the output voltage VDE as the input voltage VAC is varied by
adjusting the variac from 0 to 120.
 Electronics— Lab 3 page 2

III. Diode Logic Circuits

Logic circuits are the basis of most digital devices. These circuits employ bi-state inputs and
outputs; they are either high (+5V, on) or low (OV, off). A logic device can be described by
its ”truth table” which gives the output state for all combinations of input states.

OR Gate NOR Gate

A 1kΩ A
+5V

1kΩ

B B

Figure 3: Diode Logic Circuits

1. Using the proto board, construct each circuit shown in Fig. 3. The diodes with arrows
are LEDs. Use the D.C. power supply on the proto board for the +5V and ground
connections. The inputs A and B should either be attached to ground or to +5V. (Don’t
confuse these inputs with the transformer outputs from parts I and II).
2. Determine experimentally the truth table for each circuit by connecting the inputs in
each of the four possible ways: (A,B) = (0,5), (5,0), (0,0), or (5,5). Here 0 means
connected to ground. Indicate in your table whether the LED is on or off for each
combination of inputs.
3. Measure the voltage across the LED when it is lit (it is not 0.6V). Use this information
to briefly explain why the NOR gate behaves as it does (i.e. explain the truth table
results).
Electronics Lab 4
Special Solid State Devices

I. Introduction
The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the properties and applications of a few of the
commonly-used special solid-state devices. The number of applications of these devices seems
to be limited only by the ingenuity of the user. The applications discussed in the experiment
reveal some of their versatility.

II. The Zener Diode

A. The Zener diode is a p-n junction diode with moderately heavy doping of the semicon-
ductor materials. In all applications, a Zener diode is reversed-biased to take advantage
of the Zener breakdown of the junction.
B. Procedure
1. Determine the breakdown or Zener voltage of the Zener diode as follows. Construct
the circuit shown in Fig. 1. The variable voltage Vs is supplied by the Hewlett-
Packard model E3617A power supply. Measure the voltage across the Zener, VAB ,
with the BK multimeter. Vary Vs from 0-18 volts in 2 volt steps and plot VAB vs.
Vs . The value of VAB at the intersection of the two straight parts of the plot is the
Zener voltage.

R1 A
470Ω
Vs 1N 5239

B
Figure 1: Circuit for determining the breakdown voltage of a Zener diode

2. The quality of a Zener diode is indicated by its dynamic or AC resistance RAC . This
quantity is the ratio of the change in voltage across a fully-conducting Zener diode
to the corres- ponding change in current through the diode. This quantity can be
measured with the circuit shown in Fig. 2. The portion of the circuit to the left of
the dotted line is called a diode clamp. Construct this part of the circuit. The 60Hz
voltage will be supplied by the 6.3 VAC transformer controlled by the Variac. Set
the variac at 70. Display VAB and VCD on the oscilloscope and note how VCD varies
as Vs is adjusted (Do not let Vs exceed 15V.) Briefly describe this behavior in your
report (use a sketch to supplement and clarify your description).

3. The output of the diode clamp is now applied to the Zener diode to determine RAC .
Vs is used to bias the Zener into the fully conducting region and the AC part of the
clamp output causes a change in the current flowing through the Zener. Construct
the remainder of the circuit and set Vs to 14 volts. Turn the Variac up to 70. To
determine RAC , we need to simultaneously measure the AC part of the current
 Electronics— Lab 4 page 2

A + C
47µF 470Ω
1N 4004
60Hz 33kΩ 1N 5239
Vs

B D

Figure 2: Circuit for determining the AC resistance of a Zener diode

through the zener and the AC part of the voltage across the zener. Unfortunately,
the oscilloscope can only measure voltages and not currents. Since the current
through the 470Ω resistor is the same as the current through the Zener, however, we
can measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the AC voltage across the 470Ω resistor
and divide by the resistance to get current. We also need to simultaneously measure
the small AC component of the voltage across the Zener diode. (Where must the
grounding clip be placed in order to do this?) To observe this small variation in the
Zener voltage, you will need to change the input coupling of the oscilloscope from
DC (the normal setting) to AC. This action removes the large DC portion of the
signal so that you can increase the sensitivity of the vertical scale without the signal
moving off-screen. Measure the peak-to-peak amplitude of the AC component of
the Zener voltage and compute RAC .

III. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

A. The silicon controlled rectifier, or SCR, is basically a gated diode. The SCR can be
triggered into forward conduction by a signal (always positive with respect to the cath-
ode) applied to the gate. After the conduction has been triggered, it can be stopped by
reducing the anode-cathode voltage to a small value (essentially zero).
B. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 3 on the proto-board. (Do not connect the
proto-board power cord.) This circuit illustrates the use of the SCR to control the
average current flowing through a load. In this case the load is an LED and the
associated 100Ω resistor. The Variac should be set at 60. Exceeding this value may
destroy the potentiometer.

2. Display VAB and VCB on the oscilloscope. Observe the behavior of VCB as the 10k
potentiometer is adjusted. Sketch VAB and VCB in your report for a representative
case (i.e. for an intermediate value of R) and indicate how the waveform changes
with the value of R. Also note in your report how VCB and the brightness of the
LED are related. Finally, explain briefly why the circuit behaves as it does.
 Electronics— Lab 4 page 3

A
4.7µF
1N 4004 +

R
2N 5062
10kΩ
To Variac

6.3V C
100Ω
100Ω
B

Figure 3: SCR circuit to control the intensity of an LED

IV. The Tunnel Diode

A. The tunnel (or Esaki) diode has a negative resistance behavior. The approximate
current-voltage characteristic of the tunnel diode used in these experiments is shown
in Fig. 4.

8
7
6
5
I (mA) 4

3
2
1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Forward Bias (V)
Figure 4: Tunnel diode I-V characteristic

B. Tunnel Diode Oscillator

1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 5.
2. Adjust the 100Ω potentiometer until oscillation occurs. Note that the oscillation
frequency varies as the potentiometer is adjusted. Determine the range of bias
voltage VAB over which oscillation occurs.
3. Plot the oscillation frequency versus the bias voltage (at least five data points). For
one of these bias voltages, make a sketch of the oscillating waveform.
 Electronics— Lab 4 page 4

33Ω 390µH

1.5V 100Ω A Output

0.01µF

B
Figure 5: Tunnel diode oscillator
Electronics Lab 5
Transistor Amplifiers

I. Introduction
Transistor amplifiers come in three basic configurations: common emitter, common collector,
and common base. The name refers to which of the transistor terminals is common to the
input and output of the amplifier. The three configurations can also be distinguished by their
characteristic values for the following quantities: voltage gain, current gain, input impedance,
and output impedance. For example, the common collector configuration produces an am-
plifier with unity voltage gain, high current gain and input impedance, and low output
impedance. In this lab you will construct two types of amplifiers and compare the experimen-
tal operating point and the voltage and current gains with those predicted by the theoretical
model discussed in lecture. Please be sure to show your work for the theoretical calculations.

II. Common Emitter Configuration

A. The common emitter amplifier is characterized by moderate voltage and current gain.
The voltage gain can be increased by bypassing the emitter resistor with a suitable
capacitance.
B. Procedure
1. First you will determine the DC operating point for this configuration. Refer to the
circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1. Construct the portion of the circuit between the
dotted lines. Use the +15V Proto-board power supply to provide VCC . Use the BK
meter to determine the operating point (i.e., find VCE , IC , and IB ). Also measure
the base-emitter voltage VBE .

Vcc

680Ω
+ 47µF
10kΩ C
A +
E 2N 3904
100Ω 47µF 1kΩ
2.2kΩ
100Ω
B D

Figure 1: Common-emitter transistor amplifier

2. The value of β for your transistor can be determined from your measurement of the
collector and base currents. (Double check the value of β by using the transistor
curve tracer. The instructor will show you how to use this instrument). Using the
measured β and base-emitter voltage, determine the theoretical operating point and
compare to the experimental values.
 Electronics— Lab 5 page 2

3. Construct the remainder of the circuit. Be sure to install the 47µF capacitors with
proper polarity. The 100Ω resistor on the input will allow you to measure the A.C.
input current.
4. Using the signal generator, apply a 1kHz sine-wave to the input of the circuit. Dis-
play vAB and vCD on the oscilloscope. Adjust the signal generator output so that
vAB and vCD are as large as possible without distortion. Determine experimentally
the AC voltage and current gain (indicate in your report how the necessary measure-
ments were done – you may use any piece of equipment you choose). Compare the
experimental values of AC voltage and current gain with those predicted by theory.
5. Place a 4.7µF capacitor across (i.e., in parallel with) the 100Ω emitter resistor
(install the capacitor using proper polarity). You may need to adjust the input
signal amplitude to get an undistorted output. Note in your report the effect of the
capacitor on the experimental AC voltage gain. Give a qualitative explanation of
this effect based on the theoretical expression for voltage gain.

III. Common-collector (or emitter-follower) configuration

A. The common-collector amplifier is characterized by a voltage gain near unity and a high
current gain. It has a low output impedance which allows it to drive low impedance
loads (e.g. a loudspeaker).
B. Procedure
1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 2. Use the procedure of part II.B.4. above and
determine the AC voltage and current gain of this circuit.
2. Compare the experimental values for AC voltage and current gain with those given
by theory.

Vcc

5.1kΩ
A +
E 2N 3904
100Ω 47µF
+ 47µF
5.1kΩ C
470Ω 100Ω
B D

Figure 2: Common-collector transistor amplifier

Electronics Lab 6
The 741 Op-Amp

I. Introduction
The model 741 operational amplifier is an amazing little integrated circuit that can handle
most small-signal amplification tasks and also be used in a variety of other applications. It
comes in a package with eight leads or pins. The package layout, the electronic symbol, and
the pin names are shown below.
+
VCC

InvertingInput 2 − 7
6 Output
N oninvertingInput + 5
3 4
1
VCC
−

10kΩ
Figure 1: Schematic symbol with nulling potentiometer and pin assignments

Pin assignments
for µA741

1 Null NC 8
2 –In Vcc+ 7
3 +In Vo 6
4 Vcc
−
Null 5

Top View
Figure 2: Pin numbers

Fortunately, one does not have to understand the op-amp schematic (see, e.g., Diefenderfer
p. D-70) to make use of the op-amp. Note that the op-amp has two inputs (marked + and
+
–) and one output. The op-amp requires two power supply voltages VCC and VCC−
. (For
+
this experiment we will use the proto-board supplies +15V and -15V for VCC and VCC . The
−

following rules govern op-amp behavior (actually they are only approximately true):

1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between
the inputs zero.
2. No current flows into the inputs.

By applying these rules and connecting a few components to the op-amp it is easy to make
a small signal amplifier without the fuss of determining operating points, etc.
 Electronics— Lab 6 page 2

Two practical rules should be observed in making op-amp circuits.

1. Keep the power supply connections (from supply to pins 4 or 7) less than 6” long. This
will prevent oscillations in the circuitry.
2. Never apply an input voltage without first connecting the power supply voltages. Under
certain conditions this may destroy the op-amp.

II. Simple Inverting Amplifier with D.C. Offset

A. The schematic shown in Fig. 3 illustrates the use of the 741 op-amp as an inverting
amplifier. The theoretical voltage gain of this circuit is −R2 /R1 .

R2
R1
Input −
1kΩ Output
+

R3 1kΩ

Figure 3: Simple inverting amplifier

B. Procedure
1. Construct this circuit on the proto-board using the +15V and -15V supplies to
provide power to the op-amp. Start with R2 = 1kΩ. Note that the power sup-
ply connections are not shown in Fig. 3 – they are implicit (implied by the fact
that the op-amp will not work without them). You should also include the nulling
potentiometer shown in Fig. 1 to compensate for input offset voltages.
2. Apply a small sinusoidal signal to the circuit input. The input frequency should be
1 kHz (dial accuracy is sufficient for this lab). Adjust the amplitude of the input
voltage to be as large as possible without distorting the output signal. You may need
to adjust the nulling potentiometer to avoid a saturated output, especially for the
higher gain cases. Using the oscilloscope, measure (and record) the amplitude of the
input and output signals and determine the AC voltage gain, av , of the amplifier. Do
this for R2 = 1kΩ, 10kΩ, 100kΩ, and 1M Ω and then plot log |av | vs. log(R2 /R1 ).
Compare your results to the theoretical expectation.
3. Set R2 = 10kΩ. Measure av for input frequency f = 20, 200, 2k, 20k, 50k, 200k,
and 500kHz. Again adjust the input signal amplitude as needed to avoid output
distortion. Plot log |av | vs. log f . Repeat for R2 = 100kΩ and 1M Ω, plotting the
results of each case on the same graph. This plot shows how the frequency response
of the amplifier varies with gain.
4. Set R2 = 10kΩ and f = 1 kHz. Adjust the input signal amplitude to 0.5Vpp. Replace
R3 with a variable DC voltage divider as shown in Fig. 4. Note the qualitative effect
of varying the 2kΩ pot. Explain this behavior in terms of the op-amp rules.
 Electronics— Lab 6 page 3

R2
1kΩ
Input −
Output
+5V +
5.1kΩ
2kΩ

Figure 4: Simple inverting amplifier with DC offset

III. Voltage Follower/Buffer Amp

A. Many voltage/signal sources cannot supply much current to a load attached to their
outputs. A unity-gain buffer placed between the signal source and the load will remedy
this problem.
B. Procedure
1. Attach the output of the function generator directly to the oscilloscope probe. Set
the frequency to 1kHz and the peak-to-peak voltage of the signal to 1V. Now place
a 33Ω resistor across the function generator output as shown in Fig. 5 and measure
the signal again. The decrease in signal amplitude shows that the function generator
is ”loaded down” by the 33Ω resistor. Compare your measurements with theoretical
expectations given the fact that the output impedance of the function generator is
50Ω.
2. Construct the buffer circuit shown in Fig. 6. Now attach the function generator to
the input of the buffer and place a 33Ω resistor across the buffer output (i.e., from
Output to ground). Measure the buffer input and output voltage. How well does
the buffer do its job?

1kHz 33Ω To Scope

Figure 5: Connections for part III.B.1

1kΩ

−
1kΩ Output
Input +

Figure 6: Buffer Circuit

Electronics Lab 7
Transistor Astable Multivibrator

I. Introduction
For this lab you will design and build a transistor astable multivibrator. This circuit, shown
below and discussed in detail in class, will oscillate with a frequency determined by the values
of the resistors and capacitors in the circuit. The oscillations consist of a series of pulses.
The pulse width and the repetition time of the oscillations can be adjusted independently.
You will be assigned design specifications for the pulse width and repetition time and your
finished product should provide an output as close as possible to these specifications:

Pulse width ±10%

Repetition Time ±10%

Output Amplitude = 5V with respect to ground

+Vcc

RL1 RB1 RB2 RL2

C1 C2

T1 T2

Figure 1: Transistor Astable Oscillator

II. Procedure (week 1)

A. Select two 2N3904 transistors according to the following criteria: 1) both should have
β > 120 @ Ic ≈ 10mA and VCE ≈ 5V and 2) both should have similar values of β
(within 20%). β can be determined by using the transistor curve tracer. Note the β
values for future reference. Using the proto-board, assemble the circuit shown above
using C1 = C2 = 0.01µF , RL1 = RL2 = 1kΩ, RB1 = 100kΩ, RB2 = 10kΩ. Use
Vcc = 5V . Observe the oscillations of both collector voltages as well as the behavior of
both of the base voltages.
 Electronics— Lab 7 page 2

B. Display both collector voltages on the oscilloscope. Note qualitatively how these signals
change as you change the values of C1 , C2 , RB1, RB2, RL1 , and RL2 . Specifically, note
how the pulse widths t1 and t2 (defined in lecture) and the rounding of the pulses are
affected by changes in the component values. Actual measurements are not necessary;
just note, for example, if increasing C1 increases or decreases t1 , etc. These changes
will be easier to discern if you change the component values by a factor of two or four
rather than some large factor. (Recall that you can double the value of a capacitor by
connecting an identical capacitor in parallel and that connecting two identical resistors
in parallel halves the value). Record these qualitative observations in a table (at least
ten different combinations of components) and include them in your report.
C. Select components that produce the oscillation specifications given. This may take some
experimentation with various component values, but you should be guided by the circuit
theory and your results from part B. Remember that your resistor values must satisfy
RB2Vcc < β1 RL1 (Vcc −Vbe ) where β1 is the value of β for transistor 1. A similar inequality
restricts the values of RB1 and RL2 . Furthermore, the component values must also satisfy
RL2 C2  t2 and RL1 C1  t1 where t1 and t2 are the pulse widths defined in lecture.
D. Make the four sketches required for your report (see below).
E. Noting the physical size of the electronic components, lay out your circuit board. Be
sure to include a place for each component lead to be attached, and a place for the power
supply, ground, and output signal wires (a total of three wires). No jumper wires are
allowed on the circuit board. Do the layout in pencil first so that changes can be made
easily.

III. Procedure (week 2)

A. Read the safety precautions in part V below.

B. Mask and etch the circuit board. Etching takes 30 – 45 minutes. After the etching is
complete, remove the masking with acetone.
C. Complete your design calculations (i.e., based on the theory of the circuit operation,
what values of C1 , C2 , RB1 , RB2 , RL1 , and RL2 should you use to obtain your assigned
specifications?). Compare these values with those obtained experimentally last week.
D. Drill the necessary holes in your circuit board. Double check that you have a separate
hole for each component lead and the three wires. Mount and solder the various com-
ponents, starting with the three wires (these are the least susceptible to damage). Cut
off the excess wires. Label the three hook-up wires and write your name on the board.
Finally, test the completed circuit.

IV. Report
After the second week’s lab period you should hand in a report (in the usual format) including:

A. Assigned design specifications

B. The results of week 1 experimentation.
C. A detailed discussion of the circuit theory (i.e. how the circuit works) based on the
information given in lecture. Do not use the description given in the textbook.
D. An account of your design calculations and comparison with the component values ac-
tually used. This includes evaluation of the theory for t1 and t2 as well as checks of the
four inequalities.
 Electronics— Lab 7 page 3

E. Careful sketches of both collector and both base voltages of the completed multivibrator
(a total of four sketches). Indicate which sketch is your output.
F. The multivibrator itself, ready to use. The three wires should be labeled.
G. Discussion of results and conclusion.

V. Safety Considerations

A. The etching solution contains ferric chloride. You should avoid contact with skin and
eyes. If contact occurs, flush immediately with cold water. The same precautions apply
to acetone.
B. Eye protection must be worn when using the drill press. Do not attempt to drill addi-
tional holes in a board that already has some of the components mounted.
C. Soldering irons operate at 600 - 800 ◦ F . Take care that they do not come in contact
with you or with power cords.
D. Solder contains lead, which is poisonous. Do not put the solder in your mouth. The fumes
produced when soldering can cause irritation of mucous membranes; avoid breathing
them.
Electronics Lab 8
Digital Counting

I. Introduction
Digital circuits are often employed to count pulses. Digital watches, nuclear decay counters,
and digital frequency meters are examples of digital devices which are based on counting. In
this lab we study the operation of a four-bit binary counter, the 7493. This device counts
input pulses and outputs the sum of the counts as a four-bit, parallel, binary number. To
give the counter something to count, we construct an astable oscillator using the 555 timer
chip. This outputs a repetitive, two-level signal suitable for input to the 7493 counter.

II. Astable oscillator using the 555 Timer

A. The 555 Timer is an eight-pin IC that can be employed for a variety of tasks. Its pin
assignments are shown in Fig. 1. Here we use it to make the astable oscillator shown in
Fig. 2. First the capacitor C charges up through resistors R1 and R2 . When the voltage
at pin 6 exceeds two-thirds of the supply voltage, pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground
and the capacitor discharges through R2 . The two states of the oscillator last for times
t1 = 0.69(R1 + R2 )C and t2 = 0.69R2C. During t1 the output is high, and during t2 the
output is low.
B. Procedure
1. Construct the astable oscillator on the proto-board. Use the +5V supply.

Top View

1 Grnd +V 8
2 Trig Disch 7
3 Out Thres 6
4 Reset Cntl 5

Figure 1: Pin connections for 555 timer

2. When the power is turned on, the LED should blink on and off. Determine the
length of both the on and the off states using the oscilloscope. You will need to turn
off the auto trigger function of the oscilloscope to make this measurement. Compare
these times with the values expected from theory (use the measured values of the
resistors and capacitor in the theoretical expressions).

III. The 7493 Four-bit counter

A. This counter consists of four master-slave flip-flops which are internally connected to
provide a one-bit (divide-by-two) and a three-bit (divide-by-eight) section. Each section
has a separate input; the flip-flops change on the high-to-low transition of the input
 Electronics— Lab 8 page 2

+V

4 8
R1 3.9M Ω Reset +V
7
Discharge
3
Output
R2 820kΩ
555 100Ω
2 5
Trigger Control
6
Threshold
C 0.22µF Ground
1

Figure 2: The 555 Astable Oscillator Circuit

pulse. Two master reset inputs (M R1 and M R2 ) are provided, and when both are high,
all flip-flops are reset (outputs low). The pin diagram of the 7493 is shown in Fig. 3.
Unused pins are marked NC for ”No Connection”.
B. Procedure
1. Assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 4. The input should come from pin 3 of the 555
oscillator circuit constructed in part II. The four LEDs will indicate the state of the
four outputs and thus represent a four-bit binary number. Arrange the LEDs in a
row on the proto-board to facilitate the recognition of this number.

Top View

1 CP1 CP0 14
2 M R1 NC 13
3 M R2 Q0 12
4 NC Q3 11
5 Vcc GND 10
6 NC Q1 9
7 NC Q2 8

Figure 3: Pin Assignments for 7493 Counter

2. For this circuit, the counter will count up to a certain number and then reset to zero
(all LEDs off). Make a table showing the sequence of output states starting with
all outputs low. What is the highest number achieved before reset?
3. By attaching the proper outputs to the master reset inputs (instead of connecting
the inputs to ground), one can make the counter reset at different count levels.
 Electronics— Lab 8 page 3

input +5V

CP1 CP0 Vcc Gnd

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 M R 1 M R 2

100Ω 100Ω 100Ω 100Ω

Figure 4: Circuit connections for 7493 Counter

The reset will occur when both reset inputs are high. Determine the connections
necessary for the counter to count up to nine and then reset. Make these connections
and verify proper operation. Note what the connections are in your report.

IV. The 7447 BCD to 7-Segment Decoder

A. This device accepts a 4-bit binary number as input and converts it to the pattern neces-
sary to light a 7-segment LED display. Current limiting resistors must be used between
the 7447 outputs and the display to prevent burn-out. Note that the 7-segment display
has two +5V connections. Either of these can be used to power this device; it is not
necessary to connect them both.
B. Add the circuit shown in Fig. 5 to what you already have. Take care that none of the
leads touch one another. Verify that the number displayed matches the binary number
indicated on the four individual LEDs. Show the finished circuit to the instructor before
disassembling.

7447 Decoder
Top View 7-Segment Display
Top View
From Q1 1 2 bit +5V 16 +5V
a +5V
From Q2 2 4 bit seg f 15
100Ω f b
3 test seg g 14
100Ω +5V NC
4 BlkOut seg a 13
100Ω NC g
5 BlkIn seg b 12
100Ω NC c
From Q3 6 8 bit seg c 11
100Ω NC dp
From Q0 7 1 bit seg d 10
100Ω e d
8 grd seg e 9
100Ω

Figure 5: Pin Assignments and Connections for decoder and display