BME 324

BIOMEDICAL SENSORS
AND TRANSDUCER
CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Assoc. Prof. Gökhan ERTAŞ

Dept. of Biomedical Engineering

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Instrumentation will only give adequately

correct information if we understand the
static and dynamic characteristics of both the
measurand and the instrumentation !

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

1. Static characteristics
Parameters that are constant in time or vary
slowly with time:
The properties of the system after all transient
effects have settled to their final (or steady) state.

2. Dynamic characteristics
Parameters that vary with time:
The properties of the system transient response to an
input.
3/35

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The properties of the system after all transient
effects have settled to their final (or steady)
state.
1) Accuracy 9) Linearity
2) Precision 10) Hysteresıs Effects
3) Repeatability 11) Resolution
4) Range
5) Dead Band
6) Threshold
7) Zero Drift
8) Sensitivity 4/35

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
 Static characteristics – ACCURACY
 The closeness of the measured value to the
true value.
 Depends on the inherent instrument limitations !

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
 Static characteristics – PRECISION
 The ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain
set of readings within a given accuracy and a
minimum dispersion.
 Precision depends on the reliability of the
instrument.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
Example: Shooting darts

Shooter A Shooter B

 Which shooter is more accurate?

 Which shooter is more precise? 7/35

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

ACCURACY and Errors

1. Systematic Error
2. Random Error

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Systematic Errors result from a variety of factors:

1) Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)

2) Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical
stresses)

3) Loading errors (i.e. the measurement process changes the

measurand)

4) Signal attenuation (i.e. the transmission process changes

the signal)
5) Human observers
Systematic errors can be corrected with compensation
methods such as feedback or filtering. 9/35

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Random errors
Also called NOISE: a signal that carries no information

True random errors (white noise) follow a Gaussian

distribution !

Random Errors result from a variety of factors:

1) Repeatability of the measurand itself

(i.e. height of a rough surface)
2) Environmental noise
(i.e. background noise picked by a microphone)
3) Transmission noise 10/35

(i.e. 50Hz)

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – REPEATABILITY

 The closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the
 same measurement conditions

 same instrument and observer

 same location and same conditions of use

maintained throughout.

 The degree of repeatability is an alternate way of

expressing precision.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – RANGE

 The minimum and the maximum values, the
instrument is designed to measure.

Static characteristics – DEAD BAND

 The range of different input values over which there
is no change in the output values.
Output
Reading

- +
Measured
Variable
Dead Band 12/35

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – THRESHOLD

 If an input to a instrument is gradually increased
from zero, the input will have to reach a certain
minimum level before the change in the instrument
output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable.

 This minimum level of input is defined as the

threshold.

13/35

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – LINEARITY

 The property of the instrument where the output is
a linear function of the input.

 100% linearity is rarely achieved and the deviations

from the ideal are termed linearity tolerances.

 Linearity is expressed as the percentage of

departure from the linear value:
 Maximum deviation of the output curve from the best fit
straight line during a calibration cycle

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – LINEARITY

 The closeness of the static calibration curve (curve
of output amplitude vs input amplitude under static
conditions within the dynamic range) to a straight
line measures the degree of linearity

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Static characteristics – ZERO DRIFT

 The drift from the null reading of the instrument
when the measurand is maintained at steady for a
long period of time.

 This drift may be caused by instrument instability,

ambient changes, changes in power supply,
non‐linearaties etc.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
Static characteristics
HYSTERESIS EFFECTS
 If the input measured
quantity to the
instrument is steadily
increased from a
negative value, the
output variation is
shown as Curve A.

 Then if the input is

steadily decreased, the
output curve is as
depicted as in Curve B. 17/35

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
Static characteristics – HYSTERESIS EFFECTS
 The output characteristics of a instrument exhibits
hysteresis.

 Two quantities,
maximum input
hysteresis
and
maximum output
hysteresis
can be defined
according to the
diagram.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
Static characteristics – SENSITIVITY
 Sensitivity is measured by the magnitude (peak,
rms value, etc.) of the output signal corresponding
to a unit input of the measurand:

 The ability of the instrument to respond to the

changes in the measurand
 Sensitivity is usually expressed as the ratio of change of
output to the change of the input.

 Example: If a movement of 0.001mm causes an output voltage

change of 0.02V in a sensor, what is the sensitivity of the
sensor?

 Sensitivity = 0.02 / 0.001 = 20V/mm. 19/35

SENSITIVITY - EXAMPLE
The output of a platinum resistance Temperature Reading
thermometer (RTD) is as seen. (°C) (ohm)
0 0
100 200
200 400
What is the sensitivity of the
sensor?
Measured Sensor
Variable Output

Sensitivity = 200 / 100 = 2 ohm/oC or

Sensitivity = 400 / 200 = 2 ohm/oC.

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 SENSITIVITY - EXAMPLE
Sensitivity is usually expressed as the ratio of change
of output to the change of the input !

Measured Variable Sensor Output 1) Draw an input versus

Temperature(°C) Reading (Ohm) output graph.
0 0
2) From that graph, the
100 200 sensitivity is the slope of
200 400 the graph !

400
Reading (Ohm)

300

200

100 Slope = (400-0) / (200-0)

0
0 50 100 150 200 = 2 ohm/°C 21/35
Temperature(°C)

SENSITIVITY - EXAMPLE
Sensitivity is usually expressed as the ratio of change of
output to the change of the input !

Most Sensitive
Sensor
Sensor Output

Measured Variable 22/35

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SENSITIVITY - EXAMPLE
A thermocouple has an output as shown in the following table
when its hot (measuring) junction is at the temperatures shown.

Determine the sensitivity of measurement for the

thermocouple in mV/°C.

23/35

CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
Static characteristics – RESOLUTION
 Resolution is the smallest increment in the
measured value that is possible to detect accurately.
 It is usually expressed as a percentage of the
maximum range of the instrument.

Example: DS18B20 Temperature Sensor

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
The sensor/transducer response to a variable input is
different from that exhibited when the input signals are
constant (the latter is described by the static
characteristics)

Dynamic characteristics
The properties of the system transient response to a
family of variable input waveforms:

Impulse Step Ramp Sinusoidal White noise

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

The reason for dynamic characteristics is the

presence of energy-storing elements:
 Inertial: masses, inductances ...
 Capacitances: electrical, thermal ...

Dynamic characteristics:
1) Usefull Frequency Range

2) Bandwidth

3) Dynamic Range
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N-TH ORDER SYSTEMS – TIME DOMAIN

The dynamic models above are typically analyzed

with the Laplace transform, which converts the
differential equation into a polynomial expression ! 27/35

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
The Laplace transform of a time signal y(t) is
denoted by

The s variable is a complex number s = σ + jω

 σ defines the real exponential behavior.

 jw defines the frequency of oscillatory behavior.

The fundamental relationship is the one that

concerns the transformation of differentiation:

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LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Applying the Laplace transform to the models
yields (assuming initial output is 0, ie. y(0) = 0)

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ZERO ORDER SYSTEM

Zero-order is the desirable response of a sensor:

1) No delays
2) Infinite bandwidth
3) The sensor only changes the amplitude of the
input signal

Zero-order systems do not include

energy-storing elements.
(ie. A potentiometer)
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FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

First-order sensors have one element that stores energy

and one that dissipates it (ie. Capacitor)

Step response:
y(t) = Ak(1-e-t/τ)

 A is the amplitude of the step

 k (=1/a0) is the static gain, which determines the static
response
 τ (=a1/a0) is the time constant, which determines the dynamic
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response

FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

Time response:
assuming A = 1

y(t) = k(1-e-t/τ)

 Frequency response:
Gain
Phase Angle

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Dynamic characteristics –
USEFULL FREQUENCY
RANGE
 This corresponds to a flat
gain curve and a zero
phase curve in the
frequency response
characteristics of an
instrument.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF
SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS

Dynamic characteristics – DYNAMIC RANGE

Determined by the allowed lower and upper
limits of S/T’s inputs or outputs so as to maintain
a required level of measurement accuracy.

Dynamic characteristics – BANDWIDTH

Determines the maximum speed or the

frequency at which is capable of operating.

The bandwidth is normally determined by the dominant

natural frequency or the dominant resonance frequency 34/35
of the sensor.

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RATINGS OF SENSORS/TRANSDUCERS
It is noteworthy to remember that manufacturers do
not provide all the performance parameters !

The typical rating parameters provided:

1) Sensitivity
2) Dynamic range
3) Resolution
4) Linearity
5) Useful frequency range
6) Accuracy
7) Bandwidth
35/35
8) Input/output impedances

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