U3#What is Centrifugal pump?= The centrifugal pump is far the commonest type of dynamic pump U3#What is lift irrigation?

at is lift irrigation?= When and if the lift irrigation scheme is to be developed on stream or on
also called as velocity pump. These are classified as rotodynamic pumps since the rotating impeller of a river, i.e. the source of the water supply to this lift irrigation scheme is a river, the following
pump impresses a centrifugal head or pressure on the liquid which leaves the impeller at a high components parts are required for a smooth and for the efficient functions of the lift irrigation scheme.
velocity. This pressure enables the liquid to rise to a higher level. These pumps are suitable for large *Advantages: 1. Lift Irrigation system makes the irrigation possible at higher levels. (the areas at
flow rates. *Main components: 1. Impeller: An impeller is a wheel or rotor having a series of backward higher elevations from the source of irrigated water may be canal, river for a lake) 2. The major problem
curved vanes or blades. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is usually coupled to a motor. The of land-acquisition is not that difficult (if compared with other irrigation systems). 3. As the irrigation
motor provides the required input energy to rotate the impeller. 2. Casing: The impeller is enclosed in water is conveyed through the pipelines, the water losses through evaporation are controlled (so it is
a watertight casing with delivery pipe on one side and with an arrangement on suction side called eye in a way an eco-friendly system). 4. Less Man-power is required to run the Lift-irrigation schemes. 5.
of impeller. Casing has to perform two functions. Firstly, it guides the water from entry to exit of Once the water is lifted up gravity force, it can be supplied to the entire region (elevated sites).
impeller. Secondly, the casing is so designed that it helps in partly converting the kinetic energy of the *Disadvantages: 1. It needs a complex pumping and Power Equipments 2. It need power supply either
liquid into pressure energy. 3. Suction pipe with strainer and foot valve: The pipe which connects the electric supply or 3. It has a higher operational cost. 4. It needs a regular maintenance (so have higher
sump to the eye of impeller is called suction pipe. The sump carries the liquid to be lifted by the pump. maintenance cost) With all these higher costs it is good to cover larger farm land and can be useful for
The suction pipe at its inlet is provided with a strainer and a foot valve. The function of strainer is to the farmer co-operative society.(co-operative lift Irrigation schemes)
prevent the entry of any debris into the pump. The foot valve is a non-return valve which allows the
flow of water only in upward direction. Therefore, this valve does not allow the liquid to drain out from
U3#Drip irrigation?= The regions having scarcity of water and problem of salinization of soil this
suction pipe. 4. Delivery pipe: The pipe which connects the outlet of pump up to point it delivers the
method is best suitable. This is one of the latest methods of irrigation and also a very popular method
liquid to required height is called delivery pipe. A valve is provided in the delivery pipe near the outlet
among the actual users of irrigation farming. In this method small diameter plastic pipes are used
of the pump called delivery valve. It is a sluice type valve. Its function is to regulate the supply of liquid
together with drip nozzles which are known as Emitters or Drippers. They deliver water to the land
from the pump to delivery pipe. *Advantages: 1.The Cost of rentrifugal Pump in less as it hox fewer
surface, near the base of the plant. In this method the application of water is at very low rate which
parts. 2. Installation and maintenance are easier and cheaper. 3.it’s discharge capacity is much greater
varies between 2 and 10 lit/per hrs. This keeps the soil moisture within the desired range for growth
than that of a reciprocating pump. 4.It is compact and has smaller Size and weight for the same capacity
of the plant. *Advantages: (1) It helps to prevent diseases (plant diseases) by minimizing water contact
and energy transfer. 5.It Performance characteristics ore Superior. 6.It can be employed for Lifting
with leaves stems and the fruits of the plant. (ii) It allows the rows between the plants which helps to
highly viscous. 6.Liquid such as paper pulp, muddy and Sewage water, oil eta 7. It can be operated at
keep the dry and also prevent the weed growth. It also keep easy access to the plants. (iii) It saves Time,
very high speed without any danger of Sepration and cavitatren. 8.It can be directly coupled to an
Money and the water. as the system has maximum efficiency (iv) The method is economical and also
electric mater 6 or an engine oil The torque on the power source is cruferm, the output from the pump
eco-friendly. (v) It needs less hour supply (otherwise required for the surface irrigation function) (vi)
is also uniform.
It helps to increase the effectiveness of uneven ground (rough topography). (vii) It reduces the leaching
of water and nutrients, below the root zone of the soil. *Disadvantage: (1) It needs very high initial
U3#Characteristic Curves of centrifugal pump?= The characteristic curves are broadly divided into investment (Basic cost is high). (ii) It also needs regular capital to replacement of drip irrigation
following four categories : 1. Main characteristic curves 2. Operating characteristic curves 3. Iso-efficiency equipment (maintenance cost is high). (iii)The drip irrigation emitters are vulnerable to clog and
or Muschel curves 4. Constant head and constant discharge curves. 1.Main characteristic curves: 1.Main disfunction (it happened because of the small soil particles enter in the irrigation pipe and create
characteristic curves are obtained by test run at constant speed and the discharge is varied by means of clogging). (iv) The major disadvantage of Drip Irrigation is that it may lead to salinations of soil in long
delivery valve. At each discharge, the manometric head Hm and input power P are measured and the overall run. U3#Components of drip irrigation?= It has the following components: (a) A pumping unit. (b)
efficiency o is calculated. Test curves are plotted between Hm Vs Q, P Vs Q and o Vs Q as shown in Fig. The main pipelines. (c) The sub-main pipelines (d) The lateral pipelines (e) The drip nozzles or
3.15.2 for that constant speed. The test run is repeated by running the pump at another constant speed. A Emitters All the pipes used in this system are made up of Black PVC (Poly vinyl chloride) tubing's. The
family of curves will be obtained at various constant speeds N1 , N2… 2.Operating Characteristic Curves: drip nozzles also are made up of PVC material. The nozzles are designed in such manner no jet of water
The pumps are designed for maximum, efficiency at a given speed called designed speed. Therefore the is given out but they allow water to seeps out or to trickles out. The drip nozzles or the emitters are
provided with regular intervals on the lateral pipelines.
pumps are test run at designed speed as provided by the manufacturer of the pump. The discharge is varied
as discussed in case of main characteristic curve and the head and power input are measured. The overall
efficiency of the pump is calculated. The performance curve thus obtained at design speed are called U3#Design of Drip Irrigation System?= The planning and design of drip irrigation system is essential
operating characteristic curve. 3.Iso-efficiency or Maschel Curves: Iso-efficiency i.e. constant efficiency to supply the required quantity of irrigation water to the crop at a desired uniformity. The main
curves are useful in predicting the performance on entire operations and its best performance. These purpose of the design of drip irrigation system is to decide the dimensions of various components of
characteristic curves can be drawn with the help of o Vs Q and Hm Vs Q respectively. The method is as the system such that the system provides the require quantity of water at the desired uniformity in
follows: (i) Draw a horizontal line on o Vs Q curve. It represent the constant efficiency line. (ii) The points application while keeping the cost of the system to minimum. To apply the desired amount of water at
at which the constant efficiency line cuts the constant speed lines, the discharges are noted. (iii) At a given nearly uniform rate to all the plants in the field, it is essential to design the irrigation system that
discharge and speed, the Hm is noted from H Vs Q graph. (iv) These values of Hm and Q at constant efficiency maintains a desired hydraulic pressure in the pipe network and provide the desired operating pressure
at the emitter. The design of drip irrigation system consists of selection of emission devices, size of
and speed are projected on a graph of Hm Vs Q. 4. Constant Head and Constant Discharge Curves: Often a
laterals, manifolds, sub main, main pipeline, filter and pump. *The steps to be followed for designing
centrifugal pump is draw required to operate variable speed than the designed speed. Therefore it is
the drip irrigation system are given below: 1.Inventory of the resources and data collection: This
necessary to the performance curves of a pump at variable speed so that these curves can be used to predict
step involves preparation of inventory of all the available resources and operating conditions. The
the performance. The procedure is as follows: The delivery valve opening is fixed and kept constant during
resources involved include: water resources, land resources, climate and crop 2.Computation of peak
the test on pump. Then it is operated at variable speed. For each speed the manometric head Hm, discharge
crop water requirement: The design of drip irrigation system needs the information on the peak
Q and power input Pi are measured.
water requirement, however while the system is in operation, the water requirement during the
specified irrigation interval is required. This section describes the method to estimate the crop water
U3#Design considerations involved in intake structure?= some design considerations involved in requirement. Water requirement of crops is a function of plants, surface area covered by plant,
intake structure:1. Location: The intake structure should be located in a place where it can easily draw evapotranspiration rate. 3.Deciding the appropriate layout of the drip irrigation system: It is
water from the source. It should also be accessible for maintenance and repair. 2. Water Quality: The possible to apply water to the whole field by drip. irrigation method at the same time. However this
intake structure should be designed to ensure that the water quality is maintained. This may involve may result in the requirement of high discharge which may not be available, further large diameter of
the use of screens or other filtration systems to remove debris and contaminants. 3. Flow Rate: The mains and sub main which could make the system more expensive and the high capacities of the
intake structure should be designed to accommodate the expected flow rate of water from the source. fertigation and filtration units. Hence the whole field needs to be divided in to the convenient number
This may involve the use of multiple intake pipes or larger diameter pipes. 4. Sedimentation: The intake of subunits. Each subunit is then designed separately and operated separately by having valve at the
structure should be designed to prevent sedimentation in the intake pipes. This may involve the use of head of the subunit. 4. Selection of emitters: The emitters are to be selected for its discharge,
screens or other filtration systems. 5. Marine Growth: The intake structure should be designed to operating pressure, online/inline, pressure compensating/non pressure compensating, point
prevent marine growth such as barnacles and mussels from attaching to the intake pipes. This may source/line source, single exit/multi exit and surface/subsurface. The selection of particular type of
involve the use of anti-fouling coatings or regular cleaning. 6. Environmental Impact: The intake emitter depends on the soil, crop, topography, desired emission uniformity, available discharge and
structure should be designed to minimize its impact on the environment. This may involve the use of electricity/other sources for operation of the system, water quality, water use efficiency and the cost..
fish screens or other measures to prevent harm to aquatic life. 7. Maintenance: The intake structure 5.Hydraulic design of the system in terms of lateral, sub main and main: The pipe network in drip
should be designed to allow for easy maintenance and repair. This may involve the use of removable irrigation system consists of laterals, sub main and main. Water under pressure flows through these
screens or access hatches for cleaning and inspection. 8. Cost: The design of the intake structure should pipes and as a result the pressure in the pipes reduces creating the variation in pressure or pressure
take into account the cost of construction, maintenance, and operation. This may involve the use of difference between any two points. The emitter discharge depends on the operating pressure available
cost-effective materials or design features to reduce overall costs. in the pipe at emitter connection and reduces with reducing pressure. 6. Horse power requirement
of pump.

U3#Drip irrigation wetting pattern?= wetting pattern of drip irrigation: Drip irrigation is a type of
irrigation system that delivers water directly to the root zone of plants through a network of pipes and U4#Sprinkler irrigation?= Definition : In this method the water is supplied to land by spraying it (like
emitters. The wetting pattern of drip irrigation depends on several factors, including the emitter an artificial rainfall) as it comes from above, it is also known as overhead Irrigation. This method can
spacing, flow rate, and soil type. In general, the wetting pattern of drip irrigation is localized around be applied to any type of crops except Rice and Jute as both need a standing water in the field. Rice is
each emitter, creating a circular or oval-shaped wetting zone. The size of the wetting zone depends on sown in the soil which is in a muddy form. This method is applied to almost all types soils except, clayey
the emitter flow rate and spacing, with higher flow rates and closer spacing resulting in larger wetting soils which are heavy and the rate of infiltration of this soil is very low. So, it is best suitable for the very
zones. The wetting pattern of drip irrigation can also be affected by soil type. In sandy soils, the water light soils in which deep percolation losses are very low. As this method can be applied to a land which
tends to spread out more horizontally, while in clay soils, it tends to stay more localized around the has rough topography. The levelling of land, before irrigation is not required. *Advantages: It can be
emitter. Proper design and installation of a drip irrigation system can ensure that the wetting pattern applied in different topography, in different soils and for different crops. Due to reduction in the surface
is optimized for the specific crop and soil conditions. This can help to reduce water use and improve run off, the soil erosion is put under control. Uniform application of water is possible. By using this
plant growth and yield. method a controlled supply of water is possible and the discharge also is controlled mainly during the
first few watering of crops after sowing and when the plants are still young. It needs less labour cost
as the preparation of the field is not necessary. It does not require, the borders or field channels, so
maximum land can be put to cultivation. In this method even a small stream of water can be used with
maximum efficiency. *Disadvantages: If the wind velocity increases, the pattern of sprinkler get
distorted and creates non-uniformity in the application of irrigation water. The initial cost of sprinkler
system is very high. The supply of water must be constant, if the system is to run economically. The
water to be sprinkled must be free from sand particles, to avoid clogging of the sprinklers. Due to
continuous pumping of water, the consumption of power is high (so the running cost also is high). If
the soils are heavy e.g. clayey soils, and have poor intake, this method cannot run efficiently.
U4#Types of Sprinkler Irrigation?= (A) Fixed Nozzle Pipe: It consists of a lateral pipes which have U5# Saline and Alkaline soils?= 1.Saline soil: The saline soil is a term used to describe the excessive
a line of small holes. These holes are drilled at the top, with regular intervals, along their length. On levels of soluable salts in a soil solution (soil + water ). If the level is high .it affects the plant growth
each of these holes a small nozzles are fixed. A series of such pipes (have holes with the nozzle) are negatively. It reduces the crop yields. If it is too high, to create severe conditions, it could kill the total
installed. They are kept parallel to each other, with an average distance of about 15 metres. These pipes crop in a field. The saline soil, generally have the electrical conductivity of a saturation soil extract of
are supported on raw posts. The spraying of water is developed through these nozzles. By turning these more than 4 ds at 25 c temperature.*Characteristics of a Saline Soil: A. The physical
pipes through 135, the entire 15 metres width between two pipelines is properly irrigated. This is an characteristics: The physical characteristics / properties of the saline soils are generally good because
old method of sprinkler irrigation. At present it is not commonly used. (B) Perforated Pipe : This types the excess salts keep the clay in saline soil in a flocculated state. Their structure , tillage characteristics
of sprinkler has the lateral pipes with small holes or perforators. They are drilled at the top and along and also the permeability to water are even better than the non-saline soils. They show a scattered
the sides. They are designed in such manner to provide the water to all land uniformly. A series of such crop growth have white colour on the top lay of the soil. B. The chemical characteristics of saline
pipes are laid on the ground keeping then parallel to each others. Through the drilled holes, which are soils: 1. The main soluble salts in the soils are sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. These soils also
designed on both the sides of the pipe, can cover a strip of the land (which varies between 6 and 15 contain appreciable quantities of chlorides and sulphate of calcium and magnesium. Saline soils
metres in width). In this method rate of application of water is about 20 mm/ hrs. As the application of commonly have ply values between 7 and 8.5 while the sodic soils it may increase to up to > 8.5.
water has high rate, these types of sprinklers are best suitable for the soils which have a moderately 2.Alkaline soil: It is a type of soil which has high amount of Calcium , Sodium and Magnesium. When
high rate of infiltration. The operation pressure for such type of sprinklers is in the range between 0.49 the pH level of the is >7 it is called as Alkaline Soil. *Characteristics of Alkali soils: These soil have
and 0.245 N / mm2. Such types of sprinklers are generally used in the nurseries and orchards (Where high sodicity, i.e., The Exchangeable Sodium Percentage is > 15. The pH is > 8.3. They have soluble
a constant still controlled water supply is required.). (C) The Rotating Sprinklers: It has either one or contains of sodium (Na+). The ratio is always >1. They have low salinity and higher pH values. This
two nozzles which are mounted on a body which rotates slowly, around a vertical axis. By the action of results into rise in swelling ad dispersion.
deflecting vane which is connected to it. The jet of water coming from the nozzles impinges on the vane
and thrusts it aside. The motion of the vane is restrained by a light spring, which brings the vane back
U5#Osmotic Potential?= It is the potential of water to move from a region of higher concentration to
to its original position, but at the same time the return of the vane is prevented by a stop on the body,
a region lever concentration. It is the amount of the work that must be done per unit quantity of pure
so it goes on rotating, through a small angle by the impulse. Again the vane intercepts the jet and the
water in order to transport reversibly and isothermally to the soil water at a given point. The Osmatic
cycle is again repeated. The spraying of water is developed through the nozzles and all the area around
Potential is a free energy of water in a soil system. Which is provided by the soluble particles. The
the sprinkler gets the irrigation water due to the rotation motion of the sprinklers.
osmatic potential value is always negative, as the presence of solute produces a solution of less water
than the same amount of pure water. It is proportional to the solute concentration and inversely
U4#Components of Sprinkler Irrigation system?= A. Water Source : The source of water can be proportional to the cell water volume. The osmotic potential in plant is always negative and it decreases
one of the following (i) Public water supply (ii) Storage tank (iii) Embankment supported fabric tank when the solues concentration during the plant dehydration.
(iv) Lake pond, well, reservoir. B. The Pump: The pumps are required to lift the water from the source U5# Salinity Stress Coefficient of Soil?= The salinity (salt) stress is a major environmental stress
to the level of the field. (They are called as the heart of the system). C. Pressure Gauge : The main which affects. The plant growth and its general development. The plants have to develop to suitable
function of the Pressure Gauge is to prevent the sudden rise in the pressure which may burst the pipe mechanisms to adopt to the high-salt environment i.e., The soil zones. The salt stress increases the
lines and cause problems. D. Sand Filters : They prevent the sand and other larger particles to enter intracellular osmotic pressure. It may cause the accumulation of the sodium salts to a toxic level. It is
into the system and block the pipes. They help to reduce the maintenance costs. E. Screen Filters : Like one of the most damaging a biotic stresses. Which is caused by various factors, mainly the human
the sand filters, the screen filters help to separate fine particles from the water which is then used for activities. Mainly in the Arid and semi-arid conditions. The Salinity is intensified due to use of the
irrigation through sprinklers. F. Pressure Gauge : This is the 2nd time the pressure gauge is used to chemical fertilizers and use of saline ground water to irrigate the fields.
control the sudden rise in the pressure . G. Main / Main Line : It carries the water to the submerged U5#Water Stress Coefficient?= This water stress occurs when the demand for water exceeds the
line. H. Submerged Line : It is dumped under the top soil and it supplies the water to the irrigation available amount of water during a certain period. It may be caused by the poor quality of water which
network below the surface I. Lateral Lines : They are the parallel lines of pipes spread in the field restricts its use. The water stress arises under two different conditions i.e., (i) When excess water is
which attached to the submerged line. J. Raiser Pipes : They are the vertical pipes, which come up the used (for irrigation) (ii) When there is deficit of water (to be used for irrigation). In the world, Qatar is
surface and carry the water to be spread. k. Sprinkler Head : They are the final components which the most water-stressed country. The second water-stressed country is Isreal. The water stress index
move in a half circle manner and provide irrigation water to the plants, planted around them. This can be defined as “It is the relationship between the total water used and the total water available in a
beings the direct method to supply water to the plants, it has maximum use of irrigation water with region. It is calculated by the totally formula, Agricultural Water Demand (km3 /year)to water supply
minimum losses. (km3 /year). When the result is negative, it causes water stress to the crops.

U4#Design of Sprinkler irrigation?= A sprinkler irrigation system needs to be laid and designed U5# Reclamation of Land?= “The Reclamation of land is a process in which the uncultivable land or
properly to suit the conditions of a particular site to achieve high efficiency. The choice of sprinkler the water-logged land is made available for cultivation.” *Methods: The well-proven method to reclaim
system depends on i) land topography that cannot be properly levelled owing to the subsoil being the saline and Alkaline soil is the leaching method. It is necessary to have an efficient surface and sub-
exposed and the cost involved in land levelling ii) soil texture, particularly the infiltration rate of the surface drainage system to bring down the ground water table. It should go well below the root zone
soil so that the application or precipitation rate of the system is less than the infiltration rate of the soil of the crop. − This is done by stopping surface runoff, to control the infiltration. Once the ground water
iii) available water resources and eventually matching the capacity of the sprinkler system with the table is pushed below the root zone. − The land to be reclaimed is flooded with abundant water (the
water requirement of the crops and, the system with high water application efficiency, and iv) cost- depth of this supplied water should be about 150 to 250 mm above the surface). This flooded water
effective from the point of crop production economics. washes down the salts. This process is called as leaching method. − This extra water, dissolves the
alkaline salts and is either percolates to meet the ground water table or it may be drained out by the
surface drains. − This process is repeated for a number of time with some interval to allow the land to
U4#Explain?= Moisture Distribution Pattern: The moisture (through irrigation water) distribution
dry up due to dryness of the surface soil, cracks are formed which allow the next flow of water to be
pattern is one of the basic requirements for an efficient design and management of any type of
percolated easily which carries the alkaline salts.
Irrigation system. In the sprinkler irrigation as a good and neat network is built in the agricultural farm.
The irrigation water gets evenly distributed in the field to provide uniform coverage to the field. It
mainly depends upon the spacing between two lateral pipelines and force of the water getting spread U5#Leaching Requirement (LR)?= Leaching is the removal of soluble material by the passage of
around each of the vertical pipe having the sprinkler head. *Uniformity of Coverage: The Soil Moisture water through soil. Leaching is an essential part of the reclamation process, whether the soil is saline
can be defined as “The water held in the pores of the soil which forms the water reserve available to or alkali. Leaching is a more effective way of removing salts from the surface soil; The flushing is also
quench the water requirement of the crop”. The requirement of moisture in the soil depends upon occasionally resorted to supplement leaching in the reclamation process. Leaching requirement is
various factors such as Type of Soil, Type of Crop, Crop duration, season and quality of water. * fraction of the irrigation water that must be percolated out of the bottom of the root zone in order to
Uniformity Coefficient: The uniformity coefficient (Cu) is a ratio between the water supplied to the prevent average soil salinity from rising above some specifiable level. Leaching Requirement is found
crop and the water drained out of the field. When the value of Cu is greater than 4 to 6, it is supposed under condition such as Cp(salt concentration of the rainwater) is negligibly small as is the case for
to have well-grated soil, with maximum utilization of irrigation water with less losses. normal rainwater which has an EC-value of 0.02-0.05 mmhos/cm; close to the seawater, however, the
salt content of the rainwater may rise to EC = 0.20- 0.30 mmhos/cm. Cgw = Cdp, is a reasonable
assumption for averages over annual periods; less valid for short time periods. ∆ S = 0, change in salt
U4# Hydraulic Design of Sprinkler Systems?= In sprinkler irrigation the pressure developed at the
content of the soil solution in the root zone is zero i.e. the salt balance is in equilibrium (i.e., salt
initial end is lost by the friction in the pipes therefore the size and types of laterals and main pipe
contents in the root zone at the beginning of the period and at end are equal). When there are no salts
selected should be such that the pressure loss due to friction for a given late of flow remains within
present in the soil solution in the excess of the salt concentration of the irrigation water, LR and I
permissible limits. In hydraulic design of sprinklers the main focus is to distribution water uniformly
become equal. This means that there is no requirement of water in excess of irrigation requirement for
with desired rate of application in order to minimize the deterioration of the soil surface by the break
the purpose of leaching. in the actual field situation, the actual quantity of water to be applied for both
- up of jet with small drop size. The principles that are involved in hydraulic design are : a) Calculate
irrigation and leaching will be the sum of LR and the irrigation water requirement (I), Moreover, in an
discharge through sprinckler nozzle. b) Reccomended pressure and discharge for nozzle size. c)
equilibrium situation, the following water balance also holds. In this equation, (ET-Pe ) is the rainfall
Determination of water spread area of sprinkler. d) Determination of index for jet break up and drop
deficit (i.e., Net crop irrigation requirement, designated as Ic ), while the difference (DP-GW) represents
size. e) Intake and optimum application rate.
the leaching requirement. Where, I is called total irrigation requirement (i.e., Net crop irrigation
requirement + Leaching requirement).
U5#Explain?= 1.Salinity: The soil salinity is the contents of salt in a given soil. The process that
increase the salt contents is called as salinization of soil. The salinization of soil can be a naturel process
U5#Water requirement of crop?= The total amount of water needed by a crop from the time of its
e.g. The soil between the intertidal zone i.e., the area between the high and tide of the ocean or sea
sowing, upto the period of harvesting. If put together, the-sum total of water is known as ‘The water
generally these areas are covered by the sea weeds, mangroves ,salt marshes etc. 2.PH: The pH stands
requirement of crop’. − This quantity of water required by the crop varies from crop to crop, also varies
for the term hydrogen potential. It refers to the concentration of hydrogen in either water or soil (or
from sowing harvesting period i.e. summer crops, winter crops, rainy season crops and naturally varies
any other subsistence in any state). pH is an indicator of the proportion acidity or alkalinity. It varies
from soil to soil, depending upon the capacity of soil to retain the water i.e. higher the retaintivity less
between 0 to 14: the normal water has pH of 7. When it is less than 7 the water is water as Acidic Water
will be the amount of water needed to be supplied to the crop in that soil. − For any crop, it is also
and when it is more it is called as alkaline. 3.Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): Sodium Adsorption
necessary to maintain the quantity of readily available moisture in soil, by irrigation and so it is
Ratio is an irrigation water quality parameter, It is mainly used in the measurement of sodium affected
necessary to distribute the total amount of water required by any crop, in such a way that a part of it
soils. S.A.R is important because it indicates, the suitability of water to be used for agricultural
supplied at each irrigation, must be sufficient to meet the need of the crop, for a period in between two
irrigation. The higher level of sodium Ions affect the permeability of soil i.e. the property of soil to
successive irrigation and is stored in the soil.
transmit water and air in the soil zones. 4. Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP): The
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage is a unit that measures the proportion of cation exchange sites
occupied by Sodium. When the ESP is greater than 6 the soils are considered as sodic soils and they are
called as highly sodic soils, if and when ESP is >15. The Exchangeable Sodium Percentage and the
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) are calculated after determining Ca, Mg and Na Concentrations in a
saturation extract.
U6#Drainage?= For effective efforts of improvement in agricultural productivity, Irrigation and U6#Drainage Coefficient?= Drainage coefficient is defined as the amount of surplus water to be
drainage both are must to be handled simultaneously. To increase the present cultivated area, more removed from the agricultural land in 24 hours so that the plants are not stressed due to surplus water.
land must be improved to overcome the shortage utilised land for urban/industrial development, roads It is also defined as the depth of water to be removed in 24 hours from the entire drainage area. A
and land degradation. Drainage is a reverse process of irrigation. It is defined as the removal (disposal) commonly used unit of drainage coefficient is cm/day or mm/day. It is also expressed as the flow rate
of excess water from a land (usually agricultural land). *Objectives: Plant roots require a favourable per unit area, i.e., m3/s per km2 or L/s per hectare (Lps/ha).
environment to extract water and nutrient solutions to meet the plant’s requirement. For most crops, U6# Steady State Formula (Hooghoudt's Equation)?= Relation between the spacing of drains and
soil moisture ranging from field capacity to 50% of the field capacity in the root zone is considered height of water table is given by this equation. built up between the drains due to a constant rate of
ideal. A neutral and non-saline soil is ideal for proper growth and yield of most food crops. Excess water irrigation or rainfall. The analysis applies to open drains as well as for sub-surface drains. Figure 6.5
and/or high salt concentration in the root zone or at the land surface do not allow the plant roots to indicates the physical situation considered in deriving the expression for depth and spacing of tiles.
function normally. As a result, the plant growth and yield are adversely affected. In the extreme cases Following assumptions are made in the derivation.: 1) The soil is homogeneous, 2) Diarchy’s law is
of waterlogging and salinity, the seeds may not germinate and the plants may wilt permanently valid for the flow, 3) The Hydraulic gradient at any point is equal to the slope i = of the water table dx
resulting in loss of agricultural production. Land drainage, as a tool to manage excess surface water above that point, and 4) the water flows horizontally.
and groundwater levels, plays an important role in maintaining and improving crop yields: Drainage U6# Unsteady State Formula (Glover-Dumm Equation)?= In the case of unsteady/transient flow,
prevents a decrease in the productivity of arable land due to rising water tables and the accumulation the flow is not constant, rather it changes with time as water is stored in or released from the soil. The
of salts in the root zone. Drainage is the only way to reclaim the land which is not cultivated due to change in storage is reflected either in a rise or a fall of the water table. The Dupuit-Forchheimer
waterlogging and salinity problems. Agricultural land drainage is both a preventive and a curative approach is used to derive a differential equation of unsteady flow in the waterlogged soil. Let‟s
measure for the prevention of physical and chemical degradation of soils and for the reclamation of consider a soil column which is bounded by the water table at the top and by an impervious layer at
already degraded lands. the bottom. If there is no recharge to the groundwater.

U6#Water logging ?= In case of agriculture land when due to over watering , the normal circulation
of air within the soil pores is totally cut off, it is called as “ water logged condition”. This affects the
fertility of soil productivity of the land and it leads to reduction in the yields per ha and total production
of the crop is also reduced. The depth, at which the water table make the water logging conditions,
depends upon, the height of the capillary fringe and the type of crop. *Ill Effects: It converts the good
fertile land into infertile land. It reduced the production capacity of the land through the reduction in
the yields of the crops and the total production from the field reports of a small field near Patiala in
Punjab, within a period of about 10 years, the yields of cotton has gone down from 746 kg (f) to 10 kg.
(f) and that of wheat from 1344 kg(f) per ha. to 896 kg(f) per ha. Following are the important factors
responsible for the reduction in the yields of crops: 1. Absence of aeration of soils in the root zone of a
plant, 2. Difficulties in the process of cultivation, 3. Growth of water – weeds, 4. Increase in the level of
salts, 5. Restricted root growth, 6. Lower soil temperature, 7. Plant diseases.

U6#Types of drainage system?= The drains can be classified on the basis of their location as, (i)
Surface Drains (ii) Sub-surface Drains. (i) Surface drain system: They can be subdivided into two as,
Shallow Surface Drains and Deep Surface Drains. 1. Shallow Surface Drains: They are used to take
away the extra water, provided through irrigation and it also helps to have a quick dispose off of the
storm water. By this method, the rate of percolation is reduced. They are not useful to relieve the land
which is already water logged. 2. Deep open surface drains: They used to take out the extra water
from the subsoils and so they can be used as a method of prevention of water-logging. They are used
for the reclamation of the wet lands. (ii) Sub-surface drainage: These drains are useful for both i.e.
for prevention water logging and for relieving the land, under waterlogging conditions. These are tile
drains, of porous earthen ware. They are laid, below the ground level, putting each other with open
joints and are covered by earth. So, they do not make use of the fertile land or they do not disturb the
farming activities. Generally they are spaced with a distance of 15 to 45 m. The usual diameter of the
tile drain is 100 mm. These drains are located about 0.3 m lower than the desired water table. They are
laid, with a gradient, steeper than 1 in 500. Spacing of closed drains : As already seen, the usual spacing
of these drains is between 15 and 45m, the closer spacing is being used for the soils have low
permeability and for the soils which are very highly permeable, they are spaced away from each others,
keeping the range between 15 m and 45 m.

U6#Puropse and benefits of Subdrainage system?= The purpose of sub-surface drainage system is
to remove excess water and dissolved salts from the root zone through deep ditches or pipes. *Benefits:
Specific benefits of subsurface drainage are: (i) aeration of the soil for maximum development of plant
roots and desirable soil microorganisms; (ii) increased length of growing season because of earlier
possible planting dates; (iii) decreased possibility of adversely affecting soil tilth through tillage at
excessive soil water levels; (iv) improvement of soil water conditions in relation to the operation of
tillage, planting and harvesting machines; (iv) removal of toxic substances, such as salts, that in some
soils retard plant growth; and (vi) greater storage capacity for water, resulting in less runoff and a
lower initial water table following rains.

U6# Design Consideration for Field Drains?= Field drains for a surface drainage system have a
different shape from field drains for a subsurface drainage system. The runoff reaches the field drains
by flow through row furrows or by sheet flow. Flow velocities from field to drain should not induce
erosion. Field drains are shallow and have flat side slopes. T Simple field drains are V-shaped. The
dimensions of V-shaped field drains are determined by the construction equipment, maintenance
needs, and crossability for farm equipment. Side slopes should not be steeper than 6 to 1. − Without
increasing the drain depth too much, the capacity can be enlarged by constructing a bottom width,
creating a shallow trapezoidal shape.
U6# Design Consideration for Field Laterals?= Field laterals collect water from field drains and
transport it to the main drainage system. In contrast to the field drain, the cross-section of field laterals
should be designed to meet the required discharge capacity. − Field laterals less than 1 m deep are
usually constructed with motor graders or dozers. The soil is placed near either side of the lateral.
Scrapers are needed when the excavated soil is to be transported some distance away. Under wet
conditions, excavators are used. Maintenance requirements should be considered during design; for
example, if the field laterals are to be maintained by mowing, side slopes should not be steeper than 3
to 1. Finally, special attention should be given to the transition between field drains and laterals,
because differences in depth might cause erosion at those places. For discharges below 0.03 m3/s,
pipes are a suitable means of protecting those places. However, for higher discharges, open drop
structures are recommended.

U6# Location and Alignment of Drain Pipes?= In singular drainage system each field pipe drain
discharges into an open collector drain. In composite drainage field pipe drains discharge into a pipe
collector and later discharges into an open main drain. The field drains and collector drains are buried
pipe.U6#Drain Envelope?= When a subsurface drain is installed, some soils may require measures to
protect the drain pipe from soil particle entry. Due to the drag force of the water, soil particles or
aggregates may be carried into the pipe through the perforations in the pipe wall. This process can
never be prevented completely, but it may substantially be slowed down or partially stopped by the
use of external porous material around the drain pipe. The porous material designed to do this job is
called ‘drain envelope’.
U6#Materials for drain pipe?= Clay, concrete and plastics are the material used for manufacturing
drain pipes. Criteria for pipe quality and selection of pipe material 1) Resistance to mechanical damage
,longevity and cost. 2) Mechanical damage and chemical deterioration during transportation and
handling or after installation 3) Total cost, cost of purchase, transportation ,handling and installation.