Production Engineering

(MDP1108)
Part (1): Metal Casting Technology
 Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering Materials

Metallic Materials Non-Metallic Materials

Ferrous Non-Ferrous Ceramics Polymers Composites

Alloys Alloys

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 Manufacturing Processes

Casting Machining Joining Powder

Metallurgy
Deformation
Turning Welding
Forging Drilling Brazing
Extrusion Milling Soldering
Drawing Grinding Riveting
Rolling Fastening

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 Contents
1.Introduction To Casting 3. Solidification of Metals
Process. and Alloys.

2. Sand Casting. 4. Other Casting Processes.

I. Steps of Sand Casting I. Metallic Mold Casting.
Process. II. Non-Metallic Mold
II. Methodology of Sand Casting.
Casting. III. Centrifugal Casting.
A. Pattern Making IV. Continuous Casting.
B. Mold Making.
C. Core Making. 5. Casting Defects.
D. Gating System.
E. Risering.
F. Fettling.
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 1. Introduction To Casting Process
 Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid
metal is poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, then allowed to solidify.

 The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is

ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the
process. Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods.

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- A foundry is a commercial establishment, containing
the necessary materials and equipment to produce
castings.

 Mold types may be classified into:

 Expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting. Mold materials such as: sand mold,
plaster, ..etc.
 Permanent mold which can be used to produce
many castings. Mold materials are usually metals.

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 Advantages of the Casting Process:
1. Most intricate and large shapes can be cast in the net
shape or near net shape, which can minimize the
operations like machining, forging and welding.
2. Highly adaptable to mass production.
3. It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra
metal in each casting is re-melted and re-used.
4. Cast metal is isotropic. It has the same physical and
mechanical properties along any direction.

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 Disadvantages of the Casting Process:

1. Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for

some processes; e.g., sand casting. Many new casting
processes have been developed which can take into
consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy
and surface finish. Some of these processes are die
casting process, investment casting process and shell
molding process.
2. The metal casting process cannot be used for all
metals, depending on the nature of the metal (its
affinity to oxygen, its melting point, etc.).
3. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.
4. Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals.
5. Environmental problems.
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 Sand Gravity Die Casting
Casting (Permanent Mold
Casting)
Metallic Mold
Casting Pressure Die Casting

Shell Mold Casting

Non-Metallic Lost Foam
Mold Casting (Expandable
Mold) Casting
Lost Wax Casting
Continuous (Precision/
Casting Investment
Casting)
Centrifugal
Casting
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 2. Sand Casting
 Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten
metal into a sand mold.
I. General Steps of Sand Casting Process:
1. Pattern Making (see pattern construction steps).
2. Mold Making, i.e. preparing the mold with necessary
cores, this step includes:
a. preparation of the necessary sand mixtures for mould
and core making.
b. sand packing around the pattern, the pouring cup
and sprue are placed in the cope; the runner and
gates are arranged in the drag.
c. the pattern is removed from the flask, then the cores
are arranged (usually in the drag). Then the two parts
of the mold are assembled. 11
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3. Melting the metal/alloy to be cast. Several types of
furnaces are available for melting metals and their
selection depends on the type of metal, the maximum
temperature required and the mode of molten metal
delivery.
4. Pouring the molten metal/alloy into the mold.
5. Remove the casting (product) from the mold after the
metal solidifies
6. Cleaning and finishing the casting (Fettling).
7. Test and inspect the casting.
8. The casting is ready for shipping.

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Description
• A mold frame (flask) consists of two parts: cope (the
upper part) and drag (the lower part). The two halves
separate at the parting line
• A mold cavity is formed when the pattern is
embedded in sand inside the flask forming an
impression of the casting.

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 The set of channels through which a molten metal
pours and flows to the mold cavity is called gating
system.
 Typical gating system consists of a pouring cup and
a sprue receiving the poured melt, runner/gate is a
channel through which the melt is enters the mold
cavity.
 A gating system may include a riser (feed head): a
cavity used to feed the casting when it is shrinking.
 Air within the mold cavity and gases formed when a
molten metal contacts the mold surface are removed
through the vents.
 The interior cavities of a casting are formed by a
separate inserts called cores. Cores are usually made of
sand and baked. D. Reham Reda 15
 Note: Mold = flask + sand + gating system

Assembled mold

Pouring by ladle

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  Sand Casting
(Advantages/Disadvantages)
Advantages Disadvantages
– Inexpensive mold. – Labor intensive
– Used for complex – Slower production rate
geometry. – Rough surface finish
– Used for all alloys. – Loose tolerances
– Used for unlimited size. –Requires relatively thick
–Economical in low walls (>3mm)
quantities.

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  Sand Casting Terms
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or
bottom, in which the sand mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in
the molding structure, it consists of various parts
such as “drag”- lower molding flask, “cope”- upper
molding flask.

2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object (product)

to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.

3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the

two molding flasks (cope & drag) that makes up the
mold.
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4. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and
generally baked, which is used to create openings and
various shaped cavities in the castings.

5. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the

top of the mold into which the molten metal is poured.

6. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal,

from the pouring basin, reaches the runner. In many
cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

7. Runner: The channel through which the molten

metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

8. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal

enters the mold cavity. D. Reham Reda 20
9. Core print: are used to support the cores inside the
mold cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome
the metallostatic force.

10. Riser: Also known as feed head, it is a column of

molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it
shrinks and solidifies.

11. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape

of air and gases.

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 II. Methodology of Sand Casting
A- Pattern Making.
 A Pattern is a model or the replica of the product to be
cast. It is used to form an impression (mold cavity) in
sand mold. Except for the various allowances, a
pattern exactly resembles the casting to be made.
Functions of Patterns:
 A pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of
making a casting.
 A pattern may contain projections known as core
prints if the casting requires a core and need to be
made hollow.
 Patterns properly should have smooth surfaces to
reduce the surface casting defects.
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Materials for Making Patterns:
 Pattern may be made of wood, metal or plastic.
The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion .
5. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations
in humidity.
6. Available at low cost.
The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern
material:
 Number of castings to be produced.
 Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
 Shape, complexity and size
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Some Types of Patterns:
1. Single piece (solid) pattern:
• Made from one piece.
• Inexpensive and used for large size
simple castings.
• Pattern is accommodated either in
the cope or in the drag.
2. Split piece pattern:
• Patterns of intricate shaped
castings cannot be made in one
piece because of the inherent
difficulties associated with the
molding operations (withdrawing
pattern from mould).
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• The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns
are accommodated in the cope and drag portions of the
mold, respectively.
• Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the
mould.
3. Gated pattern:
• A gated pattern used to
produce many casting at one
time and thus it is used in mass
production systems.
• Gated patterns are employed
for producing small castings.
• The sections connecting different patterns serve as
runner and gates. This facilitates filling of the mould with
molten metal in a better manner and at the same time
eliminates the labor and time.
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Pattern Allowances:
 A pattern is larger in size as compared to the final
casting (product), because it carries certain allowances
due to metallurgical and mechanical reasons for
example, shrinkage, machining, draft, distortion, ….etc.

1.Shrinkage Allowance:
 Almost all cast metals shrink or contract
volumetrically after solidification/cooling, therefore the
pattern used to obtain a particular sized casting is made
oversize by an amount equal to that of shrinkage or
contraction.
 The metal shrinkage is of two types:

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1. Liquid Shrinkage:
 It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal
changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature.
 To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the
liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.

2. Solid Shrinkage:
 It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal
loses temperature in solid state.
 To account for this, shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns.
 Different metals shrink at different rates because
shrinkage is the property of the cast metal/alloy.
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 The metal shrinkage depends upon:
1. The type of cast metal or alloy.
2. Pouring temperature of the metal/alloy.
3. Casted dimensions (size).
4. Casting design aspects.
5. Molding conditions (i.e., mould materials and
molding methods (hand or machine molding)
employed).

2. Machining Allowance:
 A Casting is given an allowance for machining,
because:
i. Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat
treatment; thus scales formed need to be removed.
ii. It is the intended to remove surface roughness and
other imperfections from the castings to improve the
surface finish.
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iii. It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
 Machining allowance depends on the following
factors:
i. Nature of metals.
ii. Size and shape of casting.
iii. Molding process used.
iv. The type of machining operations to be employed
for cleaning the casting.

3. Draft or Taper Allowance:

 It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
 Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be
easily removed from the molding material tightly packed
around it with out damaging the mould cavity.
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 The taper provided is called the draft angle. Draft
provided on the casting 1 to 3 degrees on external
surface. If deep cavities are present, more draft is
necessary to avoid tearing the mold during withdrawal of
the pattern.
 The amount of taper depends upon:
i. Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in
contact with the mould cavity.
ii. Molding methods and materials.
Fig: taper in design

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4. Distortion or Cambered Allowance:
 A casting may distort or wrap during solidification due
to its shape, for example:
i. Casting of an irregular shape, so all its parts do not
shrink uniformly, e.g. the arms possess unequal
thickness, hence one portion of the casting cools at a
faster rate as compared to the other.
ii. Castings have letters form such as U, T, L or V-shape,
as shown in Fig. it will tend to contract at the closed
end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined.
This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V,
T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so
that the casting after distortion will have its sides
vertical.
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Pattern Construction Steps:
1. Get the working drawing of the part for which the
pattern is to be made.
2. Add allowances as per the requirements and
conditions.
3. Study the pattern layout carefully and select:
a. Type of pattern.
b. Location of pattern.
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4. Using the various hand tools and pattern making
machines fabricate the different parts of the pattern.
5. Inspect the pattern
as regards the
alignment of different
portions of the
pattern and its
dimensional accuracy.
6. Give a shellac
coatings to pattern.

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B. Mold Making.
Molding Materials
 A large variety of molding materials is used in
foundries for manufacturing molds and cores.
 The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
(1) Base sand, (2) Binder, and (3) Moisture

1. Base Sand:
 Silica sand is most commonly used base sand.
 Other base sands that are also used for making mold
are zircon sand, chromite sand, and olivine sand.
 Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand
and it is easily available.
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2. Binder:
 Binders are of many types such as: clay binders,
organic binders and inorganic binders.
 Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents
mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength.
 The most popular clay types are:
– Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O)
– Bentonite (Al2O3.4SiO2.nH2O)
3. Moisture:
 Clay binder acquires its bonding action only in the
presence of the required amount of moisture.
 When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture
and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each
flake of the clay.
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C. Core Making.
 Cores form the internal surfaces of a casting. Cores are
placed in the mold, and remains in the mold while the
metal is being poured.
 Like a pattern, the size of the core is designed to
accommodate for shrinkage during the metal casting
operation, and machine allowance. Cores are made of
the highest quality sand and are subject to extreme
conditions during casting.
 Where coring is required, provision should be made to
support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are
used to serve this purpose.
 The core print is an added projection on the pattern
and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core
rests during pouring of the mold.
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 The core print must be of adequate size and shape so
that it can support the weight of the core during the
casting operation.
 Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed
horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold
cavity.

o Core Making Steps:

1. Core sand preparation.
 Properties of sand cores:
- In the green condition, there must be adequate strength
for handling.
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- In the hardened state, it must be strong enough to
handle the forces of casting.
- Permeability must be very high to allow for the escape
of gases.
- As the casting or molding cools, the core must be weak
enough to break down as the material shrinks.
- Good refractoriness is required as the core will be
surrounded by hot metal during casting.
- A smooth surface finish.
- A minimum generation of gases during metal pouring.
2. Core making.
- Cores are made by means of core boxes.

3. Core baking in furnaces.

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