ST.ANTONYS COLLEGE PERUVANTHANAM DEPT.

OF COMPUTERSCIENCE COA[SEM II}

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION&ARCHITECHTURE (COA)

MODULE-3

MEMORY ORGANIZATION

MEMORY HIERARCHY

The memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer since It Is

needed for store programs and data. A very small computer with a limited
application may be able to fulfill its intended task without the need of additional
storage capacity. The memory unit that communicates directly with the called CPU
is called the main memory. Devices that provide backup storage are auxiliary
memory. The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems
are magnetic disks and tapes. They are used for storing system Programs, large
data files, and other backup information. Only programs and data currently needed
by the processor reside in main memory. The main memory occupies a central
position by being able to communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary
memory devices through an I/O processor. When programs not residing in main
memory are needed by the CPU, they are brought in from auxiliary memory.
Programs not currently needed in main memory are transferred into auxiliary
memory to provide space for currently used programs and data.

A special very-high-speed memory called a Cache memory is sometimes used to

increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available to
the CPU at a rapid rate. The cache memory is employed in computer systems to
compensate for the speed differential between main memory access time and
processor logic.

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Main Memory

The main memory is the central storage unit in a computer system. It is a relatively
large and fast memory used to store programs and data during the computer
operation. The principal technology used for the main memory is based on
semiconductor integrated circuits. Integrated circuit RAM chips are available in
two possible operating modes, static and dynamic. The static RAM consists
essentially of internal flip-flops that store the binary information. The stored
information remains valid as long as power is applied to the unit. The dynamic
RAM stores the binary information in the form of electric charges that are applied
to capacitors. The dynamic RAM offers reduced power consumption and larger
storage capacity in a single memory chip. The static RAM is easier to use and has
shorter read and write cycles. Most of the main memory in a general-purpose
computer is made up of RAM integrated circuit chips, but a portion of the memory
may be constructed with ROM chips. Originally, RAM was used to refer to a

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random-access memory, but now it is used to designate a read/write memory to

distinguish it from a read-only memory, although ROM is also random access.
RAM is used for storing the bulk of the programs and data that are subject to
change. ROM is used for storing programs that are permanently resident in the
computer and for tables of constants that do not change in value once the
production of the computer is completed.

The ROM portion of main memory is needed for storing an initial program called a
bootstrap loader. The bootstrap loader is a program whose function is to start the
computer software operating when power is turned on. Since RAM is volatile, its
contents are destroyed when power is turned off. The contents of ROM remain
unchanged after power is turned off and on again. The startup of a computer
consists of turning the power on and starting the execution of an initial program.

Types of Read Only Memory (ROM)

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by

the user. Once programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be
changed.

2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable read only memory) – It can be

reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To
reprogram it, erase all the previous data.

3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read only memory) – The

data can be erased by applying an electric field, with no need for
ultraviolet light. We can erase only portions of the chip.

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RAM and ROM Chips

A RAM chip is better suited for communication with the CPU if it has one or
more control inputs that select the chip only when needed. Another common
feature is a bidirectional data bus that allows the transfer of data either from
memory to CPU during a read operation or from CPU to memory during a write
operation. A bidirectional bus can be constructed with three-state buffers. A three-
state buffer output can be placed in one of three possible states: a signal equivalent
to logic 1, a signal equivalent to logic 0, or a highimpedance state. The logic 1 and
0 are normal digital signals. The highimpedance state behaves like an open circuit,
which means that the output does not carry a signal and has no logic significance.

The capacity of the memory is 128 words of eight bits (one byte) per word. This
requires a 7-bit address and an 8-bit bidirectional data bus. The read and write
inputs specifies the memory operation and the two chips select (CS) control inputs
are for enabling the chip only when it is selected by the microprocessor. The
availability of more than one control input to select the chip facilitates the
decoding the address lines when multiple chips are used in the microcomputer. The
read and write inputs are sometimes combined into one line labeled R/W. When
the chip is selected, the two binary states in this line specify the two operations of
read or write.

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A ROM chip is organized externally in a similar manner. However, since a ROM

can only read, the data bus can only be in an output mode. For the same-size chip,
it is possible to have more bits of ROM than of RAM, because the internal binary
cells in ROM occupy less space than in RAM. For this reason, the diagram
specifies a 512-byte ROM, while the RAM has only 128 bytes. The nine address
lines in the ROM chip specify any one of the 512 bytes stored in it. The two chip
select inputs must be CS1 = 1 and CS2 = 0 for the · unit to operate. Otherwise, the
data bus is in a high-impedance state. There is no need for a read or write control
because the unit can only read. Thus when the chip is enabled by the two select
inputs, the byte selected by the address lines appears on the data bus.

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Auxiliary Memory

The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer systems are
magnetic disks and tapes. Other components used, but not as frequently, are
magnetic drums, magnetic bubble memory, and optical disks. The important
characteristics of any device are its access mode, access time, transfer rate,
capacity, and cost. The average time required to reach a storage location in
memory and obtain its contents is called the access time. In electromechanical
devices with moving parts such as disks and tapes, the access time consists of a
seek time required to position the read-write head to a location and a transfer
time required to transfer data to or from the device. Because the seek time is
usually much longer than the transfer time, auxiliary storage is organized in
records or blocks. A record is a specified number of characters or words. Reading
or writing is always done on entire records. The transfer rate is the number of
characters or words that the device can transfer per second, after it has been
positioned at the beginning of the record. Bits are recorded as magnetic spots on
the surface as it passes a stationary mechanism called a write head. Stored bits are

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detected by a change in magnetic field produced by a recorded spot on the surface

as it passes through a read head.

Magnetic Disks

A magnetic disk is a circular plate constructed of metal or plastic coated with

magnetized material. Often both sides of the disk are used and several disks may
be stacked on one spindle with read/write heads available on each surface. All
disks rotate together at high speed and are not stopped or started for access
purposes. Bits are stored in the magnetized surface in spots along concentric circles
called tracks. The tracks are commonly divided into sections called sectors. In
most systems, the minimum quantity of information which can be transferred is a
sector.

A disk system is addressed by address bits that specify the disk number, the disk
surface, the sector number and the track within the sector. After the read/write
heads are positioned in the specified track, the system has to wait until the rotating
disk reaches the specified sector under the read/write head. Information transfer is
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very fast once the beginning of a sector has been reached. Disks may have multiple
heads and simultaneous transfer of bits from several tracks at the same time.

Disks that are permanently attached to the unit assembly and cannot be removed by
the occasional user are called hard disks. A disk drive with removable disks is
called a floppy disk. The disks used with a floppy disk drive are small removable
disks made of plastic coated with magnetic recording material. Floppy disks are
extensively used in personal computers as a medium for distributing software to
computer users.

Magnetic Tape

A magnetic tape transport consists of the electrical, mechanical, and electronic

components to provide the parts and control mechanism for a magnetic-tape unit.
The tape itself is a strip of plastic coated with a magnetic recording medium. Bits
are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks. Usually, seven or
nine bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character together with a parity bit.
Read/write heads are mounted one in each track so that data can be recorded and
read as a sequence of characters. Magnetic tape units can be stopped, started to
move forward or in reverse, or can be rewound. However, they cannot be started or
stopped fast enough between individual characters. For this reason, information is
recorded in blocks referred to as records.

Cache Memory

Analysis of a large number of typical programs has shown that the references to
memory at any given interval of time tend to be confined within a few localized
areas in memory. This phenomenon is known as the property of locality of
reference. If the active portions of the program and data are placed in a fast small
memory, the average memory access time can be reduced, thus reducing the total
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execution time of the program. Such a fast small memory is referred to as a cache
memory. It is placed between the CPU and main memory. The cache memory
access time is less than the access time of main memory by a factor of 5 to 10. The
cache is the fastest component in the memory hierarchy and approaches the speed
of CPU components. The fundamental idea of cache organization is that by
keeping the most frequently accessed instructions and data in the fast cache
memory, the average memory access time will approach the access time of the
cache. Although the cache is only a small fraction of the size of main memory, a
large fraction of memory requests will be found in the fast cache memory because
of the locality of reference property of programs. When the CPU needs to access
memory, the cache is examined. If the word is found in the cache, it is read from
the fast memory. If the word addressed by the CPU is not found in the cache, the
main memory is accessed to read the word. A block of words containing the one
just accessed is then transferred from main memory to cache memory. The block
size may vary from one word (the one just accessed) to about 16 words adjacent to
the one just accessed. In this manner, some data are transferred to cache so that
future references to memory find the required words in the fast cache memory. The
performance of cache memory is frequently measured in terms of a quantity called
hit ratio. When the CPU refers to memory and finds the word in cache, it is said to
produce a hit. If the word is not found in cache, it is in main memory and it counts
as a miss. The ratio of the number of hits divided by the total CPU references to
memory (hits plus misses) is the hit ratio.

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The basic characteristic of cache memory is its fast access time. Therefore, very
little or no time must be wasted when searching for words in the cache. The
transformation of data from main memory to cache memory is referred to as a
mapping process. Organization of cache memory can classified into three type of
mapping process

1. Associative mapping

2. Direct mapping

3. Set-associative mapping

1. Associative Mapping

The fastest and most flexible cache organization uses an associative memory. The
associative memory stores both the address and content (data) of the memory
word. This permits any location in cache to store any word from main memory. A
CPU address of 15 bits is placed in the argument register and the associative
memory is searched for a matching address. If the address is found, the
corresponding 12-bit data is read and sent to the CPU. If no match occurs, the main
memory is accessed for the word. The address--data pair is then transferred to the
associative cache memory. If the cache is full, an address--data pair must be
displaced to make room for a pair that is needed and not presently in the cache.

2. Direct Mapping

Associative memories are expensive compared to random-access memories

because of the added logic associated with each cell. The CPU address of 15 bits is
divided into two fields. The nine least significant bits constitute the index field and
the remaining six bits form the tag field. The number of bits in the index field is
equal to the number of address bits required to access the cache memory.

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In the general case, there are 2k words in cache memory and 2" words in main
memory. The n-bit memory address is divided into two fields: k bits for the index
field and n - k bits for the tag field. The direct mapping cache organization uses the
n-bit address to access the main memory and the k-bit index to access the cache.
Each word in cache consists of the data word and its associated tag. When a new
word is first brought into the cache, the tag bits are stored alongside the data bits.
When the CPU generates a memory request, the index field is used for the address
to access the cache. The tag field of the CPU address is compared with the tag in
the word read from the cache. If the two tags match, there is a hit and the desired
data word is in cache. If there is no match, there is a miss and the required word is
read from main memory.

3. Set-Associative Mapping

A third type of cache organization, called set-associative mapping, is an

improvement over the directmapping organization in that each word of cache can
store two or more words of memory under the same index address. Each data word
is stored together with its tag and the number of tag-data items in one word of
cache is said to form a set. When the CPU generates a memory request, the index
value of the address is used to access the cache. The tag field of the CPU address is
then compared with both tags in the cache to determine if a match occurs. The
comparison logic is done by an associative search of the tags in the set similar to
an associative memory search: thus the name "set-associative." The hit ratio will
improve as the set size increases because more words with the same index but
different tags can reside in cache. When a miss occurs in a set-associative cache
and the set is full, it is necessary to replace one of the tag-data items with a new
value. The most common replacement algorithms used are: random replacement,
first-in, firstout (FIFO), and least recently used (LRU).

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Writing into Cache

An important aspect of cache organization is concerned with memory write

requests. When the CPU finds a word in cache during a read operation, the main
memory is not involved in the transfer. However, if the operation is a write, there
are two ways that the system can proceed. The simplest and most commonly used
procedure is to update main memory with every memory write operation, with
cache memory being updated in parallel if it contains the word at the specified
address. This is called the write-through method. This method has the advantage
that main memory always contains the same data as the cache. This characteristic
is important in systems with direct memory access transfers. The second procedure
is called the write-back method. In this method only the cache location is updated
during a write operation. The location is then marked by a flag so that later when
the word is removed from the cache it is copied into main memory. The reason for
the write-back method is that during the time a word resides in the cache, it may be
updated several times.

Cache Initialization

One more aspect of cache organization that must be taken into consideration is the
problem of initialization. The cache is initialized when power is applied to the
computer or when the main memory is loaded with a complete set of programs
from auxiliary memory. After initialization the cache is considered to be empty,
but in effect it contains some nonvalid data. It is customary to include with each
word in cache a valid bit to indicate whether or not the word contains valid data.
The cache is initialized by clearing all the valid bits to 0. The valid bit of a
particular cache word is set to 1 the first time this word is loaded from main
memory and stays set unless the cache has to be initialized again.

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Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is a concept used in some large computer systems that permit the
user to construct programs as though a large Memory space were available, equal
to the totality of auxiliary memory. Each address that is referenced by the CPU
goes through an address mapping from the so-called virtual address to a physical
address in main memory. Virtual memory is used to give programmers the illusion
that they have a very large memory at their disposal, even though the computer
actually has a relatively small main memory. A virtual memory system provides a
mechanism for translating program-generated addresses into correct main memory
locations. This is done dynamically, while programs are being executed in the
CPU. The translation or mapping is handled automatically by the hardware by
means of a mapping table.

Address Space and Memory Space

An address used by a programmer will be called a virtual address, and the set of
such addresses the address space. An address in main memory is called a location
or physical address. The set of such locations is called the memory space. Thus
the address space is the set of addresses generated by programs as they reference
instructions and data the memory space consists of the actual main memory
locations directly addressable for processing. In most computers the address and
memory spaces are identical. The address space is allowed to be larger than the
memory space in computers with virtual memory. In a virtual memory system,
programmers are told that they have the total address space at their disposal.
Moreover, the address field of the instruction code has a sufficient number of bits
to specify all virtual addresses.

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Address Mapping Using Pages

The table implementation of the address mapping is simplified if the information in

the address space and the memory space are each divided into groups of fixed size.
The physical memory is broken down into groups of equal size called blocks,
which may range from 64 to 4096 words each. The term page refers to groups of
address space of the same size. The programs are also considered to be split into
pages. Portions of programs are moved from auxiliary memory to main memory in
records equal to the size of a page. The term "page frame" is sometimes used to
denote a block.

Page Replacement

A virtual memory system is a combination of hardware and software techniques.

The memory management software system handles all the software operations for
the efficient utilization of memory space. It must decide

(1) Which page in main memory ought to be removed to make room for a new
page

(2) When a new page is to be transferred from auxiliary memory to main memory

(3) Where the page is to be placed in main memory.

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The hardware mapping mechanism and the memory management software together
constitute the architecture of a virtual memory. When a program starts execution,
one or more pages are transferred into main memory and the page table is set to
indicate their position. The program is executed from main memory until it
attempts to reference a page that is still in auxiliary memory. This condition is
called page fault. When a page fault occurs in a virtual memory system, it signifies
that the page referenced by the CPU is not in main memory. A new page is then
transferred from auxiliary memory to main memory. If main memory is full, it
would be necessary to remove a page from a memory block to make room for the
new page. The policy for choosing pages to remove is determined from the
replacement algorithm that is used. Two of the most common replacement
algorithms used are the first-in, first-out (FIFO) and the least recently used (LRU).

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