Quality of Domestic Water Supplies:

Sampling Guide

Dr PP Mpungose
Office: 2.20B, D6 Campus
E-mail: mpungosep@cput.ac.za

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SAMPLING GUIDE

Part 1:
General information on the Part 2:
objectives and concepts of Planning of the sampling
domestic water quality programme
sampling

Part 3:
Part 4:
Preparing for the sampling
Sample collection
exercise

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PART 1: FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH THE OBJECTIVES AND
CONCEPTS OF WATER QUALITY SAMPLING

What substances must

Why is it important to
Why do we need to What is meant by water be analysed to
know how to collect
collect a water sample? quality? determine the water
water samples?
quality?

How do the differences

What is a
Where must water How often must water between ground and
representative water
samples be collected? samples be taken? surface water sources
sample?
affect sampling?

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WHAT IS v Sampling could be defined as a process of selecting a
portion of material small enough in volume to be
SAMPLING? transported conveniently and handled in the laboratory,
while still accurately representing the part of the
environment sampled.

v The main difficulties in sampling are representativeness

and integrity.

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WHAT IS WATER v Water sampling is the process of taking a portion of water
for analysis or other testing, for example:
SAMPLING? v drinking water to check that it complies with relevant
water quality standards, or
v river water to check for pollutants, or
v bathing water to check that it is safe for bathing, or
v intrusive water in a building to identify its source.

v The primary goal of water sampling is to observe and

measure how water quality changes over time.

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TYPES OF SAMPLES
GRAB SAMPLE:
• A grab sample is a discrete sample which is collected at a
specific location at a certain point in time.
• If the environmental medium varies spatially or temporally,
then a single grab sample is not representative, and more
samples need to be collected.

COMPOSITE SAMPLE:
• A composite sample is made by thoroughly mixing several
grab samples.
• The whole composite may be measured or random samples
from the composites may be withdrawn and measured.

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WHAT IS A REPRESENTATIVE
WATER SAMPLE?

A representative water sample can be described

as a sample that meets the objectives of
sampling, and that has been collected at a place
that truly represents the water at the point of
concern in the water supply system

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FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH THE OBJECTIVES AND CONCEPTS OF WATER QUALITY
SAMPLING

The objectives of any water quality sampling programme should be clearly formulated before
water samples are collected and analysed. For domestic water supplies, the sampling objectives
are determined by the information that is required such as:

• the level of treatment required to ensure that a water supply is suitable for domestic use;

• the efficiency of the water treatment;

• possible contamination of the water in the distribution system;

• the water quality at the point of use (this may include the quality of the water used by street
vendors for food preparation or at a tap in a house); and

• the corrosivity of the water.

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FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH THE OBJECTIVES AND CONCEPTS OF WATER QUALITY
SAMPLING…

The objectives of the sampling programme in turn determine issues such as:

• which substances in the water are of interest;

• where and when are samples to be taken;

• how are samples to be taken;

• which analytical methods are to be used;

• how results are to be reported; and

• what is to be done with the reported results.

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THE FIVE MAIN ELEMENTS IN THE WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT CYCLE OF
DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLIES

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FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH THE OBJECTIVES AND CONCEPTS OF WATER QUALITY
SAMPLING…

v Why do we need to collect a water sample?

• Most water quality analyses cannot be done on site (i.e. in situ). Therefore, a representative
volume of water at a specific point of interest has to be collected for analysis in a laboratory.

v Why is it important to know how to collect water samples?

• Wrong sampling procedures and methods will affect the accuracy and reliability of analytical
results and lead to misleading conclusions on the quality of the water supply.
• It is also important to remember that, once a water sample is taken, the substances in the
sample may deteriorate or the sample may become contaminated before it reaches the
laboratory.
• To avoid this the sampler must know all the correct sampling requirements and preservation
methods beforehand.

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 WATER QUALITY SUBSTANCES OF KEY RELEVANCE TO THE DOMESTIC USER

v What substances must be analysed to determine the water

quality?
• A large number of substances are found in water.
• However, only a few commonly occur in concentrations
that cause adverse health, aesthetic or other problems
of concern to domestic users.

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 WHERE MUST WATER SAMPLES BE COLLECTED?
Sampling location is important in water-sampling strategy. The sampling site should represent
the environment under study. The optimal selection of sampling sites is related to the objective
of the program (e.g., whether it is trend detection, regulatory enforcement, or estimation of
pollutant loadings). The actual sampling point in the system is determined by the objective of the
sampling programme, for example (see Figure):

• the source (if the objective is to determine whether a

water source is suitable for domestic purposes, or
what level of treatment is required);

• the outflow from the water treatment works (if the

objective is to determine operational control and
product quality);

• a distribution system (if the objective is to determine

whether any changes in water quality occur in the
distribution system); and

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• a point of use (to determine if the water is fit for use).
 HOW OFTEN MUST WATER SAMPLES BE TAKEN?

• The sampling frequency depends primarily on the purpose of sampling, but also on the
number of people being supplied with water and the nature of the water source as well as the
substance of concern.

• The quality of a water source can change within minutes or it can remain stable for a long
period of time. Determining the correct sampling frequency is therefore a crucial water quality
monitoring step.

• If the frequency of sampling is too low, then results would not reflect the correct variations in
water quality at a specific point.

• On the other hand, if the sampling frequency is too high, then money would be wasted on
unnecessary sample analyses, and the results obtained would not reveal new information,
but would only confirm existing results.

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 HOW DO THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUND- AND SURFACE WATER SOURCES
AFFECT SAMPLING?
• Generally, the quality of surface water is more variable than the quality of groundwater.
Therefore, the surface water should be sampled more frequently.

• In the case of flowing surface water, the quality may vary drastically over time, particularly
during rainstorm events or in relation to effluent discharges. The choice of the time and date of
sampling, therefore, has a critical effect on the representivity of the sample.

• In the case of groundwater, the quality of the aquifer is typically reasonably constant over
time.

• Local land-use activities may have a significant impact on the groundwater quality. If it is the
purpose to obtain a representative sample from the groundwater aquifer, the stagnant water
must first be displaced (or purged*).

• However, if the actual quality of the borehole water (the water that is directly used by the
community) needs to be determined, then purging is not required. In other words the objective

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of the sampling exercise must be taken into account when collecting the water sample.
 Define the Select the sampling
objectives of the points in the water
sampling exercise supply system

PART 2: Description of the

Choose the
analytical
PLANNING OF sampling point
laboratory

THE SAMPLING
PROGRAMME
Select the key Determine the
substances sampling frequency

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 2.1 DEFINE THE OBJECTIVES OF THE SAMPLING EXERCISE

v Before any sampling programme is started, it is important to define clearly the objectives of
the sampling programme as this will dictate issues such as:
• the substances to be sampled and analysed;
• the frequency of sampling;
• the choice of preparatory steps prior to analyses; and
• the appropriate guidelines to evaluate the results.

v Objectives or purpose for sampling may include options such as:

• assessment of the fitness for use;
• evaluation of the water treatment process to determine if disinfection of the water is
adequate;
• evaluation of water in a distribution system to determine whether the water is adequately
stabilised; and
• evaluation of water quality at a tap in a house to determine if the water is safe to drink.

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 2.2 SAMPLING PROTOCOL (STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURE)

Sampling should always start by defining the purpose of the measurement. Once the purpose of
the analysis has been established, a sampling plan should be developed to achieve the purpose.
This plan should be written as a protocol (standard operation procedure, SOP) that includes the
following aspects:

1. when, where and how to collect samples;

2. sampling equipment, including its maintenance and calibration;
3. sample containers, including cleaning, addition of stabilizers and storage;
4. sample-treatment procedures (e.g., drying, mixing and handling prior to measurements);
5. sub-sampling procedures; and,
6. sample record-keeping (e.g., labelling, recording information, auxiliary information, and
chain-of custody requirements).

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 2.2 SAMPLING PROTOCOL (STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURE)…

The sampling plan should be written according to the

purpose of the analysis and in advance of performing
field sampling. Development of a sampling plan offers
several advantages:

1. it forces constructive thinking and stimulates

suggestions and criticisms;
2. it avoids misconceptions, misunderstandings and
problems if there are changes in personnel;
3. it offers guidelines and SOPs to sampling personnel;
and,
4. it provides documentation for quality assurance (QA).

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 2.3 SELECT THE SAMPLING POINTS IN THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

The point where the water sample in the water supply system will be taken depends largely on
the objectives of the sampling exercise. The sampling points could thus be located at:
• the raw water source (i.e. a river, stream, dam, lake or borehole);
• the water treatment system;
• the distribution system; or
• the point of use (which can be a tap in the house, bucket in the house, or the container the
vendor uses on the street).

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 2.3 SELECT THE SAMPLING POINTS IN THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM…

Raw water source

River, stream, dam or lake
• Surface water refers to water that is found at a source on the surface of the earth, such as a
river, stream, dam or lake. It is important to remember that if a water sample is collected from
one of these sources, the point where the sample is collected must be as near to the point of
abstraction as possible.

Groundwater
• The objective of the sampling exercise is very important when selecting sampling points for
groundwater sources.
• If the aim is to evaluate the water quality of the aquifer then the borehole must first be purged
before the sample can be collected.
• If the aim is to determine the quality of the water supply from the borehole then the borehole
does not need to be purged.
• The sampling point may then be placed at the first tap (or line-opening) in the system after
the borehole.

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 2.3 SELECT THE SAMPLING POINTS IN THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM…

Treatment and distribution system

• Water samples are taken at the outlet of treatment works to check the treatment processes
and/or the quality of the water supplied to the consumer.
• Water within a distribution system is normally sampled to evaluate and check whether the
distribution system performs correctly.
• If overall performance of the distribution system needs to be evaluated it is better to take the
sample from a pipe with significant flow, rather than from a stagnant section of the distribution
system.
• For contamination, monitoring samples must be collected down-flow of the (suspected) point
of contamination in the distribution system.

Point of use
This is a very important sampling point as it represents the water that is actually used for
domestic purposes. To obtain the quality of this water, the sampler can collect the water at the
following points:
• From a tap that is used regularly outside or inside the house, shop or in the garden.
• In the case of vendors, samples must be taken directly from the vendor’s water containers.

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 2.4 DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLING POINT

A description of a sampling point is necessary in order to make revisits and reporting on

specific sampling points easier. This applies to points in remote as well as residential areas.
The position of a sampling point can be determined by making use of:
• maps;
• street addresses;
• land surveyors to determine the geographic location in terms of coordinates (latitude and
longitude);
• global positioning systems (GPS) to determine the coordinates; or
• photographs.

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 2.5 CHOOSE THE ANALYTICAL LABORATORY

• The choice of the analytical laboratory that will conduct the water quality analyses is a crucial
step in the planning process.

• It is important for the sampler to know the locations of the closest analytical laboratories in
the area as certain of the substances have a maximum period within which they have to be
analysed (for example microbiological samples).

• If the closest analytical laboratory can only be accessed within 48 hours, then special
precautions will need to be taken with regard to the samples that have to be analysed within
a short time period.

• It is important to contact the laboratory well in advance to determine any special

requirements the laboratory may have with regard to sample handling and transport.

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 2.6 SELECT THE KEY SUBSTANCES

A number of factors influence the choice of substances that should be included in a domestic
water quality assessment. These are:
•the objectives of the sampling exercise;
•where in the water supply system the water is assessed (i.e. at the source, the treatment
works, or at the point of use);
•the source of the water (i.e. river, stream, dam or rain-water tank);
•the type of pollution problems that may occur in the area;
•environmental problems that have been experienced with similar water sources in the vicinity;
•and the opinion of the analytical laboratory.

Some substances that are very site-specific:

• If the water source is near an industrial area, then, depending on the type of industry, organic
compounds and/or metals must be included on the list of variables to be determined.
• If the water source is in an agricultural area, then the possible presence of herbicides,
pesticides and fertilisers must also be determined.

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 2.7 DETERMINE THE SAMPLING FREQUENCY

The sampling frequency is dictated by the characteristics of the water source and the number of
people supplied with water.

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 2.7 SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER SOURCES…

Surface water
• Surface water sources are divided into flowing and standing water.
• The sampling frequency at these two types of water resources differs.
• Rivers and streams are more susceptible to sudden water quality changes than lakes and
dams. Thus, more frequent samples are needed from a river or stream than from a lake or
dam.
• In general, bi-weekly samples from a river or stream are adequate (i.e. 26 samples per year),
while monthly samples from a lake or dam (i.e. 12 samples per year) should be sufficient to
determine if the source is suitable for domestic use.
• In the event of non-compliance with water quality guidelines, sampling frequency should be
increased (for example to 4 samples per month).

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 2.7 SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER SOURCES…

Groundwater
• It is generally accepted that the quality of groundwater sources is more stable than surface
water sources. For this reason two groundwater samples per year per borehole should be
sufficient.
• However, if water quality changes are detected, the frequency should be increased to weekly
sampling and maintained until the problem causing the change in water quality has been
solved.

Sampling frequency for a treatment works

• The sampling of water in treatment works normally needs to be conducted to:
• determine whether the water treatment works is supplying water of an acceptable quality; and
• assess the operational performance of the water treatment works.

• In order to determine the adequacy of the water treatment works, four samples per year are
the absolute minimum, with a recommended sampling frequency of 12 (monthly), 52 (weekly)
or 365 (daily) samples per year depending on the size of the treatment works.

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 2.7 SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER SOURCES…

Sampling frequency for a distribution system

• If any changes in water quality are detected after the water has been through the treatment
works, then the cause should be investigated.
• The sampling frequency should be increased until such time that the problem has been found
and solved. It is proposed that the quality of the water in the distribution system and
reticulation network be measured on a monthly basis, and increased to weekly samples if a
water quality problem is found.

Sampling frequency at the point of use

• Sampling at the point of use can range from an infrequent spot-check at a street vendor’s
water container, to more regular routine monitoring of the distribution system.

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 Familiarise yourself with
Prepare sample equipment
PART 3: safety precautions

PREPARING FOR
THE SAMPLING Assemble and check sample
equipment and instruments
PROGRAMME • Calibrate the field instruments
Familiarise yourself with
sample preservation and
• Sample bottles
• Sample labels
transport
• Data sheets

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 FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

While safety is often not considered an integral part of the sampling programme, the sampler
must be aware of possible unsafe working conditions, hazards associated with the operation of
sampling gear, and other risks. Basic good practice should be followed in the field. Always keep
the following points in mind:
• If samples are collected from a river or dam, waders should preferably be worn with a belt
to prevent the waders from filling with water in the case of a fall. (Not necessary for shallow
water).

• Never drink the water you are about to sample unless you are very sure about the quality
and safety of the water.

• Many hazards lie out of sight on the bottom of dams, rivers and streams. Broken glass or
sharp pieces of metal embedded into the substrate can cause serious injury if care is not
exercised when working in such environments.

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 PREPARE SAMPLE EQUIPMENT

Calibrate the field instruments

Field instruments required are normally those used to determine the physical constituents,
namely:
• pH;
• electrical conductivity (EC); and
• turbidity.

v Field instruments used to determine physical parameters must be calibrated before any water
sample is collected.

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 DOMESTIC WATER QUALITY SAMPLING EQUIPMENT

• Stopwatch (if required for flow measurements)

• pH meter and buffers or pH indicator strips
• Turbidity meter
• Temperature meter
• Additional batteries for field apparatus
• Electrical conductivity meter
• Copies of manufacturers’ manuals for calibrating field instruments
• Map indicating all sampling locations
• Field notebook
• Waterproof pens, markers and pencils
• Field data forms and data labels
• Containers for purging the borehole (if no pumps are available)
• Electric generator (if necessary)
• Calibrated bucket
• Sealed cooler bags
• Glass sample bottles (sterile glass bottles for microbiological sampling)
• Plastic sample bottles
• Bags of ice or freezer ice packs
• Paper towels
• Disposable latex gloves (if required)

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 SAMPLE BOTTLES
v Of special importance in sampling is the nature of the sample containers. The material should
be resistant to the preservative conditions and not interact with the analytes as that could lead
to sample contamination or losses of analytes. The influence of the container increases as the
concentration level decreases. Hence, obtaining a representative water sample also means
being careful in the choice of sample bottles.

v There are several materials available:

• GLASS BOTTLES (not for trace elements),
• For example, if the water sample is being collected to determine the presence of trace metals
(e.g. copper or zinc) in the water, do not use sample bottles with metal components (e.g. metal
caps).
• PLASTIC BOTTLES (polyethylene could react with organic solvents and is not suitable for
pesticides) and polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).
• When sampling for organics, avoid using sample bottles with plastic components, as the
plasticizers may leach and contaminate the samples.

v The closure should safely seal the container, while remaining inert with respect to the
contents. Both container and preservatives are going to depend on the type of analyte and the

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technique used for further analyses.
SAMPLE BOTTLES

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 FAMILIARISE YOURSELF WITH SAMPLE PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORT

v Sample handling and sample transport are important aspects of water quality sampling that
are often neglected. As soon as the water sample has been collected, some of the chemical
characteristics of the water start to change.

v For this reason, some samples must be preserved to keep the quality of the water sample as
stable as possible until the analysis can be carried out. It must, however, be kept in mind that
the preservation technique only retards chemical and biological changes that continue after
sample collection and will not stop quality changes altogether.

The following preservation techniques are recommended:

• To minimise water quality changes between sampling and analysis, it is important to keep the
samples as cool as possible, without freezing them. In general, the shorter the time between
collection of a sample and its analysis, the more reliable the results.
• Preferably pack water samples in crushed or cubed ice during transportation (only applicable
if samples will be delivered to the laboratory within 6 hours, as the ice will melt after longer
periods). This specifically applies to microbiological and nutrient samples.
• Avoid using dry ice as it will freeze the samples and may cause glass containers to break. Dry

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ice may also effect a pH change in samples.
 PART 4:
SAMPLE COLLECTION

• Equipment needed

• Special precautions

• Sampling techniques

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 EQUIPMENT NEEDED
Equipment to collect microbiological samples
• Sterile sample bottles (see Table 4 for the type of sample bottle needed)
• Sealed container or cool box which can be kept cool (preferably with ice)

Equipment for recording physical measurements

• Clean laboratory glass beaker or any well cleaned container large enough in volume for the probes of the
instruments to be lowered in (at least 250 mL in volume)
• Electrical conductivity meter
• pH field instrument
• pH test-paper as an optional method to the pH field instrument
• Nephelometric turbidity meter (if required)
• Temperature meter - electronic or field thermometer (if required)
• Distilled water for cleaning the probes
• Field notebook/data sheet

Equipment to collect chemical samples

• Correct sample bottles (see Table 4 for the different types of sample bottles required)

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• Cooler box with ice (if necessary)
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
RIVER, STREAM, LAKE, DAM OR RESERVOIR

• https://youtu.be/61cGIlD06PA
• https://youtu.be/iB7XY3wD1-E

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
SAMPLING OF BOREHOLE

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
TREATMENT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES:
POINT OF USE

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 SOURCES OF ERROR IN SAMPLING

Apart from representativeness, one of the main difficulties in sampling is preservation of the
sample. The initial composition of the sample must be maintained from sampling through to
analysis. If this is not the case, the final conclusions will not reflect the initial situation. For all of
that, handling and storage of collected samples is of a great importance during sampling.

There are several problems that could appear during sampling and storage of samples:
• losses from volatilization;
• decomposition by means of temperature, UV irradiation, microbial activity and chemical
reactions (with, e.g., external agents, O2, CO2, sample containers or container walls).

Several approaches have been applied to preserve sample integrity:

• protecting samples from external agents (e.g., using brown-glass containers);
• addition of preservatives (in this case, the selected preservative should not interfere during
the measurement step); and,
• storage of the samples at low temperature (e.g., for trace-metal analyses, waters are typically
stored at 4 oC, while sediment and biota have to be frozen).

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SOURCES OF ERROR IN SAMPLING

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THANK YOU…

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