Phy SS 2 2ND Term Lesson Plan

SCHEME OF WORK SS 2 2nd term
WEEK Topic
1. Heat Energy: Types of Thermometers: Liquid-in-glass, Resistance, Thermocouple and
Constant volume gas thermometer. Advantages and disadvantages
2. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity.
3. Calculation on Specific Heat Capacity
4. Evaporation, Boiling and Melting Point: Effects of Impurities and Pressure on Boiling and
Melting Points. Cooling By Evaporation
5. Latent Heat
6. Vapour Pressure; Saturated and Unsaturated Vapour and its relation to boiling. Humidity,
relative humidity, dew point and it relationship to weather (Formation fog and mist)
7. Gas Laws: Measurement of gas pressure, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Pressure law and
General gas law
8. Waves – Production, Propagation, Types and Wave Equation
9. Properties of Waves – Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction and Interference, polarization and
applications
10. Light Waves. Sources of light, laws of reflection, reflection in plane mirror, reflection in
curved mirrors
11. Refraction of Light: Laws of refraction, refractive index, total internal reflection and critical
angle
12. Revision
13. Examination
LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 1
DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Types of Thermometers
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
DURATION 4 * 40 mins = 160 mins
LEARNING After this lesson, the students should be able to
OBJECTIVES i. List the types of thermometer we have
ii. Explain the principle of the liquid-in-glass thermometer (Clinical
thermometer)
iii. Explain why the clinical thermometer is not sterilised in hot water under
normal atmospheric pressure
iv. Explain the principle of the liquid-in-glass thermometer (Maximum and
minimum thermometer)
v. Explain the principle of the gas thermometer
vi. Explain some advantages, disadvantages and uses of the gas
thermometer
vii. Solve problems on thermometers
viii. Explain the principle of the resistance thermometer and solve related
questions
ix. Explain the principle of the thermoelectric thermometer and solve
related questions
x. Explain some advantages and uses of the thermoelectric thermometer
xi. Explain the use(s) of pyrometer
KEY VOCABULARY Clinical, constriction, sterilized, manometer, bulky etc
WORDS
RESOURCES & 1. Okeke P.N et al, Senior Secondary Schools Physics
MATERIALS 2. Abbott, A.F., Ordinary Level Physics, Third Edition, Heinemann
Educational Books, London
3. Ezebuiro, G.N, Comprehensive Physics for senior Secondary Schools
(New Edition), A. Johnson Publishers, Lagos, 2004
4. Material(s): Different types of thermometers
BUILDING The students have been taught types of thermometers and their thermometric
BACKGROUND liquids.
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT
(PERIOD 1 & 2) HEAT ENERGY
Types of Thermometers
1. Liquid in glass thermometer

2. Gas thermometer
3. Resistance thermometer
4. Thermoelectric thermometer
5. Pyrometer
1. Liquid in glass thermometers
i. Clinical thermometer
The clinical thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the
human body which is 37 oC (98.6 oF).
The constriction and the short range of temperature measure differentiate the
clinical thermometer from other types of thermometers.
The clinical thermometer is not sterilised in boiling water under normal
atmospheric pressure for the following reasons:
a. The range of the clinical thermometer is 35 oC to 43oC; since
water boils at 100 oC, the mercury can over expand and break
the glass.
b. The boiling water may cause the glass to crack.
ii. Maximum and Minimum or Six’s thermometer

The thermometer consists of a U-shaped stem connected to two large bulbs A
and B. Both bulbs contain alcohol and are separated by a column of mercury in
the bend of the U-shaped stem.
As the temperature changes, a small index in both limbs is used to register the
highest or lowest temperature during the day. The indexes are reset using a
magnet.
2. Gas thermometers
The bulb which contains Hydrogen, Helium or air as the gas attached to a
mercury manometer which is used to measure the pressure of the gas.
As the gas is heated, it expands and the pressure is read from the mercury level
in the manometer with the aid of a metre rule.
If Ө is the Celsius temperature corresponding to any gas pressure PӨ,
PӨ – P0 = Ө - 0
P100 – P0 100 - 0
Ө = PӨ – P0 x 100 oC
P100 – P0
Advantages of the gas thermometer

i. It is more accurate than the liquid in glass thermometers
ii. It can measure very low temperature and very high temperature
than the liquid in glass thermometer
iii. Gas thermometers can measure wider range of temperature.
iv. The expansion of the glass is negligible compared with the
expansion of the gas.
Disadvantages of the gas thermometer

i. It is bulky and difficult to use
ii. it cannot be used to measure temperature of small volume of
liquid
iii. It cannot be used to measure rapidly changing temperature
because gases are poor conductor of heat
Uses
a. It is used to calibrate electrical thermometers (resistance thermometer
and thermoelectric thermometers)
b. It is used in industry to measure high temperatures such as that of a
furnace, melting points of metals etc.
If the graph of pressure is plotted against temperature, the shape of the graph
is shown below:
Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE June 2010]

A thermometer records 680 mmHg at steam point and 440 mmHg at ice point.
The temperature it records at 380 mmHg is ____
Solution
Ө = PӨ – P0 x 100 oC
P100 – P0
= 380 – 440 x 100 oC

680 – 440
= -60 x 100
240
= -25 oC
Example 2 [JAMB/UTME 2013]
Calculate the length which corresponds to a temperature of 20 oC if the ice and
steam points of an ungraduated thermometer are 400 mm apart
Solution
Let X be the scale on the unknown thermometer
Ө = XӨ – X0 x 100 oC
X100 – X0
= XӨ – X0 x 100 oC
400
XӨ – X0 = 20 x 400
100
= 80 mm
CONTENT
(PERIOD 3 & 4) Types of Thermometers (continued)
3. Resistance thermometer
The resistance thermometer uses the change in electrical resistance of a
pure metallic conductor such as platinum with temperature.
If Ө is the Celsius temperature corresponding to any given resistance R Ө,
θ = Rθ - Ro x 100 oC
R100 - Ro
Example 3 (SC/GCE)
A platinum resistance thermometer measures temperature on the assumption
that the change in electrical resistance of platinum is proportional to the
change in temperature. The resistance of the platinum wire at 0 oC is 10.40Ω
and 10.71Ω at 100oC
a. Calculate the temperature when the resistance is 9.61Ω
b. What will be the resistance of the wire when the temperature is 40oC?
Solution
θ = Rθ - Ro x 100
R100 - Ro
Using R100 = 10.71Ω; Ro = 10.40Ω; Rθ = 9.61Ω
a. θ = 9.61 – 10.40 x 100
10.71 – 10.40
= - 0.79 x 100
0.31
= - 254.8oC
= - 255oC
b. θ = 40oC; Rθ = ?
40 = Rθ – 10.40 x 100
10.71 – 10.40
40 = Rθ – 10.40 x 100
0.31
(Rθ – 10.40) x 100 = 40 x 0.31
Rθ – 10.40 = 40 x 0.31
100
Rθ – 10.40 = 0.124
Rθ = 0.124 + 10.40
Rθ = 10.52Ω
Rθ = 10.5Ω
4. Thermoelectric thermometer or thermocouple

A thermocouple is a circuit is made up of two different metals or wires
joined at two junctions and subjected to extreme temperatures to give
rise to thermocurrent.
When a thermocouple is used to measure temperature, it is called a
thermoelectric thermometer.
Advantages of the thermoelectric thermometer

i. It is very sensitive and can measure rapidly changing
temperature
ii. Unlike the gas thermometer, it can be used to measure the
temperature of a small substance almost at a point
Uses
a. It is used in industry to measure high temperatures such as that of a
furnace
b. It is used to measure or compare radiant energy on different surfaces
(as a thermocouple)
5. Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a type of thermometer used to measure very high
temperature without physical contact.
A pyrometer is pointed directly on the surface whose temperature is to
be measured.
STRATEGIES & The teacher lists and explains types of thermometer

ACTIVITIES Students’ activity: The students observes the types of thermometers provided
STEP 1 by the teacher as instructional materials
STEP 2 The teacher proceeds to explain the working principle of liquid in glass
thermometer using the clinical thermometer
STEP 3 The teacher explains why the clinical thermometer should not be sterilized in
water under normal atmospheric pressure.
Students’ activity: The teacher asks the students to explain from the
knowledge of expansion in SS 1 Physics why a tumbler cracks when boiling
water is poured inside it; and relates it to why a clinical thermometer cracks
when placed in boiling water for sterilization
STEP 4 The teacher explains the principle of the maximum and minimum thermometer
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to explain the purpose of
using alcohol and mercury in the thermometer
STEP 5 Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to state the thermometer
substance with the thermometric properties of the gas thermometer from what
they have learnt in SS 1
The teacher then explains the gas thermometer
STEP 6 The teacher explains some of the advantages and disadvantages of the gas
thermometer
STEP 7 The teacher gives some worked examples
substance with the thermometric properties of the resistance thermometer
from what they have learnt in SS 1
substance with the thermometric properties of the thermoelectric \
thermometer from what they have learnt in SS 1
The teacher then explains the working principle of the thermoelectric
thermometer
STEP 10 The teacher further explains some advantages and uses of the thermoelectric
thermometer
STEP 11 The teacher explains the pyrometer as a type of thermometer used to measure
the surface temperature of very hot objects
STEP 12 The teacher rounds off the lesson by taking questions from the students before
the evaluation
ASSESSMENT 1. List three types of thermometers
(EVALUATION) 2. Give two designed features that distinguishes the clinical thermometer
from other types of thermometer
3. Explain two reasons why the clinical thermometer is not sterilized in
water under normal atmospheric pressure
4. What is used to reset the indexes of the Maximum and Minimum
thermometer?
5. Describe the gas thermometer
6. Give two advantages of the gas thermometer over other types of
thermometer
7. Explain the principle of the resistance thermometer
8. A thermometer which was not accurately calibrated indicates – 0.5 oC at
the lower fixed point, and 106 oC at the upper fixed point. What
temperature does the thermometer register when the true temperature
is 60 oC?
9. Differentiate between a thermocouple and a thermopile
10. Give two (2) advantages of the pyrometer over other types of
thermometer
WRAP – UP The students can describe the principle of the different types of thermometers
(CONCLUSION) they were taught. They can also solve related questions.
ASSIGNMENT 1. The resistance in the element in a platinum resistance thermometer is
6.750 Ω at 0oC, 7.750 Ω at 100oC and 6.900 Ω at room temperature.
Determine the room temperature on the scale of the resistance
thermometer. [WAEC/SSCE Nov. 2004]
2. A thermometer has its stem marked in millimetre instead of degree
Celsius. The lower fixed point is 30 mm and the upper fixed point is 180
mm. Calculate the temperature in degree Celsius when the
thermometer reads 45 mm [WAEC/SSCE]
3. A thermometer with an arbitrary scale S, of equal divisions registers –
30oS at the ice point and +90 oS at the steam point. Calculate the Celsius
temperature corresponding to 60oS [JAMB]
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT
DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
LEARNING The students should be able to
OBJECTIVES i. Define and explain specific heat capacity
ii. Define and explain heat capacity
iii. carry out experiment to determine the specific heat
capacity of a body
KEY VOCABULARY Specific, capacity, quantity, heat etc
WORDS
RESOURCES & 1. Anyakoha, M.W., New School Physics for Senior Secondary
MATERIALS Schools, African First Publishers, Onitsha.
2. Okeke P.N et al, Senior Secondary Schools Physics
3. Abbott, A.F., Ordinary Level Physics, Third Edition, Heinemann
4. Calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer, water, metal, source of heat
etc. (Instructional materials)
BUILDING The students can explain heat as a form of energy in motion.
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT
(PERIOD 1 & 2) SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT CAPACITY
Specific Heat Capacity (c)

The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy
required to change the temperature of a unit mass (1 kg) of the substance
by a unit temperature (1oC or 1K).
The quantity of heat Q received or given out by a body depends on the

following factors:
a) mass of the body, m
b) temperature change of the body, θ
c) nature of the material making up the body.
Mathematically,
Q α mθ
Q = cmθ (c = a constant)
Or Q = mcθ
But temperature change θ = θ2 – θ1
 Q = mc(θ2 – θ1)……………………………………………………………… i
Where:
m is the mass of the body in kg
θ2 – θ1 is the temperature change in oC or K
c is the constant which depends on the nature of the material that
makes up the body and it is called the specific heat capacity of the
body.
The SI unit of specific heat capacity c is J/kgoC or J/kgK.
Heat Capacity (C) or Thermal capacity

Heat capacity (C) is defined as the quantity of heat energy required to
change the temperature of the entire body of a substance by a unit
temperature (1oC or 1K). The SI unit is J/oC or J/K.1
Heat capacity, C = mc
Example 1
Explain the statement, "The specific heat capacity of copper is 400 J/kg oC"
Solution
This means that 400 J of heat energy is required to change (increase or
decrease) the temperature of 1 kg of copper by 1oC
Example 2
What do you understand by, "The heat capacity of copper is 1250 J/ oC?"
Solution
This means that 1250 J of heat energy is needed to change (increase or
decrease) the temperature of a given mass of copper by 1 oC or 1 K.
CONTENT Experimental Verification of Specific Heat Capacity
(PERIOD 3 & 4)
The heat lost or gain by an object is given by mc(θ2 – θ1)
Specific heat capacity is measure by two methods:

i. Method of mixture
A heated solid is quickly transferred to a liquid in a well lagged
calorimeter and stirred thoroughly. The specific heat capacity of
1
While specific heat capacity is constant for a particular object, the heat capacity for the same
object varies as it depends on any given mass of the object.
the solid is obtain from the principal of conservation of energy
Energy conservation:
Heat lost by the hot solid = heat gained by the liquid + heat gained
by the calorimeter
ii. Electrical method

In this method, a heater connected to power source is inserted in
the material (liquid or solid) whose specific heat capacity is to be
determined.
Energy conservation:
Electrical heat energy lost by the heater = heat gained by the
heated material
Electrical power x time = mcθ
IV x t = mcθ
IVt = mc(θ2 – θ1)
Determination of specific heat capacity of a metal using the method of

mixture
The calorimeter is brought out of its lagging jacket and weighed empty. It
is then filled up to half or two-thirds full of water at room temperature
and weighed again. It is replaced inside its jacket, and the temperature of
the water taken, the mass of the solid is also determined.
The solid is then hung with a thread in a beaker of boiling water for about
10 minutes to ensure that the solid has attained the temperature of the
boiling water, which is taken with a thermometer. The hot solid is now
quickly transferred into the calorimeter, shaking it to ensure that no hot
water is transferred into the calorimeter, the water in the calorimeter is
well stirred, and its final steady temperature taken.
The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated from the following
experimental results:
Mass of empty calorimeter = m1 =

Mass of calorimeter + water = m2 =
Mass of metal = m3 =
Initial temp. of water in calorimeter = θ1 =
Final temperature of water = θ2 =
Temperature of solid (i.e boiling water) = θ3 =
Specific heat capacity of copper calorimeter = c1 = 400 J/kg0C
Specific heat capacity of water = c2 = 4200 J/kg0C
Let the specific heat capacity the metal = c
Heat lost by solid = m3c(θ3 - θ2)
Heat gained by calorimeter = m1c1(θ2 - θ1)
Heat gained by water = (m2 - m1)c2 x (θ2 - θ1)
If no heat is lost to the surroundings,
Heat lost by solid = Heat gained by calorimeter + heat gained by water
Therefore,
m3c(θ3 - θ2) = m1c1(θ2 - θ1) + (m2 - m1)c2 x (θ2 - θ1)
Substituting in the values, we have . . .
STRATEGIES & The teacher defines and explains specific heat capacity
ACTIVITIES Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to identify the
STEP 1 keywords in the definition
STEP 2 The teacher defines and explains heat capacity
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to compare and
contrast specific heat capacity and heat capacity
STEP 3 The teacher guides the students to carry out experiment to determine the
specific heat capacity of a solid
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to observe some
precautionary measures while carrying out the experiment
STEP 4 The teacher rounds off the lesson by taking questions from the students
before the evaluation
ASSESSMENT 1. Define and explain the difference between heat capacity and
(EVALUATION) specific heat capacity
2. What are the SI units of specific heat capacity and heat capacity?
3. Explain the statement, "The specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J/kgoC"
WRAP – UP The students can determine the specific heat capacity of a solid using the
(CONCLUSION) method of mixture
ASSIGNMENT A block of copper of unknown mass is heated to 100 0C and then dropped
in 200 g of water at 30 0C. If the final temperature of the water is 58 0C,
calculate the mass of the copper. [Take c for H 2O = 4200 J/kg 0C; for Cu =
400 J/kg0C]
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Calculations on Specific Heat Capacity
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES Solve problems on specific heat capacity
KEY VOCABULARY Specific, capacity, laundry, iron, ratio etc.
WORDS
3. Calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer, water, metal, source of heat
etc. (Instructional materials)
BUILDING The students can have been taught specific heat capacity
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT Example 1 [NECO/SSCE 2007]
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
The temperatures of water from tap A and tap B are 25 oC and 75 oC
respectively. If a mixture of water at 40 oC is required, calculate the ratio
of the mass of water from tap A to that from tap B
Solution
Heat lost by water from tap B = heat gained by water from tap A
mBc(Ө2 - Ө) = mAc(Ө - Ө1)
Since c is the same on both side
mB(Ө2 - Ө) = mA(Ө - Ө1)
mB(75 - 40) = mA(40 - 25)
35 mB = 15 mA
mA = 35 = 7
mB 15 3
m A : mB = 7 : 3
Example 2
Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of brass by 10 K.
[Take heat capacity of brass = 3800 J/K]
Solution
C = 3800 J/K; θ2 – θ1 = 10 K
Q = mc(θ2 – θ1)
Q = C(θ2 – θ1) [Note: C = mc]
= 3800 x 10
= 38000 J or 38kJ
Example 3 [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2004]

A laundry iron rated 400 W has its temperature increased by 40 oC after 2
minutes when connected to an electric mains. Calculate the heat capacity
of the iron
Solution
Power P = 400 W
Ө2 - Ө1= 40 oC
t = (2 min) = 2 x 60 = 120 s
C=?
Heat lost by heater in the iron = Heat gained by iron plate
Pt = mc(Ө2 - Ө1)
Pt = C(Ө2 - Ө1) [note C = mc]
400 x 120 = C x 40
400 x 120
C=
40
C = 1200 JK-1
CONTENT CALCULATION ON SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (continued)
(PERIOD 3 & 4)
Example 4
A 140g lump of aluminium at 90oC is dropped in a copper calorimeter of
mass 80g containing 120g of water at 30oC. What is the final temperature
of the aluminium?
[Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4.2 kJ/kg oC; specific heat
capacity of aluminium to be 880 J/kgoC, specific heat capacity of copper to
be 400 J/kgoC]
Solution
Let the final temperature be θ
Heat lost by aluminium = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by
the copper calorimeter
Heat lost by aluminium = mc(θ2 – θ)

= 0.14 x 880 x (90 - θ)
Heat gained by water = mc(θ – θ1)
= 0.12 x 4200 x (θ - 30)
Heat gained by calorimeter = mc(θ – θ1)
= 0.08 x 400 x (θ - 30)
Heat lost by aluminium = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by
the copper calorimeter
0.14 x 880 x (90 - θ) = 0.12 x 4200 x (θ - 30) + 0.08 x 400 x
(θ - 30)
123.2(90 - θ) = 504(θ - 30) + 32(θ - 30)
11088 – 123.2θ = 504θ – 15120 + 32θ - 960
11088 + 15120 + 960 = 504θ + 32θ +123.2θ
27168 = 659.2θ
_ 659.2θ = 27168
θ = 27168
659.2
θ = 41.21oC
θ ≈ 41oC
Example 5
380 g of a certain metal is heated to 86 oC and then dropped in 160 g of
water at 20 oC. If the final temperature of the water is 34 oC, calculate the
specific heat capacity of the metal.
[Take the specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 kJ/kgoC]
Solution
Heat lost by hot metal = mc(θ2 – θ)
= 0.38 x c x (86 - 34)
Heat gained by water = mc(θ – θ1)
= 0.16 x 4200 x (34 - 20)
Heat lost by hot metal = Heat gained by water
0.38 x c x (86 – 34) = 0.16 x 4200 x (34 – 20)
0.38 x c x 52 = 0.16 x 4200 x 14
19.76c = 9408
c = 9408
19.76
c = 476.11
c ≈ 476 J/kgoC
STRATEGIES &
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1 The teacher reviews the previous lesson
STEP 2 The teacher gives worked examples on specific heat capacity
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to solve simple
problems only
ASSESSMENT 1. A piece of lead of specific heat capacity of 120 Jkg -1K-1 falls through
(EVALUATION) a distance of 30 m from rest. Calculate its rise in temperature in
o
C. [g = 10 ms-2] Ans: 2.5
2. 500 g of water is heated so that its temperature rises from 30 oC to
72 oC in 7 minutes. Calculate the heat supplied per minute.
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1K-1) A. 9000 J B.
12600 J C. 21 000 J D. 25200 J E. 88 200 J (WAEC/SSCE
1994)
WRAP – UP The students can now solve problems on specific heat capacity
(CONCLUSION)
ASSIGNMENT 1) If 200 g of palm oil at 50 oC is added to a 50 g of palm oil at 30 oC
and the mixture is well stirred, what is the final temperature of the
mixture? [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2004]
2) A certain volume of water at 48 oC was added to an equal volume
of water at 24 oC. The ratio of the temperature of the mixture of
water to that of the colder water is [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2004]
3) A waterfall is 1260 m high. Calculate the difference in temperature
of water between the top and the bottom of the waterfall.
[Neglect heat losses. g = 10.0 ms-2, specific heat capacity of water =
4.20 x 103 Jkg-1K-1] [NECO/SSCE 2006]
//----------------------
1) A 420 W electric heater is used to heat water of mass 50 kg from

25 oC to its boiling point. How long in hours, does the electric
heater work? (specific heat capacity of water = 4.20 x 10 3 Jkg-1 OC-1)
[NECO/SSCE 2006]
2) A metal of mass 200 g at a temperature of 100 oC is placed in 100 g
of water at 25 oC in a container of negligible heat capacity. If the
final steady temperature is 30 oC, calculate the specific heat
capacity of the metal. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg -1K-
1
) [WAEC/SSCE]
3) An electric heater has a resistance of 50 Ω. When it is immersed in
water and connected to mains source, it draws a current of 4.0 A.
Calculate the heat gained by the water if the heater is switched on
for 2 minutes, assuming no heat losses to the surroundings.
[WAEC/SSCE]
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT
DATE 27 – 29th Jan. 2020
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Evaporation, Boiling and Melting Point
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES i. Define and explain evaporation
ii. Explain factors affecting the rate of evaporation
iii. Give molecular explanation of evaporation
iv. Explain why evaporation causes cooling
v. Define and explain boiling and boiling point
vi. Explain the effects of impurities on boiling point
vii. Explain the effects of pressure on boiling point
viii. Define and explain melting point
ix. Explain the effect of impurities on freezing/melting point
x. Explain effect of pressure on freezing/melting point
xi. Explain the principle of the pressure cooker
xii. Sketch and explain heating and cooling curves
KEY VOCABULARY Evaporation, harmattan, draught, Ether, Volatile, latent heat, ebullition,
WORDS Impurities etc.
2. Otuka, J.O.E., et al, Exam Focus Physics, University Press Plc,
Ibadan, 1997
3. Different liquids for the students to compare their rates of
evaporation and cooling (Instructional materials)
4. Projector in lieu of charts (to project some of the instructional
materials)
BUILDING The students can explain change of state from the liquid to gaseous state
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT EVAPORATION and BOILING
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
Evaporation is a process in which a liquid turns into vapour at a
temperature below its boiling point.
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

1. Temperature: The rate of evaporation increases with temperature
2. Pressure: The rate of evaporation decreases with increase in
pressure.
3. Area of exposed surface: The more the surface area of liquid
exposed, the more the rate of evaporation.
4. Wind and dryness of air: The drier the air the more the rate of
evaporation. This explains why clothes dry faster during the
harmattan.
5. Nature of the liquid: The lower the boiling point of a liquid, the
higher the rate of evaporation. Volatile liquids such as ether (b.p
34.6 oC)2 evaporate faster than water (b.p 100 oC).
Molecular or kinetic theory explanation of evaporation

Increase in temperature increases the velocity, and consequently, the
kinetic energy of the molecules. This makes some molecules near the
surface with sufficient kinetic energy to escape from the attraction of
other molecules in the liquid and becomes vapour; some molecules fall
back.
Why evaporation causes cooling

Volatile liquids such as ether, methylated spirit or petrol cause cooling as
they evaporate.
If a little methylated spirit is spilt on the hand it evaporates rapidly and
the hand feels very cold. To change from liquid to vapour, the spirit
requires latent heat which is extracted from the hand. This consequently
makes the hand to feel cool.
From molecular theory, as more energetic molecules escape from
the surface of the liquid, the average kinetic energy of the remaining
molecules in the liquid is reduced and the temperature of the liquid is
therefore lowered, hence the cooling by evaporation.
Boiling
Boiling or ebullition is the release of bubbles of vapour from the body of a
liquid when its saturated vapour pressure equals the external
atmospheric pressure.3
The boiling point (b.p) of a substance is defined as the temperature at

which its saturated vapour pressure becomes equal to the external
atmospheric pressure.
2
A common low boiling solvent (b.p. 34.6 °C) and an early anaesthetic
3
Boiling occurs at a fixed temperature called the boiling point unlike evaporation that
takes place at all temperature.
Effect of impurities on boiling point
Impurities or dissolved substances in a liquid raise the boiling point of the
liquid.
When salt is added to food, it cooks faster. This is simply because salt is an
impurity which increases the boiling point of water. At this high
temperature of the water, food cooks faster than when boiled in pure
water.
Effect of pressure on boiling point

An increase in pressure at the surface of a liquid raises its boiling point
while a decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point.
At high altitudes and mountain tops, liquids boil at a lower temperature

than their boiling points due to a fall in pressure; at a depth such as the
bottom of a deep pit or well, liquids boils at a higher temperature than
their normal boiling points.
CONTENT EVAPORATION, BOILING AND MELTING POINT (continued)
(PERIOD 3 & 4)
Melting Point
This is the temperature at which a solid changes from the solid state to
the liquid state at constant temperature and normal atmospheric
pressure.
Effects of impurities on freezing/melting point4

Impurities lower the freezing point of pure liquid or melting point of pure
solid, a freezing mixture of ice and salt freezes at a temperature below 0
o
C. When impurity is added to a pure solid, it melts below the melting
point. If salt is thrown on a road covered with ice, it melts immediately
below 0 oC. Besides, anti-freeze (as impurity) is added to the water in the
radiator of a car to avoid freezing in cold region.
Effect of pressure on freezing/melting point

An increase in pressure lowers the freezing point of water or the melting
point of ice.
When ice is subjected to a high pressure it melts, but when this pressure is
removed, the ice re-freezes in a process called regelation.
Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing

again when the pressure isreduced5.
4
Usually for a pure substance, these two parameters are the same. But when the substance
is mixed with impurities, the melting and freezing points will not be equal.
Also melting point is considered as characteristic property of substance and not the
freezing point.
5
Regelation is the continuous melting and refreezing of water under pressure
When two dry ice cubes pressed together, stick together. At their faces of
contact, the melting point is reduced making a film of water to form at
the interface. As the pressure is removed, the film of water refreezes
sticking the ice cubes together.
High pressures exerted by shoes or ice skates reduce the melting point
and consequently melts the ice, forming a slippery layer of water
beneath.
The pressure cooker

The pressure cooker uses the principle of increase in pressure inside the
cooking chamber to raise the boiling point of the liquid in the cooker
above its normal boiling point. At this high temperature, the cooking time
is drastically reduced; hence, saving fuel.
Cooling and Heating curves

A cooling curve is a line curve that represents change of phase of matter
with temperature on the vertical axis and time on the horizontal axis.
A heating curve is the reverse of a cooling curve as it shows how the

temperature changes as a substance is heated.
Cooling curves decrease to the right; while, heating curves increase to the
right.
The cooling and heating curves for a pure crystalline substance has a
horizontal line which represents a sharp change in phase since it has a
sharp melting or freezing point.
On the contrary, amorphous (non-crystalline) substances do not have a
sharp melting or freezing point, hence the line is not perfectly horizontal
STRATEGIES & The teacher defines and explains evaporation

ACTIVITIES Students’ activity: The students repeat the definition after the teacher to
STEP 1 strengthen their memories
STEP 2 The teacher explains the factors affecting the rate of evaporation
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students on how these factors
affect evaporation
STEP 3 The teacher proceeds to molecular explanation of evaporation
STEP 4 The teacher further explains why evaporation causes cooling
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to pour the different
liquids provided by the teacher to compare their rates of evaporation and
cooling
STEP 5 The teacher defines and explains boiling and boiling point
Students’ activity: The students repeat the definition after the teacher to
strengthen their memories
STEP 6 The teacher explains the effects of impurities on boiling point
STEP 7 The teacher explains the effects of pressure on boiling point
STEP 8 The teacher defines and explains melting point
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to identify the
keywords in the definition
STEP 9 The teacher proceeds to explain the effects of impurities on
freezing/melting point
STEP 10 The teacher further explains the effect of pressure on freezing/melting
point
STEP 11 Students’ activity: The teacher asks the students the advantages of using
the pressure cooker over the conventional cooking pot
The teacher then explains the principle of the pressure cooker
STEP 12 The teacher sketches and explains heating and cooling curves
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students while sketching the
curves
ASSESSMENT 1. Define and explain evaporation
(EVALUATION) 2. List three (3) factors affecting the rate of evaporation
3. Using the molecular theory, explain evaporation
4. Explain why evaporation causes cooling
5. Define boiling and boiling point
6. How does the presence of impurities affect the boiling point of a
liquid?
7. Explain the effects of pressure on boiling point
8. Define melting point
9. Explain the effect of impurities on freezing/melting point
10. Explain the effect of pressure on freezing/melting point
11. Give two (2) benefits of using the pressure cooker
WRAP – UP The teacher concludes the lesson as the students can define and explain
(CONCLUSION) melting point, explain the effects of impurities and pressure on boiling and
freezing/melting point
ASSIGNMENT 1 Using a labelled diagram, describe an experiment to determine the
boiling point of a liquid
2. Tabulate 3 differences between evaporation and boiling
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Latent Heat
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
LEARNING The students should be able to define and explain:
OBJECTIVES i. Latent heat of fusion
ii. Latent heat of vaporisation
iii. Specific latent heat of fusion
iv. Specific latent heat of vaporisation
v. Solve some problems on latent heat
KEY VOCABULARY Latent, fusion, melt, intermolecular, specific, vaporisation etc.
WORDS
3. Chart of change of states
4. Material(s): Diagrams or pictures to be projected on a screen
BUILDING The students have been taught heat capacity and specific heat capacity
BACKGROUND with calculations.
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT
(PERIOD 1 & 2) LATENT HEAT
During the change of state, the heat applied appears to be hidden as

latent heat which is used in breaking intermolecular bonds.
Latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of fusion is the heat energy required to convert the entire
mass of a substance from its solid state to the liquid state at constant
temperature.
SI unit: The joule (J)
Latent heat of vaporisation
Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to convert the

entire mass of a substance from its liquid state to the gaseous state at
constant temperature.
SI unit: The joule (J)
Specific latent heat of fusion (l)
This is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance

from solid to liquid without a change in temperature.
Q = ml
l=Q
m
SI unit: The J/kg
Specific latent heat of vaporisation (l)

This is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance
from liquid to vapour without a change in temperature.
Q = ml
l=Q
m
SI unit: The J/kg
Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE, Nov 2017]

Determine the quantity of heat required to melt completely 100 g of ice
initially at -3 oC. [Specific heat capacity of ice = 2.20 x 10 3Jkg-1K-1; specific
latent heat of fusion of ice = 2.26 x 10 6Jkg-1]
Solution
m = (100 g) = 0.1 kg
θ2=0℃
θ1=−3℃
Q=mc ( θ2−θ 1) + ml
= 0.1 x 2.20 x 10 3 x [0 - (-3)] + 0.1 x 2.26 x 10 6
= 0.1 x 2.20 x 10 3 x 3 + 2.26 x 10 5
= 660 + 2.26 x 10 5
= 226660 J
Example 2 [WAEC/SSCE 2012]

A piece of copper of mass 20 g at a temperature of 110 ℃ was dropped
into a mixture of ice and water at 0 ℃ , calculate the amount of ice that
melted. [Specific heat capacity of copper = 0.4 Jg-1K-1; Specific latent heat
of fusion of ice = 330 Jg-1]
Solution
m = 20 g
θ2=110 ℃
θ1=0℃
θ=0 ℃ (Temperature of the mixture)
Heat lost by copper = mc ( θ 2−θ )
= 20 x 0.4(110 - 0)
Heat gained by water = mc ( θ−θ1 )
= mc(0 - 0)
Heat gained by ice to melt = ml
= m x 330
Heat lost by copper = heat gained by water + Heat gained by ice to melt
20 x 0.4(110 - 0) = mc(0 - 0) + m x 330
20 x 0.4 x 110 = m x 330
880 = 330 m
880
m=
330
m = 2.67 g
CONTENT
(PERIOD 3 & 4) LATENT HEAT (continued)

A box has a volume of 0.28 m3 and is 70% filled with iron filings at 25 ℃ .
Calculate the
i. total mass of the iron filings;
ii. energy required to melt 10 % of the iron filings.
[Density of iron = 8.00 x 103 kg m3; specific latent heat of fusion of
iron = 1.38 x 105Jkg-1, specific heat capacity of iron = 460 Jkg-1K-1,
melting point of iron = 1500 ℃ ]
Solution
v = 0.28 m3 x 70%
θ1 = 25 ℃
m
i. ρ=
v
m = ρv
= 8 x 103 x 0.28 x 70%
= 8 x 103 x 0.28 x 0.7
m = 1568 kg
ii. The melting process

θ2 = 1500 ℃
m = 1568 x 10% kg
= 1568 x 0.1 kg
m = 156.8 kg
Q=mc ( θ2−θ 1) + ml
= 156.8 x 460(1500 - 25) + 156.8 x 1.38 x 105
= 156.8 x 460 x 1475 + 156.8 x 1.38 x 105
= 1.064 x 108 + 2.164 x 107
= 1.28 x 108 J
= 1.28 x 106 x 102 J
= 128 x 106 J
= 128 MJ
Example 4
An electrical heater of 2 KW is used to heat 0.5 kg of water in a kettle of
heat capacity 400 J K-1. The initial water temperature is 20 oC. Neglecting
heat losses, calculate
i. time taken by the water to boil
ii. mass of water that boiled away in 5 minutes
[Take: specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 Jg-1K-1;
specific latent heat of vaporisation = 2 x 103 kJkg-1]
Solution
i) Heat lost by heater = heat gained by water + heat gained by kettle
Pt = mc( θ 2−θ1 ) + mc( θ 2−θ1 )
Pt = mc( θ 2−θ1 ) + C( θ 2−θ1 ) [Note C = mc]
2000t = 0.5 x 4200 x (100 - 20) + 400 x (100 - 20)
2000t = 0.5 x 4200 x 80 + 400 x 80
2000t = 168000 + 32000
2000t = 200,000
200,000
t=
2000
t = 100 secs
ii) Let m be the mass of water that boiled away. Notice that this is
also the
mass of steam produced
l = 2 x 103 kJ kg-1
= 2 x 106 J kg-1
Heat lost by heater = heat gained by water + heat gained by kettle +
heat gained to form steam
Pt = mc( θ 2−θ1 ) + mc( θ 2−θ1 ) + ml
Pt = mc( θ 2−θ1 ) + C( θ 2−θ1 ) + ml
2000t = 0.5 x 4200 x (100 - 20) + 400 x (100 - 20) + m x 2 x 10 6
2000 x 300 = 168,000 + 32,000 + m x 2 x 106
600,000 = 200,000 + 2 x 106 m
2 x 106 m = 400,000
400,000
m= 6
2 x 10
m = 0.2 kg
STRATEGIES &
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1 The teacher introduces the lesson with a review of change of state
STEP 2 The teacher defines and explains latent heat of fusion
STEP 3 The teacher defines and explains latent heat of vaporisation
STEP 4 The teacher proceeds to define and explain specific latent heat of fusion
STEP 5 The teacher defines and explain specific latent heat of vaporisation
STEP 6 The teacher gives worked example(s)
ASSESSMENT 1) Define latent heat of fusion
(EVALUATION) 2) Define latent heat of vaporisation
3) Define and explain specific latent heat of fusion
4) Define and explain specific latent heat of vaporisation
5) Explain the statement, ‘the latent heat of fusion of ice is 340
kJ/Kg0C’
6) Calculate the heat required to convert 20 g of ice at 0 oC to water at
20 oC (Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 Jg-1, specific heat
capacity of water = 4.2 Jg-1K-1) [WAEC/SSCE]
7) An electric kettle rated at 1500 W boils away 0.3 kg of a liquid at its
boiling point in 6 mins. Calculate the specific latent heat of
vaporisation of the liquid [WAEC/SSCE]
WRAP – UP The teacher concludes with a brief summary of the lesson as the students
(CONCLUSION) can carry out more calculations on latent heat; and, can also describe an
experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.
ASSIGNMENT 1. Ice of mass 10 g at -5 oC was completely converted to water at 0 oC.
Calculate the quantity of heat used. [Specific heat capacity of ice =
2.1 Jg-1K-1; specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 336 Jg-1]
2. 10 g of ice at –10 oC is mixed with 120 g of water at 80 oC. Find the
final temperature of the mixture. [Specific heat capacity of water =
4200 J/kgK; specific heat capacity of ice = 2200 J/kgK; specific latent
heat of ice is 3.36 x 105 J/kg]
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Vapour Pressure
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES i. Define and explain vapour pressure
ii. Define and explain saturated and unsaturated vapour pressure
iii. Define and explain relative humidity
iv. Explain the formation of dew
v. State the conditions necessary for the formation of dews
vi. Explain the formation of mist and fog
vii. Solve related problems on relative humidity and dew point
KEY Saturated, unsaturated, volatile, enclosed space, ether, dynamic equilibrium,
VOCABULARY humidity, hygrometer etc.
WORDS
3. Material(s): Diagrams or pictures to be projected on a screen
BUILDING The students have been taught evaporation and molecular explanation of
BACKGROUND evaporation in week 4.
/CONNECTION
TO PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT
(PERIOD 1 & 2) VAPOUR PRESSURE
Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the molecules of a liquid

in an enclosed space.
Saturated and unsaturated vapour

The existence of vapour pressure can be shown by introducing a small quantity
of a volatile liquid such as ether into the vacuum of a simple mercury barometer.
As the liquid reaches the vacuum at the top, it vaporizes and fills the enclosed
space. The vapour pressure depresses the mercury level.
Further depression of the mercury level occurs as more of the ether is

introduced until a stage is reached when no further vaporisation occurs, and
liquid ether appears on top of the mercury column. The vapour is said to be
saturated vapour as no more of the liquid will evaporate at that temperature.
Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is in

contact with its own fluid in an enclosed space at that temperature.
Unsaturated vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is not in
contact with its own fluid in an enclosed space at that temperature.
A saturated vapour is in dynamic equilibrium, with its own liquid as the
number of molecules escaping from the liquid per unit time is equal to the
number of molecules falling back to the liquid per unit time.
Saturated vapour pressure increases with temperature. The saturated
vapour pressure of a liquid at its boiling point is equal to the external
atmospheric pressure.
Relative humidity
The water vapour content of the atmosphere is known as its humidity. If the
water vapour content in the air is very high, we say that the air is very humid
(moist).
Definition
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapour present in the
atmosphere or a given volume of air to the mass of water vapour needed to
saturate the atmosphere or that given volume of air at the same temperature.
Relative Humidity (R.H)

Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume of air
RH = saturate the same volume of air at that tem
Mass of water vapour needed ¿
R.H is measured with a hygrometer
CONTENT
(PERIOD 3 & 4) VAPOUR PRESSURE (continued)
Formation of dew
Dew is the water droplets found on objects exposed in the evening or early hours
of the day due to condensation.
Water vapour is always present in the atmosphere. If a sample of air is
cooled, a temperature will be reached when the air becomes saturated with the
water vapour present. This temperature is called the dew point. Dew point is
the temperature at which the water vapour presents in a given volume of air is
just enough to saturate it.
Any further cooling below the dew point will cause the excess water vapour to
condense into tiny visible droplets called dew. When water vapour at the dew
point comes in contact with objects at a lower temperature, it condenses as
visible droplets (dew) on the objects
The conditions favourable for dew formation are:
i. a cloudless sky
ii. absence of wind
iii. a high relative humidity
iv. low temperature
When a glass of ice-cold water is brought out from a refrigerator into a warm
room or the surrounding, it immediately cools the air surrounding it below the
dew point. This condenses the water vapour in the air as moisture or dew on
the surface of the glass. As the air is cooled, its water vapour increases until the
dew point when it can no longer absorb more water. Cooling it further below the
dew point results in condensation of excess water in the form of dew or
moisture around the glass.
The condensation of water vapour in the air as dew is also responsible for the
formation of mist and fog, clouds and rain.
Alternatively, relative humidity is expressed as
s . v . p at dew point
R.H = x 100 %
s . v . p at air temperature
Notice that the air temperature may be taken as room temperature.
Dew point can be defined as the temperature at which the water vapour
presents in a given volume of air is just enough to saturate it.
Formation of mist and fog

When moist air near the surface of the earth is cooled below its dew point, water
vapour in the air condenses as moisture on tiny suspended dust particles in the
air. This results in suspended water droplets in the air which hinders visibility.
Fog is a severe mist.
Mist and fog also result when wind brings warm moist air in contact with cold air.
The warm moist air is suddenly cooled beyond its dew point causing moisture to
condense in the air.

The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air is 0.05 g at 20 oC, while the
mass of water vapour required to saturate it at the same temperature is 0.15 g.
Calculate the relative humidity of the air
Solution
Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume of air

RH = saturate the same volume of air at that tem
Mass of water vapour needed ¿
0.05
RH = x 100
0.15
= 33.3%
Example 2
On a certain day, the average air temperature was 30 oC and the dew point was 8
o
C. If the s.v.p of water vapour was 15.6 mmHg at 30 oC and 9.5 mmHg at 8oC,
find the percentage relative humidity of the air.
Solution
s . v . p at dew point
RH = x 100 %
s . v . p at air temperature
R.H = 9.5 x 100%

15.6
= 60.9%
STRATEGIES &
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1 The teacher defines and explains vapour pressure
STEP 2 The teacher proceeds to define and explain saturated and unsaturated
vapour pressure
Students’ activity: The students repeat the definitions after the teacher to
STEP 3 The teacher defines and explains relative humidity.
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to write the mathematical
form of the definition of relative humidity
STEP 4 The teacher briefly explains the formation of dew
Students’ activity: The teacher guides the students to state where and
which time of the day are dews likely to be formed
STEP 5 The teacher states and explains the conditions necessary for the
formation of dew
STEP 6 The teacher explain the formation of mist and fog
STEP 8 The teacher rounds off the lesson by taking questions from the students before
the evaluation
ASSESSMENT 1. Defined vapour pressure
(EVALUATION) 2. Explain the formation of saturated vapour pressure
3. TRUE or FALSE
i. Saturated vapour pressure is independent of volume
ii. Saturated vapour pressure is independent of temperature
4. What do you understand by relative humidity?
5. Write the mathematical expression for relative humidity
6. Define dew point
7. Briefly explain the formation of dew
8. List the conditions favourable for the formation of dews
9. Explain the formation of mist and fog
WRAP – UP The teacher summarise the main points of the lesson to round off after
(CONCLUSION) evaluating the students who can define and explain saturated and unsaturated
vapour pressure.
ASSIGNMENT 1. How much water vapour exists in 105 m3 room on a day when the relative
humidity in the room is 32% and the room temperature is 20 oC? Saturated
air at 20 oC contains 17.12 g/m3 water.
2. State the following gas laws:

i. Boyle’s law
ii. Charles’ law
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Gas Laws
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES i. Solve problems on the measurement of gas pressure
ii. State and express Boyle’s law mathematically
iii. Solve problems on Boyle's law
iv. Solve more problems on Boyle’s law
v. State and express Charles’ law mathematically
vi. Solve problems on Charles’s law
vii. Explain and solve problems on the general gas law
viii. Explain standard temperature and pressure (stp)
ix. Solve problems on standard temperature and pressure (stp)
KEY manometer, portable, mercury level, barometer, uniform, capillary, trapped,
VOCABULARY atmospheric etc
WORDS
3. Material(s): Diagrams or pictures to be projected on a screen,
manometer
BUILDING The students have been taught the kinetic theory in SS 1 second term.
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION
TO PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT GAS LAWS
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
Measurement of gas pressure
Gas pressure is measured using a manometer.
The height h is called the HEAD of mercury in mmHg or cmHg or mHg
If the height h is above mercury level B as shown above,

P gas=P atm +h (With both Patm and h in mmHg or cmHg or mHg)
P gas=P atm +hρg (With Patm in N/m2 or Pa and h in metre)

But when the height h is below mercury level B,
P gas=P atm−h
P gas=P atm−hρg
Example 1
Calculate the pressure exerted by the gas in the manometer above, if

a) Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg
b) Atmospheric pressure is 1 x 105 N/m2
[Take the density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3 and g = 10 m/s2]
Solution
h = 20 cm = 0.2 m (From the diagram)

a) Expressing the pressure as head of mercury
Let Patm = H
P gas=P atm +h
P gas = H + h
P gas = 760 mmHg + 20 cmHg
= 760 mmHg + 200 mmHg
= 960 mmHg
b) P gas=P atm +hρg
P gas = 1 x 105 + 0.2 x 13600 x 10
= 100000 + 27200
= 127200 N/m2
= 1.27 x 105 N/m2
Boyle’s law
This states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure provided the temperature remains constant.
Symbolically,
1
V∝
P
k
V = (Where K is a constant)
P
PV = k
Alternatively, P1V1 = P2V2
Example 1
At a pressure of 3 atm, a given mass of gas occupies 300 cm3. What volume
will it occupy at a pressure of 1 atm? (The temperature remains constant)
Solution
P1 = 3 atm; V 1 = 300 cm3

P2 = 1 atm; V 2 =?
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
P V
V2 = 1 1
P2
3 x 300
V2 =
1
V 2 = 900 cm3
Example 2 (SSCE)
The set-up above shows a capillary tube of uniform cross-sectional area in
two different arrangements. Using the data in the diagram, calculate the
pressure of the atmosphere
Solution
Let the atmospheric pressure be H
P1 = (H + 15) cmHg
V 1 = 30 cm3
P2 = (H - 15) cmHg
V 2= 45 cm3
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2 (Boyle’s law)
(H + 15) x 30 = (H - 15) x 45
30H + 450 = 45H – 675
45H – 30H = 450 + 675
15 H = 1125
1125
H=
15
H = 75 cmHg
CONTENT
(PERIOD 3 & 4) GAS LAWS (continued)
Example 3 (WAEC/SSCE 2004)

A uniform capillary tube, closed at one end contained dry air trapped by a
thread of mercury 8.5 x 10-2 m long. When the tube was held horizontally,
the length of the air column was 5.0 x 10 -2 m, when it was held vertically
with the closed end downwards, the length was 4.5 x 10 -2 m. Determine the
value of the atmospheric pressure [g = 10 ms -2, density of mercury = 1.36 x
104 kgm-3]
Solution
Let the atmospheric pressure be H
P1 = H mHg
V 1 = 5.0 x 10-2 m3
P2 = (H + 8.5 x 10-2) mHg
V 2 = 4.5 x 10-2 m3
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2 (Boyle’s law)
H x 5 x 10-2 = (H + 8.5 x 10-2) x 4.5 x 10-2
5 x 10-2H = 4.5 x 10-2 H + 3.825 x 10-3
5 x 10-2H – 4.5 x 10-2 H = 3.825 x 10-3
5 x 10-3H = 3.825 x 10-3
H = 3.825 x 10-3
5 x 10-3
H = 0.765 mHg
Using pressure p = hρg (in N/m2 or Pa)

 p = Hρg
= 0.765 x 1.36 x 104 x 10
= 1.04 x 105 N/m2
Charles’s law
1
Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas increases by
273
of its volume at 0 ℃ per degree Celsius rise in temperature provided its
pressure remains constant.
Alternatively, Charles’ law states that:
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant pressure.
VαT
V = kT (k is a constant)
V
=k
T
V1 V2
=
T1 V2
Example 4 [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2017]

A fixed mass of gas of volume 546cm3 at 0 ℃ is heated at constant pressure.
Calculate the volume of the gas at 2 ℃
Solution
V 1 = 546cm3
T 1 = 0 ℃ = (273 + 0) = 273 K
V2 = ?
T 2 = 2 ℃ = (273 + 2) = 275 K
V1 V2
=
T1 V2
V1x T2
V 2=
T1
546 x 275
¿
273
= 550 cm3
The General gas law
PV
=k
T
P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
Example 5
A vessel is filled with a gas at a temperature 30 ℃ and a pressure of 76
cmHg. Calculate the final pressure if the volume of the gas is doubled while
it is heated to 80 ℃ .
Solution
T 1 = (30℃ ) = (273 + 30) = 303 K
P1 = 76 cmHg
V1 = V
V 2 = 2V
T 2 = 273 + 80 = 353 K
P2 = ?
P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
P1 V 1 T 2
P 2=
T1 V 2
76 x V x 353
P 2=
303 x 2 V
76 x 353
P 2=
303 x 2
P2 = 44.27 cmHg
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

Sometimes it becomes necessary to calculate the volume which the gas
would occupy at 0 ℃ (273 K) and 760 mmHg called the standard
temperature and pressure (STP) respectively.

The volume of a given mass of an ideal gas is 42 cm3 at 27 ℃ and 60 cmHg.
Calculate the volume of the gas at standard temperature and pressure.
solution
P1 = 60 cmHg
V 1 = 42 cm3
T 1 = (273 + 27) = 300 K
P2 = 760 mmHg
V2 = ?
T 2 = 273 K
P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
P1 V 1 T 2
V 2=
P2 T 1
60 x 42 x 273
V 2=
760 x 300
V 2= 3 cm3
STRATEGIES & The teacher explains measurement of gas pressure using a manometer
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1
STEP 2 The teacher proceeds to worked examples
STEP 3 The teacher states, explains and represents Boyle’s law
STEP 4 The teacher gives worked examples on Boyle's law
STEP 5 The teacher states and explains Charles’s law
STEP 6 The teacher gives some worked examples on Charles’ law
STEP 7 The teacher writes and explains the general gas law with examples
STEP 8 The teacher explains standard temperature and pressure (stp)
ASSESSMENT 1. Write the two expressions for measurement of gas pressure in terms
(EVALUATION) of head pressure
2. State Boyle’s law and represent it mathematically
3. A fixed mass of gas of volume 300cm3 at 800 mmHg is heated at
constant temperature. Calculate the pressure of the gas when the
volume is doubled
4. At a pressure of 3 atm, a given mass of gas occupies 300 cm3. What
volume will it occupy at a pressure of 1 atm? (The temperature
remains constant)
5. A given mass of gas has a volume of 600 cm3 at 27 ℃ . What volume
will it occupy at 127 ℃ if the pressure is constant? [Ans: 800 cm3]
6. Write and explain the general gas law mathematically
7. What do you understand by the STP?
WRAP – UP The students can solve problem on the following gas laws:
(CONCLUSION) - Boyle’s law
- Charles’ law
- General gas law
ASSIGNMENT A mercury manometer is connected to a gas tank. If the meniscus of the
mercury in the limb exposed to the atmosphere is 215 mm below the
meniscus in the arm attached to the tank,
i. Draw the diagram of the set – up
ii. Calculate the gas pressure
[Take atmospheric pressure = 1.013 x 105 N/m2]
//----------------
1. A thread of mercury of length 16 cm is used to trap some air in a
capillary tube of uniform cross-sectional area and closed at one end.
When the tube is head vertically, with the closed end at the bottom,
the length of the trapped air column is 30 cm. calculate the length of
the air column when the tube is held
i. Horizontally,
ii. Vertically with the open end underneath
[Atmospheric Pressure = 76 cm of mercury]
(NECO 2006)
2. The cubic expansivity of all gases at constant pressure is 1/273 per K.

If a mass of gas is held at a constant pressure and its volume at 0 ℃
is 300 cm3, at what temperature does its volume become 400 cm3?
3. 125 cm3 of gas are collected at 15 ℃ and 755 mm of mercury
pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at STP.
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Waves
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
LEARNING The students should be able to Waves
OBJECTIVES i. Define and explain wave and its production
ii. Define and explain wave motion
iii. Classify waves
iv. Explain some terminology used in describing a wave
v. Solved problems on wave
vi. Write and explain the basic sinusoidal progressive wave equation
vii. Explain the modification of the basic wave equation by the addition or
subtraction of a phase difference
viii. Write the different forms of the modified wave equations
ix. Solve problems using the wave equations
KEY VOCABULARY Disturbance, medium, pulse, transverse, crest, trough, compressions,
WORDS rarefactions, amplitude, Cycle, Phase, Amplitude, Wavelength, Period,
Frequency, sinusoidal, wave, instantaneous, amplitude, phase angle, angular,
displacement etc
RESOURCES & 1. Anyakoha, M.W., New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools,
MATERIALS African First Publishers, Onitsha.
3. Otuka, J.O.E., et al, Exam Focus Physics, University Press Plc, Ibadan,
1997
4. Diagrams or pictures to be projected on a screen
BUILDING The students can identify water ripples as a wave emanating from a
BACKGROUND disturbance
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT WAVES
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
A wave is a form of disturbance that transmits energy from one point+ to
another in the absence of a material medium or through a material medium
without any permanent displacement of the medium.
Wave motion
A wave motion is the movement of a wave transmitting energy due to
disturbance in the absence of a material medium or through a material
medium without displacing the medium.
Classification of waves
Direction of vibration relative to the direction of motion
i) Transverse waves: A transverse wave is the wave in which the

direction of vibration of the wave particles is perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the wave. The highest point in a transverse
wave is called a crest; while the lowest point is a trough.
Examples: Water waves, wave on a stretched string (rope), light waves

and other members of the electromagnetic spectrum.
ii) Longitudinal waves: Here, the direction of vibration of the particles is
the same as the direction of motion of the wave.
A longitudinal wave is made up of series of compressions and
rarefactions (expansions) alternating, corresponding to the crests and
troughs of transverse wave.
Examples: Sound waves and pressure waves in pipes.
Medium of propagation
a) Mechanical waves: These are waves that travel through a material
medium such as air.
b) Electromagnetic waves: These are waves that do not travel through a
material medium; rather, they travel though a vacuum. Examples are
radio waves, infra - red, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma rays.
Notice that all longitudinal waves are mechanical waves; but, not all
transverse waves are mechanical waves (e.g electromagnetic waves
are not mechanical waves)
Wave profile and terminologies
1. Phase
This is a mode of vibration of a wave in such a way that the particles are at the
same level of vibration or disturbance with the same amplitude and
frequency. The following points are in phase: points B, B’ and B”; C, C’ and C”;
F, F’ and F”; D, D’ and D” etc.
2. Cycle
A motion from one crest to the next or from one trough to the next is a cycle.
It is also the motion from one point to the next point in phase6.
3. Amplitude (A)
This is the maximum displacement of the particles from the mean or
equilibrium position; when the displacement is not maximum, it is
instantaneous.
4. Wavelength (λ)
6
Notice that two particles cannot be in phase in the same wave cycle. Particles in phase
can be found in different wave cycles. From this, we can infer that phase is the
repetition of similar points in individual wave cycles.
This is defined as the distance covered by the wave in one wave cycle. It is
also the distance between two successive crests or troughs. It is also the
distance between two successive points in phase.
5. Period (T)
It is the time taken by the wave to cover a distance of one wavelength. It is
also the time taken to cover one wave cycle.
6. Frequency (f)
This is the number of cycles performed by the wave in one second. It is also
the number of waves passing through a given point per second. The unit is
cycles/second, also known as the hertz (Hz).
1 1
f= ⇒T=
T f
7. Wave speed (v)

Wave speed is the distance covered by the wave per unit time.
x
v= or
t
v = fλ
Example 1
The frequency of “Wazobia FM” is 95.1 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the
radio wave emanating from the transmitter.
[Take the speed of electromagnetic wave to be 3 x 105 km/s]
Solution
f = 95.1 MHz = 95.1 x 106 Hz
c = 3 x 105 km/s = 3 x 105 x 1000 m/s = 3 x 108 m/s.
c = fλ
8
c 3 x 10
λ= =
f 95.1 x 10 6
λ = 3.15 m
Example 2
Water waves cover a distance of 200 m in 5 secs with the distance between
three successive crests as 50 m. Calculate the
i. wave speed
ii. frequency
Solution
x 200
i) Wave speed v= = =40 m/ s
t 5
ii) 2λ = 50 m
50
λ= =25 m
2
But v = fλ
v 40
f= =
λ 25
f = 1.6 Hz
Example 3
The frequency of a vibrating source is 450 Hz and the velocity of the sound it
produces in air is 330 m/s. Find how far the sound travels when the source
completes 50 vibrations.
Solution
In one vibration, the distance travelled by the wave is a wavelength.
From v = fλ
v 330
λ= = =0.73 m
f 450
Distance travelled in 50 vibrations = 50λ

= 50 x 0.73
= 36.5 m
CONTENT WAVES (continued)
(PERIOD 3 & 4) The Progressive Wave Equations
The basic sinusoidal wave equation for a wave starting from the origin is:
y = Asinθ ------- ----i
Where y is the vertical instantaneous displacement of the wave from
the equilibrium position
A is the amplitude
θ is the phase angle or angular displacement of the wave.
The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular frequency or

angular velocity (ω). Mathematically,
Angular displacement
Angular velocity= in rad/s
time
θ
ω=
t
⇒ θ=ωt
From eqn i,
y = Asinωt - - - - - - - - - - - ii
But ω = 2πf
∴ y = Asin2πft - - - - - - - - - - - iii
1
Using f = and eqn iii,
T
2 πt
y= Asin - - - - - - - - - - - iv
T
v
Using f = and eqn iii
λ
2 πvt
y= Asin -----------v
λ
x
Using v= and eqn v
t
2 πx
y= Asin - - - - - - - - - - - vi
λ
Note: Any of the following is substituted in a wave equation to yield a new
one:
x
v=
t
1
f=
T
v
f=
λ
v
λ=
f
Phase difference (α)
A phase difference is always added or subtracted from the phase angle (θ)
when the wave did not start from the origin. The basic wave equation in eqn
(i) above becomes:
y = Asin(θ ± α)
y = Asin(ωt± α) - - - - - - - - - - - 1
If the wave is moving to the right, α is negative; if it is moving to the left, it is

positive.
Eqn (1) can also be written as

y = Asin(ωt± kx) - - - - - - - - - - - 2
2π
Where α = kx and k =
λ
2 πx
⇒ α=
λ
Where k is the wave number which is defined as the number of waves
over a given distance. k is measured in per metre (m-1);
x is the distance between any two points that are not in
phase along the equilibrium line.
Note:
y = Asin(ωt± kx) is the same as y = Asin( kx ±ωt).
Using y = Asin(ωt± kx)
(
y= Asin 2 πft ±
2 πx
λ )
( xλ ) - - - - - - - - - - - 3
y= Asin 2 π ft ±
1
From eqn (3) and f =
T
y= Asin 2 π ( Tt ± xλ ) - - - - - - - - - - - 4
v
From eqn (3) and λ=
f
(
y= Asin 2 π ft ±
fx
v ) -----------5
v
From eqn (4) and λ=
f
y= Asin 2 π ( Tt ± fxλ ) - - - - - - - - - - - 6
v
Using f = and eqn 3
λ
y= Asin 2 π (
vt x
λ λ
± )
-----------7
2π
y= Asin ( vt ± x ) - - - - - - - - - - - 8
λ
From eqn 5
y= Asin 2 πf t ± ( )
v
x
-----------9
1
Using f = and eqn 9
T
y= Asin
2π
T ( )
t±
x
v
- - - - - - - - - - - 10
v
Using f = and eqn 9
λ
y= Asin
2 πv
λ
t± ( )
x
v
- - - - - - - - - - - 11
From eqn 9
y= Asinω t ± ( )
v
x
- - - - - - - - - - - 12
From eqn 8
y= Asink ( vt ± x ) - - - - - - - - - - - 13
Example 1 (WAEC/SSCE 2004 modified)

The equation y = 5sin(3x – 4t), where y is in millimeters, x in metres and t in
seconds represents a wave motion. Determine the
i. Amplitude
ii. Frequency
iii. Period
iv. Speed of the wave
Solution
y = Asin(α - ωt)
y = Asin(kx - ωt)
By comparison with the given equation y = 5sin(3x – 4t)
i. Amplitude A = 5 mm
ii. ω=4
2πf = 4
4
f=
2π
2
f = Hz
π
f = 0.637 Hz
1
iii. T=
f
π
T= secs OR
2
1
T=
0.637
T = 1.57 secs
iv. k=3
2π
=3
λ
2π
λ= m
3
22
2x
7 2 x 22
⇒ λ= =
3 3x7
λ=2.095 m
Using v = fλ
2 2π 4
Wave speed v = x =
π 3 3
v = 1.33 m/s
Example 2
A progressive wave equation is represented by
y = Asin2π(0.15t + 0.1x)
Calculate the
(a) Period (b) wave number
Solution
y = Asin(ωt + kx)
(
y= Asin 2 πft +
2 πx
λ)
( xλ )
y= Asin 2 π ft +
y= Asin 2 π ( + )
t x
T λ
From the given equation, y = Asin2π(0.15t + 0.1x)
t
(a) =0.15 t
T
1
=0.15
T
1
T=
0.15
T = 6.67 secs
x
(b) =0.1 x
λ
1
=0.1
λ
1
λ= =10 m
0.1
2π
Wave number k =
λ
22
2x
2π 7
k= =
10 10
2 x 22 44
¿ =
10 x 7 70
k = 0.63 /m
k = 0.63 m-1
Example 3
y = 0.2sin0.80π(x – 90t) represents a wave train in which all the parameters
have their usual meaning. What is the
i. Wave velocity
ii. Wavelength
iii. Number of cycles generated per second
Solution
y = Asin(kx - ωt)
y= Asin ( 2 πx
λ ) −2 πft
v
But f =
λ
y= Asin ( λ )
2 πx 2 πvt
–
λ
2π
y= Asin ( x−vt )
λ
Comparing with the given equation y = 0.2sin0.80π(x – 90t)
(i) vt = 90t
V = 90 m/s
2π
(ii) =0.8 π
λ
2
=0.8
λ
2
λ= m
0.8
λ=2.5 m
(iii) v = fλ
v 90
f= =
λ 2.5
f = 36 cycles/sec
f = 36 Hz
Example 4
A plane progressive wave is represented by the equation
(
y=0.1sin 200 πt−
20 πx
17 ). Find the phase difference in radians between a
point 0.25 m and 1.10 m respectively from the origin.

Solution
20 πx
Phase difference α =
17
α =20 π ¿ ¿ ¿
20 π (1.10−0.25)
α=
17
20 π x 0.85
¿
17
17 π
¿
17
∴ α =π rads
Example 5 (JAMB 2009)
(
A progressive wave is represented by y=10 sin 1000 πt−
πx
34 )
Two layers of the wave separated by 153 cm have phase difference of (A) 270 O
(B) 45O (C) 90O (D) 180O
Solution
(
Comparing y= Asin 2 πft −
2 πx
λ )
(
With y=10 sin 1000 πt−
πx
34 )
πx
α=
34
π x 153
α=
34
α =4.5 π rads
Converting to degrees, 2π rads = 360O
o
360
α =4.5 π rads x
2 π rads
o
360
α =4.5 x
2
o
α =810
Continuously reduce the angle by subtracting 360O
α =¿ 810O
- 360O
450O
- 360O
90o
∴ α =90o (Option C)
WAVEFRONT
This is defined as the locus of all points vibrating in phase at the same
frequency and amplitude. It is also a line or section taken through an
advancing wave in which all the particles are in phase. The direction of the
wave front is the line drawn perpendicular to the wavefront. A wavefront
could be
i. Plane wavefront
ii. Circular wavefront
iii. Cylindrical wavefront
STRATEGIES & The teacher defines and explains wave as a disturbance emanating from a
ACTIVITIES source
STEP 1
STEP 2 The teacher defines and explains wave motion
STEP 3 The teacher proceeds to the classification of waves as transverse waves and
longitudinal waves; mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves
STEP 4 The teacher proceeds to explain some terminology used in describing a wave
STEP 6 The teacher writes and explains the basic sinusoidal progressive wave
equation
STEP 7 The teacher explains the modification of the basic wave equation
STEP 8 The teacher writes and explains the different forms of the modified wave
equation
STEP 9 The teacher proceeds to worked examples
STEP 10 The teacher rounds off with questions from the students
ASSESSMENT 1. Define
(EVALUATION) 2. Wave
3. Wave motion
4. What is the difference between transverse and longitudinal
waves?
5. Define and explain the following with respect to wave
- Phase
- Cycle
- Wavelength
- Period
- Frequency
6. Write the basic wave equation, explaining the meanings of the
parameters
7. Write five (5) forms of the modified wave equation, explaining
the meanings of the parameters
8. If a wave which did not start from the origin is moving toward
the left, what is the sign of the phase difference
9. What wave number? State its S.I unit
WRAP – UP The students can define and explain wave, wave motion; they can also classify
(CONCLUSION) waves and define some of the terminology used in waves
ASSIGNMENT π
1. A wave is represented by the equation, y= Asin (vt + x) where A is in
6
metres. Calculate the wavelength A. 0.33m B. 3.00m C. 6.00m D.
12.00m [JAMB 2008]
2. A plane progressive wave is represented by the equation,
(
y=0.1sin 200 πt−
20 πx
17 ) . Find the phase difference in radians
between a point 0.25m and 1.10 m respectively from the origin

HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Properties of Waves
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
LEARNING The students should be able to define and explain the following properties
OBJECTIVES of waves:
i. Reflection
ii. Refraction
iii. Diffraction
iv. Define and explain superposition
v. Define and explain interference
vi. Explain the two (2)types of interference
KEY VOCABULARY Reflection, advancing, wavefront, medium, density, speed, wavelength,
WORDS frequency, refractive, index etc
4. Diagrams or pictures to be projected on a screen
BUILDING The students can classify waves
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
Reflection
This is the sending back of an advancing wavefront when it encounters an
obstacle. For a straight wavefront, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.
Refraction
This is defined as the change in the direction of a wave as a result of the
change in the speed of the wave when it passes from one medium to
another medium of a different density.
Any time a wave moves from one medium to another medium of a different
density:
i. The speed will change;
ii. the wavelength will also change;
iii. but the frequency will remain constant.
(Note v α λ, where f is a constant)
Refractive index, n
This is the ratio of the velocity of the wave in the first medium to the second
medium
Velocity of the wave∈medium1

n=
Velocity of the wave∈medium2
v1
n=
v2
From v = fλ,
In medium 1, v1 = fλ1
In medium 2, v2 = fλ2
v 1 fλ 1
⇒ n= =
v 2 fλ 2
v1 λ1
n= =
v2 λ2
v1 λ1
∴ n= ∨n=
v2 λ2
Notice that n is always the refractive index of the second medium
Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE 2013 Practical]

Explain what is meant by the statement, “The refractive index of a material
is 1.65”
Solution
This means that light travels 1.65 times faster in air or vacuum than in the
material.
Mathematically,
Speed of light ∈ air∨vacuum 1.65

Refractive index , n= =
Speed of light ∈the material 1
In other words, the ratio of the speed of light in air or vacuum to the
material is 1.65: 1
Example 2
Light travels from air to water. If the wavelength of light in air is 590 nm,
calculate its wavelength in water (refractive index of water = 1.33)
Solution
λ1 = (590 nm) = 590 x 10-9 m
n = 1.33
λ2 = ?
−9
590 x 10
1.33=
λ2
−9
590 x 10
λ 2=
1.33
−7
λ 2=4.4 x 10 m
−2 −7
λ 2=440 x 10 x 10 m
−9
λ 2=440 x 10
λ 2=440 nm
Diffraction
This is the spreading of a wave when it passes through openings or around
obstacles
CONTENT PROPERTIES OF WAVES (continued)

(PERIOD 3 & 4)
Superposition
This is the overlapping of two or more progressive waves travelling either in
the same direction, or in opposite direction.
Interference
This is the overlapping of two or more equal progressive waves having the
same frequency and amplitude travelling in the same direction.
There are two types of interference:
(i) Constructive interference (reinforcement)
(ii) Destructive interference (cancellation)
Constructive interference is the overlapping of two or more equal

progressive waves in phase leading to a large resultant wave of greater
amplitude.
Destructive interference is the overlapping of two or more equal progressive

waves that are out of phase leading to a cancellation of the waves.
Polarisation or plane polarisation (only for transverse waves)

This is a process in which a wave is constrained to vibrate in only one plane
or in a particular direction.
Methods of polarisation
1. The use of polarisers such as polaroid, quartz and tourmaline
crystals.
2. Reflection7
3. Scattering from a suspension of small particles
4. Double refraction
Applications of polarisers or polarisation

1) In sunglasses to reduce the intensity of incident sunlight
2) For elimination of glare (unwanted reflected light) from shiny
surfaces
3) In windows of cars, trains and aeroplane to control the intensity of
light going in
4) To convert optical instruments to polarising instruments
5) In film industry to create an illusion of a 3D images
6) To measure the concentration of sugars in a solution
STATIONARY OR STANDING WAVE

This results from the superposition of two equal progressive waves
travelling in opposite direction as a result of reflection.
λ
¿ N−N =
2
λ
A−A=
2
λ
N− A=
4
In a stationary wave, there are nodes (N) and antinodes (A)

(i) Node(N): This is a point on a stationary wave where there is no
motion
(ii) Antinode (A): This is a point where there is maximum motion on a
stationary wave.
STRATEGIES & The teacher defines and explains reflection
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1
7
When an ordinary light strikes the surface of a transparent material such as glass, the reflected ray is fully
plane – polarised.
STEP 2 The teacher defines and explains refraction
STEP 3 The teacher explains diffraction of waves
STEP 4 The teacher defines and explains superposition
STEP 5 The teacher defines and explains interference
STEP 6 The teacher further explains constructive and destructive interference
ASSESSMENT 1. Define diffraction as a property of wave
(EVALUATION) 2. Define refraction of wave
3. When a progressive wave changes medium. The frequency also
changes. TRUE or FALSE?
4. Write two (2) expressions for refractive index
1. Differentiate between superposition and interference
2. Define interference
3. Define and explain
- Constructive interference
- Destructive interference
WRAP – UP The teacher summarises the key points of the lesson to conclude as the
(CONCLUSION) students can define and explain: Reflection, refraction and diffraction of
waves
ASSIGNMENT 1. Define the following
i)Luminous objects with two examples
ii) Non-luminous objects with two examples
2. With the aid of a labelled diagram, explain the formation of umbra and
penumbra
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Light Waves
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES i. List and explain sources of light
ii. List and explain types of materials
iii. Define and explain the rectilinear propagation of light and its
application in the formation of shadow and eclipses
iv. Explain the principle of the pinhole camera
v. State the types of reflection
vi. State and explains the laws of reflection
vii. Diagrammatically explain the image formation by a plane mirror
viii. Solve problems on plane mirror
ix. List and explain some applications of plane mirror
x. Explain some terms used in describing a curved mirror
KEY Luminous, transparent, translucent, opaque, rectilinear, shadow, eclipse,
VOCABULARY umbra, penumbra, etc
WORDS
3. Material(s): Ray box, screen, plane mirror, concave and convex mirror
BUILDING The students can explain light as a form of energy called luminous energy
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION
TO PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT LIGHT WAVES
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
Sources of light
i. Luminous objects such as the sun, stars, fireflies, candles, electric

bulbs produce their own light.
ii. Non-luminous objects do not produce their own light. They are seen
by the light they reflect e.g. the moon, the earth, mirror etc.
Types of materials
i. Transparent materials transmit a large proportion of light falling on

them e.g. water, glass etc.
ii. Translucent materials allow light to pass through them but scatter it
on the way. We cannot see through a translucent materials such as
frosted glass and waxed paper
iii. Opaque materials absorb and reflect light falling on them; they
never transmit light.
Rectilinear propagation of light and applications

This is a phenomenon in which light travels from one place to another in a
straight line. The applications include:
1. Shadows
Shadows result when light falls on opaque objects. Shadow could be made up
of purely a dark region called umbra; or, a dark region (the umbra) surrounded
by an outer grey region called penumbra.
Umbra is referred to as the total shadow; while penumbra is the partial
shadow.
2. Eclipse
i. Eclipse of the sun
ii. Annular eclipse of the sun
iii. Eclipse of the moon
i) Eclipse of the sun or solar eclipse
This occurs when the moon comes between the sun and the earth casting a
shadow on the earth. If the shadow of the moon falls on the area we are living,
light from the sun is cut off and we experience total darkness.
It is total darkness for people in the umbra area of the shadow and partial
eclipse for those in the penumbra area.
ii) Annular eclipse of the sun

Sometimes, the distance of the moon from the earth is such that the tip of the
umbra misses the earth. Under this condition, no eclipse can occur though the
sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line.
iii) Eclipse of the moon or lunar eclipse

This occurs when the earth comes between the sun and the moon casting a
shadow on the moon.
3. Pinhole camera
This is a light – tight box painted black inside with a small hole on one of the
sides. Opposite this hole is a tracing paper or frosted glass acting as the screen.
When the hole is directed on an object, an inverted image of the object is
formed on the screen.
Effect of enlarging the hole

If the hole is larger than a pinhole, the image formed is brighter, but blurred.
CONTENT LIGHT WAVES (continued)
(PERIOD 3 & 4)
REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Laws of reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Image formation in a plane mirror
The eye sees the image in the mirror by the reflection of rays coming from the
object on hitting the mirror surface. The reflected rays apparently appear to
the eye E, to be coming from the image at a point I behind the mirror. The
distance OM = IM.
No rays of light actually come from a point I behind the mirror. The image
formed is known as a virtual image.
A virtual image is an image that is not formed by the intersection of actual rays
and cannot be captured on a screen.
A real image is an image that is formed by the intersection of actual rays and
can be formed on a screen.
Characteristics of image formed by plane mirror

1. It is the same size as the object (magnification = 1)
2. Image distance behind the mirror is equal to the object distance in front
3. The image is upright
4. It is virtual
5. It is laterally inverted
Example of lateral inversion:
Inclined mirrors
If two plane mirrors are inclined at θ, the number of images formed is:
360
n= −1
θ
Example 1
Find the number of images formed when two mirrors are perpendicular to each
other.
Solution
θ = 90o (condition for perpendicularity)
360
n= −1
90
=4–1
= 3 images
Applications of reflection in plane mirror

1. The kaleidoscope8
2. The periscope9
3. Mirror galvanometer10
8
This is a toy in form of a tube forming multiple images with the aid of two strips of
plane mirrors inclined at 60o.
9
The simple periscope consists of two parallel plane mirrors inclined at 45o facing each
other
10
This uses the rotation of a plane mirror coupled to a moving coil to measure very small
4. In a sextant11
5. As a dressing mirror
REFLECTION IN CURVED OR SPHERICAL MIRRORS
A curved mirror could be a concave or convex mirror

Some terminologies
i. The pole (P)

This is the centre of the reflecting surface of the curved mirror
ii. The centre of curvature (C)
This is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part. For a
concave mirror, it is at the front; for a convex mirror, it is behind.
iii. The radius of curvature (r)
It is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part. It is also
the distance from C to P.
iv. The principal axis
This is an imaginary line joining the pole (P) to the centre of curvature
(C)
v. The principal focus (F)
This is a point on the principal axis to which all rays parallel and close to
the principal axis converge, or from which they appear to diverge after
reflection. The principal focus is midway between the pole and the
centre of curvature.
A concave mirror has a real principal focus; while a convex mirror has a
virtual principal focus.
In the parabolic reflector of a car headlamp, the bulb is placed at the

principal focus so that a parallel beam of light is produced after
reflection.
vi. The focal length(f)
This is the distance from the pole to the principal focus. It is one-half
the radius of curvature, i.e.
r
f=
2
Formation of images by concave mirror

1. Object between P and F
current
11
This is an instrument used in navigation to measure the angle between any two visible
objects such as the sun and the horizon.
The image formed is
i. Erect
ii. Virtual
iii. Magnified
iv. Behind the mirror
The image above shows the use of the concave mirror as a shaving or
dentist mirror
2. Object at F
The image is
i. At infinity
3. Object between F and C

The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Magnified
iv. Beyond C
4. Object at C
The image is
i. Real
ii. At C
iii. Inverted
iv. Same size as the object
5. Object beyond C
The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Between C and F
iv. Diminished
6. Object at infinity
The image is
i. Real
ii. Inverted
iii. Diminished
iv. At F
Formation of image by convex mirror
For all positions of the object, the image is

i. Virtual
ii. Erect
iii. Diminished
iv. Between P and F
Application: As a car driving mirror due to its dual advantages of

a. Forming erect images
b. Having a wide field of view
Mirror formula
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Where:
f = Focal length
u = Object distance
v = Image distance
Example 1
A concave mirror produces a real image 1 cm tall of an object 2.5 mm tall
placed 5 cm from the mirror. Find the position of the image formed and the
focal length of the mirror.
Solution
image height image distance
Magnification= =
object height object distance
hi v
¿ =
ho u
1 v
¿ =
0.25 5
5
v=
0.25
∴ v=20 cm (real image)

But u = 5 cm
1 1 1
Using = +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
f 5 20
1 1
=
f 4
f = 4 cm (real focus)
Example 2
A concave mirror of radius of curvature 20 cm produces an inverted image 3
times the size of an object placed on a perpendicular to the axis. Calculate the
positions of the object and the image
Solution
r
f=
2
20
f = =10 cm
2
v v
m= ⇒ 3=
u u
v = 3u cm
1 1 1
Using = +
f u v
1 1 1
= +
10 u 3 u
1 4
=
10 3 u
3u = 4 x 10
4 x 10 40
u= =
3 3
1
∴ u=13 ∨13.3 cm
3
From v = 3u
1
v = 3 x 13
3
40
=3x
3
v = 40 cm
Example 3
An object is placed 15 cm in front of a convex mirror and an image is produced
5 cm behind the mirror. Calculate the focal length of the mirror.
Solution
u = 15 cm (real object)
v = -5 cm (virtual image, always)
1 1 1
= +
f u v
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⇒ = −
f 15 −5 f 15 5
1 −2 −15
= ⇒f =
f 15 2
f = -7.5 cm (virtual focus)
STRATEGIES & The teacher explains sources of light

ACTIVITIES
STEP 1
STEP 2 The teacher lists and explains types of materials
STEP 3 The teacher further lists and explains the types of beams of light
STEP 4 The teacher defines and explains rectilinear propagation of light and its
applications in the formation of shadows and eclipses
STEP 5 The teacher explains the principle of the pinhole camera
STEP 6 The teacher explains the types of reflection
STEP 7 The teacher states and explains the laws of reflection
STEP 8 The teacher explains he image formation by a plane mirror
STEP 9 The teacher further gives some worked examples
STEP 10 The teacher lists and explains some applications of plane mirror
STEP 11 The teacher explains some terms used in a curved mirror
CONTENT
(PERIOD 1 & 2)
ASSESSMENT 1)
(EVALUATION) - Differentiate between luminous and non luminous sources of light
- Classify, with explanation, physical materials
- Differentiate between a beam and a ray of light
2) Explain the rectilinear propagation of light
3) With the aid of diagrams, explain the following:
- Formation of umbra and penumbra
- Solar eclipse
- Annular eclipse
- Lunar eclipse
4) State the laws of reflection
5) Explain the difference(s) between a real image and a virtual image
6) What is lateral inversion?
7) List 4 applications of a plane mirror
8) List and explain 5 terms associated with a curve mirror
WRAP – UP The students can explain sources of light, list types of materials, explain the
(CONCLUSION) rectilinear propagation of light and its applications in the formation of shadows
and eclipses
ASSIGNMENT 1. Seven (7) virtual images of an object are formed when two (2) plane
mirrors are inclined at an angle Ө to each other. Calculate the value of
Ө [WAEC/SSCE 2010]
2. State the laws of refraction

HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMEN
T

DATE
CLASS SS 2
SUBJECT Physics
LESSON TITLE Refraction of Light
SUB-TITLE
PERIOD 4
OBJECTIVES i. State and explain the laws of refraction
ii. Define and explain critical angle
iii. Define and explain total internal reflection
iv. State the conditions for total internal reflection to occur
v. Explain the relationship between critical angle and refractive index
vi. List some applications of total internal reflection
vii. Solve problems on total internal reflection
KEY VOCABULARY Incident ray, refracted, ray, normal, incidence, ratio, constant, media, dense,
WORDS optically, critical, optical fibre, tumour, periscope, binocular
RESOURCES & 1.
Anyakoha, M.W., New School Physics for Senior Secondary Schools,
4. Material(s): Optical pins, rectangular glass block, paper, drawing board
etc
BUILDING The students have been taught refraction as a characteristic of wave
BACKGROUND
/CONNECTION TO
PRIOR
KNOWLEDGE
CONTENT REFRACTION OF LIGHT
(PERIOD 1 & 2) Laws of refraction
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is a constant called refractive index for a given pair of
sin i
media. =n
sin r
For light travelling from air to glass,
sine of angle of incidence ∈air

n¿
a g
sine of angle of refraction ∈glass
For light travelling from glass to air
sine of angle of incidence ∈glass

n¿
g a
sine of angle of refraction ∈air
⇒gna = 1
ang
Total Internal Reflection
When light passes from optically dense medium to a less dense medium,
the refracted ray is displaced from the normal while there is a weak reflected
ray in the denser medium.
At a certain critical angle of incidence, the angle of refraction is 90 o as shown
in diagram (ii) above. Beyond this critical angle there will be a total reflection
of the incident ray back into the denser medium.
Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser medium in which the
angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90o.
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of the incident ray back to
the denser medium for a ray of light travelling from a denser medium to a less
dense medium when the critical angle of incidence is exceeded.
Conditions for total internal reflection to occur
i. Light must be travelling from optically denser medium to a less dense
medium
ii. The angle of incidence in the denser medium must be greater than the
critical angle
Relationship between critical angle and refractive index
1
n=
sin c
Where n is the refractive index of the dense medium; and c is the critical angle
Applications of total internal reflection

i. Optical fibre in telecommunication
ii. Optical fibre in medicine (the endoscope)
iii. In the destruction of tumours12.
iv. In periscopes and binoculars
Example [JAMB 1995]

What is the approximate critical angle for total internal reflection for diamond
if the refractive index of diamond is 2.42?
Solution
For a ray moving from diamond to air,
1
n= (Where n is the refractive index of the dense medium)
sin c
1
sin c=
n
1
sin c=
2.42
sin c = 0.4132
c = sin-1 0.4132
c = 24.4o
CONTENT -
(PERIOD 3 & 4)
STRATEGIES & The teacher states and explains the laws of refraction
ACTIVITIES
STEP 1
STEP 2 The teacher defines and explains critical angle
STEP 3 The teacher defines and explains total internal reflection
STEP 4 The teacher further states the conditions for total internal reflection to occur
STEP 5 The teacher explains the relationship between critical angle and refractive
index
12
LASER beam can be aimed at a tumour through an optic fibre cable
STEP 6 The teacher lists some applications of total internal reflection
STEP 7 the teacher rounds off by taking questions from the students
ASSESSMENT 1. State the two (2) laws of refraction
(EVALUATION) 2. Define critical angle
3. Define total internal reflection
4. State the conditions necessary for total internal reflection to occur
5. Write the relationship between critical angle and refractive index for
a ray of light passing from glass to air
6. List three (3) applications of total internal reflection
WRAP – UP The teacher highlight the key points of the lesson emphatically to round off
(CONCLUSION)
ASSIGNMENT 1. The refractive index of a medium relative to air is 1.8. Calculate the
critical angle for the medium to the nearest degree.
[WAEC/SSCE 1996, Ans: 34 o]
2. Calculate the critical angle of a medium of refractive index 1.65 when
light passes from the medium to air [WAEC/SSCE 2005, Ans: 37.3o]
3. Calculate the critical angle for light travelling from water to air.
[Refractive index of water = 1.33] [NECO/SSCE 2003, Ans: 48.75o]
4. If the refractive index of a medium is√ 2, what is the critical angle?
[JAMB 1982, Ans: 45 o]
HOD/VP’S
COMMENT &
ENDORSEMENT

Phy SS 2 2ND Term Lesson Plan

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SCHEME OF WORK SS 2 2nd term

1. Liquid in glass thermometer

1. Liquid in glass thermometers

ii. Maximum and Minimum or Six’s thermometer

If Ө is the Celsius temperature corresponding to any gas pressure PӨ,

Advantages of the gas thermometer

Disadvantages of the gas thermometer

Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE June 2010]

= 380 – 440 x 100 oC

Let X be the scale on the unknown thermometer

4. Thermoelectric thermometer or thermocouple

Advantages of the thermoelectric thermometer

STRATEGIES & The teacher lists and explains types of thermometer

Specific Heat Capacity (c)

The quantity of heat Q received or given out by a body depends on the

The SI unit of specific heat capacity c is J/kgoC or J/kgK.

Heat Capacity (C) or Thermal capacity

Specific heat capacity is measure by two methods:

ii. Electrical method

Determination of specific heat capacity of a metal using the method of

Mass of empty calorimeter = m1 =

LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 3

Example 3 [WAEC/SSCE Nov 2004]

Heat lost by aluminium = mc(θ2 – θ)

1) A 420 W electric heater is used to heat water of mass 50 kg from

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation:

Molecular or kinetic theory explanation of evaporation

Why evaporation causes cooling

The boiling point (b.p) of a substance is defined as the temperature at

Effect of pressure on boiling point

At high altitudes and mountain tops, liquids boil at a lower temperature

Effects of impurities on freezing/melting point4

Effect of pressure on freezing/melting point

Regelation is the phenomenon of melting under pressure and freezing

The pressure cooker

Cooling and Heating curves

A heating curve is the reverse of a cooling curve as it shows how the

STRATEGIES & The teacher defines and explains evaporation

LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 5

During the change of state, the heat applied appears to be hidden as

Latent heat of vaporisation

Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to convert the

Specific latent heat of fusion (l)

This is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of a substance

Specific latent heat of vaporisation (l)

SI unit: The J/kg

Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE, Nov 2017]

Example 2 [WAEC/SSCE 2012]

Example 3 [WAEC/SSCE 2015]

ii. The melting process

LESSON PLAN FOR WEEK 6

Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the molecules of a liquid

Saturated and unsaturated vapour

Further depression of the mercury level occurs as more of the ether is

Saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) is the pressure exerted by a vapour that is in

Relative Humidity (R.H)

Formation of mist and fog

Example 1 [WAEC/SSCE 2000]

Mass of water vapour ∈a given volume of air