Unit 1 SEISMOLOGY

Contents: Elements of seismology – terminology, structure of earth, causes of an

earthquake, plate tectonic theory, continental drift theory, elastic rebound theory,
seismic waves, magnitude and intensity, methods of measurement, energy released,
seismograph, strong motion earthquakes, accelogram, prominent earthquakes of India.

1.1 Introduction

A study of earthquake engineering calls for a good understanding of geophysical process that
causes earthquakes and various effects of earthquakes. Seismology is the study of the generation,
propagation and measurement of seismic waves through earth and the sources that generate them.
The word seismology originated from Greek words, ‘seismos’ meaning earthquake and ‘logos’
meaning science. The study of seismic wave propagation through earth provides the maximum
input to the understanding of internal structure of earth.

1.2 Terminology used in earthquakes

The motion of plates results in stress buildup along plate boundaries as well as in interior domain
of the plate. Depending on the state of buildup of stress and amount of resistance offered by the
fault strata, rupture is initiated as stress exceeds the capacity of the strata. Generally, the rupture
causing earthquakes initiates from a point, termed as hypocenter or focus, which subsequently
spreads over to a large area. Depending on the characteristics of strata where rupture occurs, the
shape of the ruptured area could be highly irregular and the amount of interface slip along the
ruptured surface could also vary. Several terms associated with earthquake rupture/propagation
are discussed given below:

1.2.1 Earthquake
“Vibrations induced in the earth’s crust due to internal or external causes that virtually
shake up a part of the crust and all the structures and living & non – living existing on it.”
1.2.2 Seismology
The science dealing with the study of an earthquakes in all their aspects is called
seismology. Aspects such as – Seismic waves, seismic intensity, seismic zoning, seismic
region and so on.

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1.2.3 Focus
An earthquake is due to some disturbances or displacement in the rock at some depth below
the surface of the earth. Shock waves originate from that place or point of disturbance and
then travel in all directions causing vibrations.
“The place or point of origin of an earthquake below the surface of the earth is termed as
Focus or Hypocentre.”
1.2.4 Epicentre
“The point or place on the surface vertically above the focus of a particular earthquake is
termed as its epicenter.”
It is that place on the surface of the earth where vibrations from a particular earthquake
reach first of all. It is the location of maximum damage.

Fig. 1.1 Various terminologies associated with earthquake.

1.2.5 Focal depth
It is the vertical distance of the epicenter from the focus of an particular earthquake.
1.2.6 Epicentral distance
It is the distance on the earth surface of epicenter from the actual site which is under consideration.
1.2.7 Hypocentral distance
It is the distance of focus of an earthquake from the actual site which is under consideration.

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1.3 Structure of an earth

The earth’s shape is an oblate spheroid with a diameter along the equator of about 12740 km with
the polar diameter as 12700km. The higher diameter along equator is caused by the higher
centrifugal forces generated along the equator due to rotation of earth. Though the specific gravity
of materials that constitute the surface of earth is only about 2.8, the average specific gravity of
earth is about 5.5 indicating presence of very heavy materials towards interior of earth. The interior
of the earth can be classified into three major categories as Crust, Mantle and Core.

Fig. 1.2 Cross – section of interior of earth

Crust: or the lithosphere, is the outer part of the earth is where the life exist. The average thickness
of crust beneath continents is about 40km where as it decreases to as much as 5km beneath oceans.
The oceanic crust is constituted by basaltic rocks and continental part by granitic rocks overlying
the basaltic rocks. Compared to the layers below, this layer has high rigidity and anisotropy.

Mantle: is a 2900 km thick layer. The mantle consists of 1) Upper Mantle reaching a depth of
about 400 km made of olivine and pyroxene and 2) Lower Mantle made of more homogeneous
mass of magnesium and iron oxide and quartz. No earthquakes are recorded in the lower mantle.
The specific gravity of mantle is about 5. The mantle has an average temperature of about
2200degree Celsius and the material is in a viscous semi molten state. The mantle act like fluid in

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response to slowly acting stresses and creeps under slow loads. But it behaves like as solid in
presence of rapidly acting stresses, e.g. that caused by earthquake waves.

Core: has a radius of 3470 km and consists of an inner core of radius 1370 km and an outer core
(1370 km < R < 3470 km). The core is composed of molten iron, probably mixed with small
quantities of other elements such as nickel and sulphur or silicon. The inner solid core is very
dense nickel-iron material and is subjected to very high pressures. The maximum temperature in
the core is estimated to be about 3000 degree Celsius. The specific gravity of outer core is about
9-12 where as that of inner core is 15.

1.4 Causes of an earthquake

Tectonic earthquakes – Which are caused due to faulting or relative displacements of blocks of the
crust of the earth along rupture planes.
Non-Tectonic earthquakes – Which are caused due to volcanic eruptions, atomic explosions or due
to landslides and subsidence.
1.4.1 Causes of Tectonic earthquake
Tectonic earthquakes are caused due to displacement of blocks along fractures called faults and
that the focus of an earthquake indicates the depth at which this displacement originates.
1.4.2 Causes of Non-tectonic earthquake
The areas situated around active volcanoes actually shudder during the forceful eruption of lava
from the volcanoes. But in some cases, the volcanic eruption itself may be of an explosive, blasting
nature, huge quantities of lava are thrown out suddenly under great pressure and with a big bang,
causing tremors all around. These volcanic earthquakes are rarely felt.
The collapse earthquakes are caused when a portion of ground collapses suddenly because of
removal of support from below due to natural or artificial processes of rock wastage. Sometimes
these earthquakes may be caused by huge landslides or rock bursts, especially in hilly terrain.

1.5 Plate tectonic theory

The theory of plate tectonics, presented in early 1960s, explains that the lithosphere is broken into
seven large (and several smaller) segments called plates as shown in Figure 1.3.

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Fig. 1.3 Tectonic plate map of the world

The upper most part of the earth is considered to be divided into two layers with different
deformation properties. The upper rigid layer, called the lithosphere, is about 100 km thick below
the continents, and about 50 km under the oceans, and consists of Crust and rigid upper-mantle
rocks. The lower layer, called the asthenosphere, extends down to about 700 km depth. The rigid
lithospheric shell is broken into several irregularly shaped major plates and a large number of
minor or secondary plates. The lithospheric plates are not stationary, on the contrary, they float in
a complex pattern, with a velocity of some 2-10 cm/year on the soft rocks of the underlying
asthenosphere like rafts on a lake.
This theory requires a source that can generate tremendous force is acting on the plates. The widely
accepted explanation is based on the force offered by convection currents created by thermo-
mechanical behavior of the earth’s subsurface. The variation of mantle density with temperature
produces an unstable equilibrium. The colder and denser upper layer sinks under the action of
gravity to the warmer bottom layer which is less dense. The lesser dense material rises upwards
and the colder material as it sinks gets heated up and becomes less dense (refer Figure 1.4). These
convection currents create shear stresses at the bottom of the plates which drags them along the
surface of earth.

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Fig. 1.4 The state of convection currents below the earth’s surface

The continental sized plates are African, American, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, Eurasian and
pacific plate. Apart from this, several smaller plates like Andaman, Philippine plate also exist. As
plate glides over the asthenosphere, the continents and oceans move with it. Because the plates
move in different directions, they knock against their neighbors at boundaries. The great forces
thus generated at plate boundary build mountain ranges, cause volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.
Most of the Earth’s major geological activity occurs at plate boundaries, the zones where plates
meet and interact. Fig. 1.6 depicts the distribution of earthquake epicentres around the world.

Fig. 1.5 Types of Inter-Plate boundaries

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Fig. 1.6 Map of distribution of earthquakes epicentres around the world

The earthquake that occurs at a plate boundary is known as inter-plate earthquake. Not all
earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. Though, interior portion of a plate is usually tectonically
quiet, earthquakes also occur far from plate boundaries. These earthquakes are known as intra-
plate earthquakes. The recurrence time for an intraplate earthquake is much longer than that of
inter-plate earthquakes.
1.6 Continental drift theory

German scientist Alfred Wegener, in 1915, proposed the hypothesis that the continents had once
formed a single landmass before breaking apart and drifting to their present locations. His
observations were based on the similarity of coastlines and geology between south America, Africa
and Indian peninsula, Australia and Antarctica, Figure 1.2. He proposed that a large continent
termed Pangae existed in earth around 200 million years ago and was surrounded by an ocean
called Panthalassa. It was postulated that this super continent broke into several pieces that formed
the present continents. These pieces have subsequently drifted into their current position.
Although, he presented much evidence for continental drift, he was unable to provide a convincing
explanation for the physical processes which might have caused this drift. He suggested that the
continents had been pulled apart by the centrifugal pseudo force of the Earth's rotation or by a
small component of astronomical precession. But the calculations showed that these forces were
not sufficient cause continental drift.

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Fig. 1.7 Continental Drift Theory

1.7 Elastic rebound theory

As the plate try to move relative to each other, strain energy gets built up along the boundaries.
When the stress buildup reaches the ultimate strength of rock, rock fractures and releases the
accumulated strain energy, Fig. 1.6. The nature of failure dictates the effect of the fracture. If the
material is very ductile and weak, hardly any strain energy could be stored in the plates due to their
movement. But if the material is strong and brittle, the stress built up and subsequent sudden
rupture releases the energy stored in the form of stress waves and heat. The propagation of these
elastic stress waves causes the vibratory motion associated with earthquakes.

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Fig. 1.8 Elastic rebound across a fault

The region on the fault, where rupture initiates is known as the focus or hypocenter of an
earthquake. Epicenter is the location on the earth surface vertically above the focus. Distance from
epicenter to any place of interest is called the epicentral distance. The depth of the focus from the
epicenter is the focal depth. Earthquakes are sometime classified into shallow focus, intermediate
focus and deep focus earthquakes based on its focal depth. Most of the damaging earthquakes are
shallow focus earthquakes.

1.8 Seismic waves

During each earthquake, elastic waves are generated at the focus. These waves are called as seismic
waves and they travel in all directions with their characteristic velocities.

These are primary (P) waves, secondary (S) waves and surface waves. In addition, there are sub
varieties among them. The important characteristics of these three kinds of waves are as follows:

1.8.1 P – waves
These are known as primary waves, push-pull waves, longitudinal waves, compressional waves,
etc. These waves propagate by longitudinal or compressive action, which mean that the ground is
alternately compressed and dilated in the direction of propagation, Fig. 1.9. P waves are the fastest
among the seismic waves and travel as fast as 8 to 13 km per second. Therefore, when an

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earthquake occurs, these are the first waves to reach any seismic station and hence the first to be
recorded. The P waves resemble sound waves because these too are compressional or longitudinal
waves in nature. Hence, the particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of propagation (i.e.
longitudinal particle motion). These waves are capable of traveling through solids, liquids and
gases.

Fig. 1.9 Nature of propagation of P – waves

The P-waves propagates radial to the source of the energy release and the velocity is expressed by,
E (1  )
Vp  .
 (1  ).(1  2 )
where, E is the Young’s modulus,  is the Poisson’s ratio (0.25) and  is the density.
1.8.2 S – waves
These are also called shear waves, secondary waves, transverse waves, etc. Compared to P waves,
these are relatively slow. These are transverse or shear waves, which mean that the ground is
displaced perpendicularly to the direction of propagation, Fig. 1.10. In nature, these are like light
waves, i.e., the waves move perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Hence, transverse
particle motion is characteristic of these waves. These waves are capable of traveling only through
solids. If the particle motion is parallel to prominent planes in the medium they are called SH
waves.

Fig. 1.10 Nature of propagation of S – waves

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On the other hand, if the particle motion is vertical, they are called SV waves. The shear wave
velocity is given by,
E G
Vs  
2 .(1  ) 
E
Where, G  is the shear modulus.
2.(1   )
They travel at the rate of 5 to 7 km per second. For this reason these waves are always recorded
after P waves in a seismic station.

1.8.3 Surface waves

When the vibratory wave energy is propagating near the surface of the earth rather than deep in
the interior, two other types of waves known a Rayleigh and Love waves can be identified. These
are called surface waves because their journey is confined to the surface layers of the earth only.
Surface waves travel through the earth crust and does not propagate into the interior of earth unlike
P or S waves. Surface waves are the slowest among the seismic waves. Therefore, these are the
last to be recorded in the seismic station at the time of occurrence of the earthquake.
They travel at the rate of 4 to 5 km per second. Complex and elliptical particle motion is
characteristic of these waves. These waves are capable of travelling through solids and liquids.
They are complex in nature and are said to be of two kinds, namely, Raleigh waves and Love
waves.

Fig. 1.11 Nature of propagation of (a) Rayleigh waves and (b) Love waves

The Rayleigh surface waves are tension-compression waves similar to the P-waves expect that
their amplitude diminishes with distance below the surface of the ground. Similarly, the Love
waves are the counterpart of the “S” body waves; they are shear waves that diminishes rapidly
with distance below surface, Fig. 1.11

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The damage and destruction associated with earthquakes can be mainly attributed to surface
waves. This damage potential and the strength of the surface waves reduce with increase in depth
of earthquakes.
1.9 Magnitude

Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake. Professor Charles Richter
noticed that (a) at the same distance, seismograms (records of earthquake ground vibration) of
larger earthquakes have bigger wave amplitude than those of smaller earthquakes; and (b) for a
given earthquake, seismograms at farther distances have smaller wave amplitude than those at
close distances. These prompted him to propose the now commonly used magnitude scale, the
Richter Scale.
It is obtained from the seismograms and accounts for the dependence of waveform amplitude on
epicentral distance. This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale.
There are other magnitude scales, like the Body Wave Magnitude, Surface Wave Magnitude and
Wave Energy Magnitude. These numerical magnitude scales have no upper and lower limits; the
magnitude of a very small earthquake can be zero or even negative.

1.9.1 Richter Magnitude

A workable definition of magnitude was first proposed by C.F. Richter. He based on the data from
Californian earthquakes, defined the earthquake magnitude as the logarithm to the base 10 of the
largest displacement of a standard seismograph situated 100 km from the focus.
This is the logarithm to the base 10 of the maximum seismic wave amplitude recorded on a
seismograph at a distance of 100 km from the epicentre of a particular earthquake.

M  log A  log A0
where, A = Record trace of the amplitude of an observed earthquake.
A0 = Record trace of a standard earthquake.
M = Magnitude.
In the magnitude scale, either the value of amplitude body waves or that of surface waves may be
used & accordingly they are called as Mb or Ms respectively.

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1.10 Intensity

The intensity of an earthquake refers to the degree of destruction caused by it. In other words,
intensity of an earthquake is a measure of severity of the shaking of ground and its attendant
damage. This, of course, is empirical to some extent because the extent of destruction or damage
that takes place to a construction at a given place depends on many factors. Some of these factors
are: (i) distance from the epicenter, (ii) compactness of the underlying ground, (iii) type of
construction (iv) magnitude of the earthquake (v) duration of the earthquake and (vi) depth of the
focus. Intensity is the oldest measure of earthquake.
“It is qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake, and is assigned
as Roman capital numerals”.

Table 1 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (IS 1893:1984)

MMI Remarks
Intensity
I Not felt except by a very few under specially favourable circumstances
Felt only by a few persons at rest especially on upper floors of buildings and
II
delicately suspended objects may swing.
Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings but many people
III do not recognize it as an earthquake; standing motor cars may rock slightly; and
vibrations may be felt like the passing of a truck.
During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few, at night some awakened;
dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound, sensation like heavy
truck striking the building; and standing motor cars rock noticeably. During the day
IV
felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few, at night some awakened; dishes, windows,
doors disturbed; walls make creaking sound, sensation like heavy truck striking the
building; and standing motor cars rock noticeably.
Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened; some dishes, windows, etc, broken; a few
V instances of cracked plaster; unstable objects overturned; disturbance of trees, poles
and other tall objects noticed sometimes; and pendulum clocks may stop.

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Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors; some heavy furniture moved; a few
VI
instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys; and damage slight.
Everybody runs outdoors, damage negligible in buildings of good design and
VII construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; and some chimneys
broken, noticed by persons driving motor cars.
Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable in ordinary but
substantial buildings with partial collapse; very heavy in poorly built structures;
VIII panel walls thrown out of framed structures; falling of a chimney, factory stacks,
columns, monuments, and walls; heavy furniture overturned, sand and mud eject in
small amounts; changes in well water; and disturbs persons driving motor cars.
Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed framed
structures thrown out of plumb; very heavy in substantial buildings with partial
IX
collapse; building shifted off foundations; ground cracked conspicuously; and
underground pipes broken.
Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and framed structures
with foundations destroyed; ground badly cracked; rails bent; landslides considerable
X
from river banks and steep slopes; shifted sand and mud; and water splashed over
banks.
Few, if any, masonry structures remain standing; bridges destroyed; broad fissures
XI in ground, underground pipelines completely out of service; earth slumps and
landslips in soft ground; and rails bent greatly.
Total damage; waves seen on ground surfaces; lines of sight and levels distorted; and
XII
objects thrown upward into the air.

1.11 Comparison between Magnitude and Intensity

Comparisons between magnitude and intensity are fraught with difficulty. Firstly, intensity varies
with distance from the epicentre. Secondly, a large earthquake may occur away from inhabited
areas and therefore cause little apparent damage. Focal depth, ground conditions and quality of
building construction can have a considerable effect on subjective assessments of damage.
Magnitude-intensity relationships are not favoured for engineering purposes. However, intensity

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could be the only information available for large historical earthquakes and the inputs from
intensity measurements would be necessary in estimating the maximum earthquake potential of
the region.

1.12 Energy Released

An approximate relationship between surface wave magnitude, M s , and the energy released by
an earthquake, E, is given by,

log10 E  4.8  1.5M s

where E is measured in joules. Thus the ratio of energies released by two earthquakes differing by
1 is magnitude is equal to 31.6. The ratio is 1000 for earthquakes differing by 2 in magnitude,
Table 1.2. Comparisons have been made between natural forces and nuclear weapons. The energy
released by a 1 megaton hydrogen bomb is roughly equivalent to a magnitude 7.4 earthquake.
Figure 1.10 shows the variation of the energy released against the magnitude.

Table 1.2 Increase in energy release for various range of increase in value of magnitude.

Increase in magnitude Increase in energy release

0.2 2 Times
0.447 5 Times
0.67 10 Times
1 31.6 Times
2 1000 Times

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Fig. 1.12 Energy magnitude relationship

1.13 Seismograph
The instrument designed to record earth motion set up by seismic waves is called a Seismograph.
The actual record of motion produced by a seismograph is called as seismogram. Seismograph
may be designed for recording either the horizontal or the vertical component of ground motion.
A seismograph consists of a pendulum attached to a delicate boom suspended with a vertical axis
through a tie wire. In front of the pendulum is placed a drum capable of rotating at a fixed speed
and having a threaded axis rotation. A paper is wrapped over the drum. The pendulum is provided
with a recording device such as a pointed pencil, levered to it. The drum is provided with a clock
& a time-marking device.
The assembly is at rest except the clock but the moment at which a shock is received by the
seismograph, the boom starts oscillating the pendulum, the drum starts rotating and the time
marker records the time of disturbance on the paper. As the pendulum oscillates, the pencil point
makes wavy outline on the paper over the drum.

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Fig. 1.13 Schematic diagram of seismograph

1.14 Strong motion earthquakes

The motion of the ground can be described in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration. The
variation of ground acceleration with time recorded at a point on ground during an earthquake is
called as an ‘Accelerogram’.
It can be best represented by the variation of ground acceleration with respect to time. The forcing
function in case of an earthquake is a function of ground acceleration on the R. H. S. of equation
of motion.

my  cy  ky  myg
where, y g = Ground acceleration.

The nature of accelerograms may vary depending on energy released at source, type of slip at fault
rupture, geology along the travel path from fault rupture to the earth’s surface and local soil. They
carry distinct information regarding ground shaking, peak amplitude, duration of strong shaking,
frequency content (e.g. amplitude of shaking associated with each frequency) & energy content
(i.e. energy carried by ground shaking at each frequency) are often used to distinguish them.
Usually strong motions carry significant energy associated with shaking of frequencies in the range
0.03 – 30 Hz (cycles/sec.)

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1.15 Accelogram
Basic instrument for recording 3 components of ground motion is called “Accelogram”. The
instrument is stiggered only when the earthquake waves exceed threshold value. The instrument
stops, once the vibrations go beyond the threshold value. The instrument consists of transducer. It
is essentially a SDOF element with certain frequency and damping.
Typically frequency is 25Hz and  = 60% for accelogram. Usually these instruments are capable
of measuring a range of frequencies typically 0.03 to 30 Hz.

1.15.1 Important characteristics of accelogram:

a) Duration – The time of strong motion of an earthquake is called as its duration. Usually it
varies from 10sec. – 60sec. But there are exceptional earthquakes, duration of which is upto
180sec.
b) Intensity of earthquake – It is represented by PGA Peak ground acceleration. Usually it varies
from 0.1g to 0.6g.
c) Frequency content – An earthquake consists of many frequencies with different amplitudes.
Therefore, the frequency content of earthquake is very important characteristic.

1.16 Basic Geography and tectonic features

India lies at the northwestern end of the Indo- Australian Plate, which encompasses India,
Australia, a major portion of the Indian Ocean and other smaller countries. This plate is colliding
against the huge Eurasian Plate (Fig. 14) and going under the Eurasian Plate. A sea, Tethys,
separated these plates before they collided. When continents converge, large amounts of
shortening and thickening takes place, like at the Himalayas and the Tibet.

Three chief tectonic sub-regions of India are the mighty Himalayas along the north, the plains of
the Ganga and other rivers, and the peninsula. The Himalayas consist primarily of sediments
accumulated over long geological time in the Tethys. The Indo- Gangetic basin with deep alluvium
is a great depression caused by the load of the Himalayas on the continent. The peninsular part of
the country consists of ancient rocks deformed in the past Himalayan-like collisions. Erosion has
exposed the roots of the old mountains and removed most of the topography. The rocks are very
hard, but are softened by weathering near the surface. Before the Himalayan collision, several tens

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of millions of years ago, lava flowed across the central part of peninsular India leaving layers of
basalt rock. Coastal areas like Kachchh show marine deposits testifying to submergence under the
sea millions of years ago.

Fig. 1.14 Geographical layout and tectonic plate boundaries of India

1.17 Prominent earthquakes in India

A number of significant earthquakes occurred in & around India over the past century. Some of
these occurred in populated and urbanized areas and hence caused great damage. Many went
unnoticed, as they occurred deep under Earth’s surface or in relatively inhabited places.

Most earthquakes occurs along the Himalayan plate boundary (these are interpolate earthquake),
but a no. of earthquakes have also occurred in the peninsular region (these are intraplate
earthquake).

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Four great earthquakes (M>8) occurred in a span of 53 years from 1897 to 1950. The Januaryt3
2001 Bhuj earthquake (M>7) is almost large. Each of these caused disasters, but also allowed us
to learn about earthquakes and to advance earthquake engineering.

Cutch earthquake produced an unprecedented 3m high uplift of the ground over 100km (called
Allah Bund). The 1897 Assam earthquake caused severe damage upto 500km radial distances. The
type of damage sustained led to improvement in the intensity scale from I – X to I – XII. Extensive
liquefaction of the ground took place over a length of 300km during 1934 Bihar – Nepal earthquake
in which many buildings and structures went afloat.

The timing of the earthquake during the day & during the year determines the number of casualties.
Casualties are expected to be high for earthquakes that strike during cold winter nights, when most
of the population is indoors.

1.18 Seismic zones in India

The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging
earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required to
identify these regions. Based on the levels of intensities sustained ring damaging past earthquakes,
the 1970 version of the zone map subdivided India into five zones – I, II, III, IV and V. Parts of
Himalayan boundary in the north and northeast, and the Kachchh area in the west were classified
as zone V.

The seismic zone maps are revised from time to time as more understanding is gained on the
geology, the seismotectonics and the seismic activity in the country. The Indian Standards
provided the first seismic zone map in 1962, which was later revised in 1967 and again in 1970.
The map has been revised again in 2002, and it now has only four seismic zones – II, III, IV and
V.

The national Seismic Zone Map presents a largescale view of the seismic zones in the country.
Local variations in soil type and geology cannot be represented at that scale. Therefore, for
important projects, such as a major dam or a nuclear power plant, the seismic hazard is evaluated
specifically for that site. Also, for the purposes of urban planning, metropolitan areas are

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microzoned. Seismic microzonation accounts for local variations in geology, local soil profile,
etc,.

Fig. 1.15 Indian seismic zone map of 1970

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Fig. 1.16 Indian seismic zone map as per IS 1893 (Part 1) – 2002

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Question Bank

1. Define Seismology and Explain Internal Structure of Earth.

2. Explain causes of earthquake and classify it.

3. Explain reservoir induced seismicity.

4. Explain different methods of measuring intensity and magnitude of an earthquake.

5. Differentiate Intensity and Magnitude of an earthquake.

6. Explain different types of seismic waves

7. Explain the operating principal of seismograph with neat sketch.

8. What do you mean by tectonic plates and movement at boundaries?

9. Explain plate tectonic theory

10. Explain elastic rebound theory.

11. Explain procedure of construction of response spectra.

12. Write a note on modified Marcalies scale.

13. Define and show with diagram focus, Focal length, epicenter, epicentral distance.

14. Write a note on continental drift theory.

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