Summary Notes 4

One-to-one Functions and Their

Inverse Functions

One-to-One Functions
Let’s recall that for any x in the domain of a function f , only one function value f (x) can be assigned
to x. However, it is possible that two different numbers x1 6= x2 in the domain of f have the same function
value, i.e. f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). By ruling out this possibility, we have the concept of a one-to-one function:

A function f is said to be one-to-one if f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) for any two numbers x1 6= x2 in the
domain of f .

In other words, f (x) never takes on the same function value twice or more times when x runs through
the domain of f ; or equivalently, the equation

f (x) = b

has exactly one solution for any b in the range of f . In particular, f is a one-to-one function if x1 = x2
whenever f (x1 ) = f (x2 ).
Graphically speaking, we have the Horizontal Line Test which says that f is a one-to-one function if
every horizontal line hits the graph of f at most once.

y y
y = f(x)
y = g(x)

x x
f is not one-to-one : several x-values g is one-to-one : different x-values
can produce the same y-value can not produce the same y-value

Example 1. Let y = g(x) = 2x + 3, whose graph is a line with slope 2 and y-intercept 3.
g is clearly a one-to-one function since 2x1 + 3 6= 2x2 + 3 whenever x1 6= x3 .
Example 2. Let f be defined by f (x) = x2 . It is obviously that f takes on every positive number b 6= 0
√
exactly two times, since x2 = b has exactly two roots x = ± b for any b > 0; e.g.,

f (2) = 22 = 4 = (−2)2 = f (−2) .

20
 MATH1013 Calculus IB

f is thus not a one-to-one function.

However, if the domain of f (x) = x2 is restricted to the interval 0 ≤ x < ∞, the function f is then
√
one-to-one, since x2 = b has exactly one non-negative solution, denoted by b.
Example 3. y = h(x) = x3 is a one-to-one function.
√
In fact, the equation x3 = b has exactly one real solution for any real number b, denoted by 3 b.

7 y 7 y y
4
6 6
3 y=b
5 y=b 5 y=b
2
4 4 y=x3
1
3 3 x
2 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
2 2 y=x
y=x2 domain: 0≤x<∞ −1
1 1
−2
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −3
−1 −1
−4

Example 4. Increasing functions, or decreasing functions, are always one-to-one.

For example, if f is an increasing function with domain D a set of real numbers, then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for
any number x1 , x2 in the domain D such that x1 < x2 . Hence f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) for any x1 6= x2 .
For example, for any positive integer n, the power function y = x2n+1 is an increasing function with
domain −∞ < x < ∞. Similarly, the power function y = x2n is an increasing function when the domain is
restricted to 0 ≤ x < ∞.
y y y=x4
3 y=x5 5

y=x3 y=x6
2 4

1 3

x
2 y=x2
−2 −1 1 2

−1 1

x
−2
−1 1 2 3

−3 −1

1
Example 5. y = |x| and y = are not a one-to-one functions.
x2
1 1
Just note that | − 2| = 2 = |2|, while 2 6= −2, and (−2)2 = 22 .

1 1
Example 6. f (x) = is and g(x) = 3 are one-to-one functions.
x x
1 1
For example, if f (x1 ) = = = f (x2 ), we must have x1 = x2 . Note that f and g are neither
x1 x2

21
4.1. INVERSE FUNCTIONS ARISING FROM ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

increasing nor decreasing function.

7 y y y
4 4
6

5 y=2 y= x12
2 2
4 y=|x|
1 1
y= x y= x
3 x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
2
y=2
1
−2 −2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 y= x13
−1
−4 −4

1
Remark Note that for any positive integer n, the function n can also be expressed in the form of power
x
1
function as n = x−n . The following exponent laws for integer powers (or exponents) then follow easily.
x
xn
(i) x0 = 1 ((By convention) (ii) xn+m = xn xm (iii) xn−m = m
x
 x n xn
(iv) (xn )m = xnm (v) (xy)n = xn y n (vi) = n
y y
where n, m are any integers. For example, if n, m are positive integers with n < m, then

xn xm = ( x
| · x {z
· · · · · x} ) · ( x
| · x {z
· · · · · x} ) = x
| · x {z
· · · · · x} = xn+m
n many factors m many factors n + m many factors

n many factors
z }| {
xn x · x ····· x 1 1
= = = = xn−m
xm x
| · x {z
· · · · · x} x
| · x {z
· · · · · x} xm−n
m many factors m − n many factors

Note that these

√
exponent laws hold also for exponents which are real numbers. However, it would be harder
2
to see what x means.

4.1 Inverse Functions Arising From One-to-One Functions

Note the linear relation y = 2x+3 between x and y, where y is considered as a function of x, can be rewritten
as
y−3
x= .
2
x can then be considered as a function of y. The same process can be applied to any one-to-one functions.
In general if f is a one-to-one function, then for any b in the range of f , the equation f (x) = b has exactly
one solution in the domain of f . We can therefore define a so called inverse function of f , usually denoted
by f −1 (Warning: the symbol f −1 here does not mean f1 ), by reversing the roles of the domain and range
of f as follows:
range of f domain of f
f −1 : k −→ k
−1
domain of f range of f −1
where
f −1 (b) = the unique solution of the equation f (x) = b
for any b in the domain of f −1 (i.e., the range of f ).

22
4.1. INVERSE FUNCTIONS ARISING FROM ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

Suppose we use an arrow diagram to represent a function f , which assigns to any given number x in the
domain of f a unique number y (i.e., f (x)) in the range of f .
Then, defining f −1 is just like “reversing the arrow” of f :
A one-to-one function f

Domain of f Range of f

• turning the range of f into the domain of the inverse f

function f −1 ;
x y
• turning the domain of f into the range of the inverse -1
f
function f −1 ;

• x = f −1 (y) coming from the unique solution of f (x) = y

-1 -1
Range of f Domain of f

Roughly speaking, a one-to-one function y = f (x) gives rise to a one-to-one matching of the numbers in
two sets. Depending on which variable you take as the independent variable, you have either the original
function f (x), or the inverse function f −1 (y).
Remark The following properties of f and f −1 follow easily from chasing the arrows:

f −1 (f (x)) = x for any x in the domain of f

f (f −1 (y)) = y for any y in the range of f

Example 7. As given above, the linear function y = g(x) = 2x + 3 has its inverse function defined by
y−3
x= = g −1 (y)
2
If one insists on using x as the domain variable of g −1 rather than y, just replace every y by x to express
the inverse function in the form
x−3
g −1 (x) =
2
Note that x in g −1 (x) actually represents numbers in the range of g, although the domain and range of g in
this example are both the set of all real numbers.
9 y x y
8 8
y=2x+3
6 6 6

4 4
3
2 x= y−3
2 2 y= x−3
2
x y x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 −6 −3 3 6 −6 −3 3 6
−2 −2
−3
−4 −4

−6 −6 −6

1 1
Remark Note that for the identity function f (x) = x, we have f −1 (x) = x, which is not = .
x f (x)

1
Exercise Find h−1 (x) where h(x) = .
x
3x + 2
Example 8. Find the inverse function f −1 (x) for the function f (x) = .
2x − 1

23
4.2. GRAPHS OF THE INVERSE FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

3x + 2
Let y = . Then
2x − 1
y(2x − 1) = 3x + 2 ⇐⇒ (2y − 3)x = y + 2 .
Hence
y+2 x+2
x= = f −1 (y) and f −1 (x) = .
2y − 3 2x − 3
The domain of f −1 , which is the range of f , is given by x 6= 23 ; i.e., (−∞, 32 ) ∪ ( 32 , ∞).
The range of f −1 , which is the domain of f , is given by x 6= 12 ; i.e., (−∞, 12 ) ∪ ( 12 , ∞)
Exercise Find the inverses of the following functions, and their domains and ranges.
x
(a) y = 4x3 + 5 (b) y = √
2
x +1

4.2 Graphs of the Inverse Functions

Example 9. Boyle’s Law says that the pressure P of an ideal gas at constant temperature is a function of
the volume V of the gas as follows:
k
P =
V
where k is certain constant. P

The inverse function relation is just a matter of considering P =

2
vs V =
2
the volume V as a function of pressure P , i.e., V P

k
V = .
P

The graph of x = f −1 (y) is the same as the graph of y = f (x), except that the y-axis is now viewed as
the domain axis.
In particular, the graph of the inverse function y = f −1 (x) can be obtained by reflecting the graph of
the one-to-one function y = f (x) across the line y = x, or simply by renaming the x-axis as the y-axis, and
y-axis as the x-axis.

y x -1 y -1
y = f (x) x = f (y) y = f (x)
y
x

x x y y x

y=x y=x

Reflecting range into domain Renaming the axes

√
Example 10. For any integer n ≥ 2, the n-th root function n x is defined as follows:

√  the inverse function of y = xn with domain restricted to [0, ∞) if n is even
n
x=
 the inverse function of y = xn if n is odd

24
4.3. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

y 5 y

4 4 y=x3
y=x2
3
3
√
3 x
2 y=
√
y= x 1
2
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
1 −1

x −2

1 2 3 4 5 −3

−1 −4

In particular, the domain of an n-th root function is given as follows.

(
√ [0, ∞) if n is even
domain of x is given by:
n

(−∞, ∞) if n is odd
√ 1
Using exponent notation, an n-th root function can be written as n x = x n .
n
More generally, a power function of the form x m , where n is an integer and m is a positive integer, is
defined by
n √
x m = m xn .
1 1 1 1
Exercise Extend the law of exponents to rational powers. For example, why do we have x 2 + 3 = x 2 x 3 ?
(Hint: What is (x1/2 x1/3 )6 ?)

4.3 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

For any positive real number a 6= 1, the exponential function with base a is given by y = ax , whose graphs
are shown as follows.
18 18
y 2**x y (1./2)**x
16 3**x 16 (1./3)**x
4**x (1./4)**x
14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

y = 2x , y = 3x , y = 4x y = ( 12 )x , y = ( 31 )x , y = ( 14 )x
(a > 1) (0 < a < 1)

Domain of y = ax : (−∞, ∞) (or −∞ < x < ∞))

Range of y = ax : (0, ∞) (or y > 0)
(
is an increasing function if a > 1
y = ax
is a decreasing function if 0 < a < 1
In particular, an exponential function y = ax must be one-to-one, and hence has an inverse function,
which is denoted by x = loga y, by reversing the roles of the domain and range:
 x
 
 y=a
  x = loga y
  y = loga x

Domain: − ∞ < x < ∞ ←→ Domain: y > 0 ←→ Domain: x > 0

 
 

Range: y > 0 Range: − ∞ < x < ∞ Range: − ∞ < y < ∞

25
4.3. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS MATH1013 Calculus IB

Example 11. Just take a = 10 and see what happens!

 x
 x −3 −2 −1 0 c =? 1 2 3 
y = 10x 
y y
 x = log10 (y)
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 8 10 100 100 
Now, the graph of the exponential function with base 10, y = 10x , gives you the graphs of the common
logarithmic function y = log10 x at the same time.

1
y y = log10x

0.5

0
x

-0.5

-1

-1.5
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Note that to find the value of c = log10 1000 is just a problem of solving the equation 10c = 1000 = 103 ,
and hence obviously c = 3 = log10 1000.
Not so easy to find the value c = log10 8 though, which means 10c = 8. A rough estimate is
1
<c<1
2
since 101/2 < 8 = 10c < 101 .

Exercise Plot the graphs of a few of those exp and log functions, such as

(a) y = 2x , y = ( 12 )x , y = 3x , y = ( 13 )x , y = log2 x, y = log3 x.

(b) y = log2 x; y = log2 (x − 1).

What are the domains and ranges of these functions?

Properties of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Once you understand how to convert exponential relationship into logarithmic relationship, and vice
versa,
y = ax ←→ x = loga y
the following properties of logarithms are easy to verify by working with the laws of exponents.

Exponential Function Logarithmic Function

a0 = 1 loga 1 = 0
a1 = a loga a = 1
ax = ax loga ax = x
aloga x = x loga x = loga x
ax ay = ax+y loga xy = loga x + loga y
ax
ay = a
x−y
loga xy = loga x − loga y
(ax )y = axy loga xy = y loga x
logc x = log ax
log c
a

26
 MATH1013 Calculus IB
4.4. THE NATURAL EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION AND THE NATURAL LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION

Example 12. Figure out the property loga (xy) = loga x + loga y from the Laws of Exponents.
Let A = loga x, and B = loga y. Hence we have aA = x and aB = y. What if you multiplying the two
together?
aA aB = xy ⇐⇒ aA+B = xy
Now, convert it to:
loga (xy) = A + B = loga x + loga y
All other log properties on the right-hand-side of the table above can be checked by similar arguments.
(Exercise !)

4.4 The Natural Exponential Function and The Natural Logarith-

mic Function

The exponential/logarithmic function with a very special choice of a base e ≈ 2.71828 . . .

denoted

y = ex , y = loge x as
= ln x

is called the natural exponential/logarithmic function.

Note that all other exponential function can be expressed in term of the natural exponential function,
since
x
ax = eln a = ex ln a .
For example, 3x = ex ln 3 .
Consequently, any exponential model, i.e., quantities modeled by the function of the form

y = Aax ,

where A is a constant, can be expressed in term of e as y = Aekx , where k = ln a.

1
Remark More precisely, the special number e can be defined as the “limit” lim (1 + )n = e. We shall
n→∞ n
discuss this in more detail later.

4.5 A Few More Examples on Using Exp-Log

Example 1. Find the domain and range of the function y = f (x) = 2 ln(5 − x) + 1. What is its inverse
function?
Solution Recall that loga (⋆) is well-defined if and only if ⋆ > 0. Hence the domain of f (x) is given by:
5 − x > 0, i.e., x < 5.
y = 2 ln(5 − x) + 1
y−1
2 = ln(5 − x)
y−1
5−x=e 2
y−1
x=5−e 2
y−1
i.e., the inverse function x = f −1 (y) = 5 − e 2 .
Range of f (x) = domain of f −1 (y), which is the set of all real numbers.
Example 2. Solve the following equations: (a) 24(1 − e−t/2 ) = 16; (b) 22x−3 = 3x+1

27
4.5. A FEW MORE EXAMPLES ON USING EXP-LOG MATH1013 Calculus IB

Solution
(a) 24(1 − e−t/2 ) = 16. (b)22x−3 = 3x+1
1 − e−t/2 = 16 2
24 = 3 ln 22x−3 = ln 3x+1
e−t/2 = 31 (2x − 3) ln 2 = (x + 1) ln 3
− 2t = ln 31 (2 ln 2 − ln 3)x = ln 3 + 3 ln 2
ln 3 + 3 ln 2
t = −2 ln 13 = ln 9 (≈ 2.1792) x=
2 ln 2 − ln 3
Example 3. In a chemical reaction starting with 2.5 mol/cm3 of reactant, the amount of product, say y
mol/cm3 , is given by the following formula

y = 2.5(1 − e−4t )

where t is the time, in minutes. Find the amount of product produced after 2 min. How long will it take to
produce 2 mol/cm3 of the product?
Solution
When t = 2 min, y = 2.5(1 − e−8 ) mol/cm3 is the amount of the product produced.
To produce 2 mol/cm3 , the reaction time needed is given by the equation 2 = 2.5(1 − e−4t ), i.e.,
1 − e−4t = 0.8, e−4t = 0.2. Therefore −4t = ln 0.2, and t = − 41 ln 0.2 minutes.

Example/Exercise 4.
1
1. Change the following into logarithmic form: (a) 43 = 64 (b) 3−4 = 81 (c) st = d

2. Find the following logarithms without using a calculator:

1
(a) log2 32 = 5 (b) log4 256 = −4

3. Solve the following equations:

(a) log2 (x + 1) + log2 (x − 1) = 2 log2 (x + 2)
(b) 4e−3x = 5
(c) 42x−1 = 5x+2
4. Express t in terms of the other quantity (i.e., T, q, N ,or i) by inverting the function:
T = T0 e−kt Newton’s law of cooling
−t
q = Qe CR Discharge of a capacitor
N = No e−λt Radioactive decay
t
i = I(1 − e− CR ) Growth of a current in a capacitive circuit
5. Express x as a function of t if ln x = ln xo + kt, where xo , k are some constants.

6. The hyperbolic functions are defined and denoted by

ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e−x
tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e−x
Derive the following identities.

(a) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1

(b) sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
(c) cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y

28