Chapter 2: Physical Layer

2.4 Bandwidth Utilization:

Multiplexing and Spreading

6.1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.

6.2
 2.4-1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Topics discussed in this section:
❑ Frequency-Division Multiplexing
❑ Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
❑ Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
❑ Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
6.3
 Figure 2.4.1 Dividing a link into channels

6.4
 Figure 2.4.2 Categories of multiplexing

6.5
 Figure 2.4.3 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

6.6
 Note

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
It uses the concept of modulation
discussed in Ch 5.

6.7
 Figure 2.4.4 FDM process

6.8
 FM

6.9
 Figure 2.4.5 FDM demultiplexing example

6.10
 Example 2.4.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the
20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to
28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to
32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine
them as shown in Figure 6.6.
6.11
 Figure 2.4.6 Example 6.1

6.12
 Example 2.4.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 2.4.7.

6.13
 Figure 2.4.7 Example 2.4.2

6.14
 Example 2.4.3
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having 1M/4=250-kHz
bandwidth.
Each digital channel of 1 Mbps must be transmitted over
a 250KHz channel. Assuming no noise we can use
Nyquist to get:
C = 1Mbps = 2x250K x log2 L -> L = 4 or n = 2 bits/signal
element.
One solution is 4-QAM modulation. In Figure 2.4.8 we
show a possible configuration with L = 16.
6.15
 Figure 2.4.8 Example 2.4.3

6.16
 Figure 2.4.9 Analog hierarchy

6.17
 Example 2.4.4

The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two

bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving.
Each user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction.
How many people can use their cellular phones
simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control,
which means only 790 channels are available for cellular
phone users.
6.18
 Figure 2.4.10 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

6.19
 Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

6.20
 Figure 2.4.11 Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

6.21
 Figure 2.4.12 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

6.22
 Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate digital
channels into one high-rate one.

6.23
 Figure 2.4.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

6.24
 Note

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.

6.25
 Example 2.4.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each one of the 3 input
connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a
unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot,
(b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).

6.26
 Example 2.4.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of

the input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.

Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration

of an input unit.

6.27
 Example 2.4.6

Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data

stream inputs and one data stream for the output. The
unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)
the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or ¼ μs.
6.28
 Example 2.4.6 (continued)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second.
Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can
verify the result of the previous question by
multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per
frame.
6.29
 Figure 2.4.14 Example 6.6

6.30
 Example 2.4.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit

is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing,
(b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a
time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection,

or 4 kbps.
6.31
 Example 2.4.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We
can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in
this case has four time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 4 times 250 μs, or 1 ms.
6.32
 Interleaving

◼ The process of taking a group of bits

from each input line for multiplexing is
called interleaving.
◼ We interleave bits (1 - n) from each
input onto one output.

6.33
 Figure 2.4.15 Interleaving

6.34
 Example 2.4.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
6.35
 Figure 2.4.16 Example 6.8

6.36
 Example 2.4.9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output (4x100kbps) for four
arbitrary inputs. The link carries 400K/(2x4)=50,000
2x4=8bit frames per second. The frame duration is
therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The bit duration on the
output link is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.

6.37
 Figure 2.4.17 Example 6.9

6.38
 Data Rate Management

◼ Not all input links maybe have the same

data rate.
◼ Some links maybe slower. There maybe
several different input link speeds
◼ There are three strategies that can be
used to overcome the data rate
mismatch: multilevel, multislot and
pulse stuffing

6.39
 Data rate matching

◼ Multilevel: used when the data rate of the

input links are multiples of each other.
◼ Multislot: used when there is a GCD between
the data rates. The higher bit rate channels
are allocated more slots per frame, and the
output frame rate is a multiple of each input
link.
◼ Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD
between the links. The slowest speed link will
be brought up to the speed of the other links
by bit insertion, this is called pulse stuffing.
6.40
 Figure 2.4.19 Multilevel multiplexing

6.41
 Figure 2.4.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing

6.42
 Figure 2.4.21 Pulse stuffing

6.43
 Synchronization
◼ To ensure that the receiver correctly reads
the incoming bits, i.e., knows the incoming
bit boundaries to interpret a “1” and a “0”, a
known bit pattern is used between the
frames.
◼ The receiver looks for the anticipated bit and
starts counting bits till the end of the frame.
◼ Then it starts over again with the reception of
another known bit.
◼ These bits (or bit patterns) are called
synchronization bit(s).
◼ They are part of the overhead of
transmission.
6.44
 Figure 2.4.22 Framing bits

6.45
 Example 2.4.10

We have four sources, each creating 250 8-bit characters

per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the
data rate of the link.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2
kbps.

6.46
 Example 2.4.10 (continued)

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;

therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or
4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source,
which means the link needs to send 250 frames per
second to keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note
that the duration of each frame is the same as the
duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
6.47
 Example 2.4.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and

another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed.
How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What
is the frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots
to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The
frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries
1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000
frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.

6.48
 Figure 2.4.23 Digital hierarchy

6.49
 Table 2.4.1 DS and T line rates

6.50
 Figure 2.4.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

6.51
 Figure 2.4.25 T-1 frame structure

6.52
 Table 2.4.2 E line rates

6.53
 Inefficient use of Bandwidth

◼ Sometimes an input link may have no

data to transmit.
◼ When that happens, one or more slots
on the output link will go unused.
◼ That is wasteful of bandwidth.

6.54
 Figure 2.4.18 Empty slots

6.55
 Figure 2.4.26 TDM slot comparison

6.56
 2.4-2 SPREAD SPECTRUM
In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our
goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To
achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
redundancy.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
▪ Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

6.57
 Spread Spectrum

◼ A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is

spread out to occupy a bandwidth of Bss
◼ All signals are spread to occupy the same
bandwidth Bss
◼ Signals are spread with different codes so
that they can be separated at the receivers.
◼ Signals can be spread in the frequency
domain or in the time domain.

6.58
 Figure 2.4.27 Spread spectrum

6.59
 Figure 2.4.28 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

6.60
 Figure 2.4.29 Frequency selection in FHSS

6.61
 Figure 2.4.30 FHSS cycles

6.62
 Figure 2.4.31 Bandwidth sharing

6.63
 Figure 2.4.32 DSSS

6.64
 Figure 2.4.33 DSSS example

6.65