Data

Communications
Lecture 6
Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and
Spectrum Spreading
Dr. Dalia Nashat
Information Technology Department
Faculty of Computers and Information
MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Categories of
multiplexing

3
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analog technique
that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be
transmitted. In FDM, signals generated by each sending device
modulate different carrier frequencies. These modulated signals
are then combined into a single composite signal that can be
transported by the link. Carrier frequencies are separated by
sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated signal. These
bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel. Channels can be separated by strips of unused
bandwidth—guard bands—to prevent signals from overlapping.

4
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines
analog signals. It uses the concept of modulation
Multiplexing Process
Figure 6.4 is a conceptual illustration of the
multiplexing process. Each source generate a signal
of a similar frequency range. Inside the multiplexer,
these similar signals modulate different carrier
frequencies ( f1, f2, and f3). The resulting modulated
signals
are then combined into a single composite signal
that is sent out over a media link that has enough
bandwidth to accommodate it.

5
FDM process

6
 Example

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the
20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to
28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to
32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine them
as shown in Figure 6.6.
6.7
Example

8
 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.

6.9
 Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having 1M/4=250-kHz bandwidth.
Each digital channel of 1 Mbps must be transmitted over a
250KHz channel. Assuming no noise we can use Nyquist to
get:
C = 1Mbps = 2x250K x log2 L -> L = 4 or n = 2 bits/signal
element.
One solution is 4-QAM modulation. In Figure 6.8 we show
a possible configuration with L = 16.
Example
The Analog Carrier System
To maximize the efficiency of their infrastructure, telephone
companies have traditionally multiplexed signals from lower-
bandwidth lines onto higher-bandwidth lines. In this way, many
switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger
channels. For analog lines, FDM is used.

12
 Example

The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two

bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each
user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction. How
many people can use their cellular phones
simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control, which
means only 790 channels are available for cellular phone
users.
6.13
Wavelength-Division
Multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
is designed to use the high-data-rate
capability of fiber-optic cable. The optical
fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of
metallic transmission cable, but using a fiber-
optic cable for a single line wastes the
available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows us to
combine several lines into one.

14
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Time-Division
Multiplexing
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows
several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link. Instead
of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link.

16
Synchronous TDM
In synchronous TDM, each input connection has
an allotment in the output even if it is not
sending data.

17
 Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each one of the 3 input
connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit
is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b)
each output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
 Example 6.5 (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the

input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.

Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration

of an input unit.
 Example 6.6

Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data

stream inputs and one data stream for the output. The unit
of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the
output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or ¼ μs.
 Example 6.6 (continued)

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because
we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the
result of the previous question by multiplying the frame
rate by the number of bits per frame.
Example 6.6
 Example 6.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is

1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b)
the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a time
slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or

4 kbps.
 Example 6.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We can
also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this
case has four time slots. So the duration of a frame is 4
times 250 μs, or 1 ms.
Interleaving
The process of taking a group of bits from each input line for multiplexing is
called interleaving. We interleave bits (1 - n) from each input onto one output.
 Example 6.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the
bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
Example 6.8
 Example 6.9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output (4x100kbps) for four
arbitrary inputs. The link carries 400K/(2x4)=50,000
2x4=8bit frames per second. The frame duration is
therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The bit duration on the
output link is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.

6.28
Example 6.9

6.29
Data Rate Management
Not all input links maybe have the same
data rate.
Some links maybe slower. There maybe
several different input link speeds
There are three strategies that can be used
to overcome the data rate mismatch:
multilevel, multislot and pulse stuffing
Data rate matching
Multilevel: used when the data rate of the input
links are multiples of each other.
Multislot: used when there is a GCD between the
data rates. The higher bit rate channels are
allocated more slots per frame, and the output
frame rate is a multiple of each input link.
Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD
between the links. The slowest speed link will be
brought up to the speed of the other links by bit
insertion, this is called pulse stuffing.

6.31
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse stuffing
Synchronization
To ensure that the receiver correctly reads the incoming
bits, i.e., knows the incoming bit boundaries to interpret a
“1” and a “0”, a known bit pattern is used between the
frames.
The receiver looks for the anticipated bit and starts counting
bits till the end of the frame.
Then it starts over again with the reception of another
known bit.
These bits (or bit patterns) are called synchronization bit(s).
They are part of the overhead of transmission.

6.35
Framing bits
 Example 6.10

We have four sources, each creating 250 8-bit characters

per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the data
rate of the link.

Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2
kbps.
 Example 6.10 (continued)

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;

therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or
4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source, which
means the link needs to send 250 frames per second to
keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note
that the duration of each frame is the same as the
duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
 Example 6.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another
with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this
can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the
frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots
to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The
frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries
1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s
× 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
Digital hierarchy
line for multiplexing telephone lines
T-1 frame structure