Module - 1

Introduction:
A discipline that is defined in terms of electrical energy conversion, applications, and electronic
devices.

Power Electronics is the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another in an efficient,
clean, compact, and robust manner for convenient utilisation.

Power electronics is the application of solid-state electronics to the control and conversion of electric
power.

Power Electronics refers to the process of controlling the flow of current and voltage and converting it
to a form that is suitable for user loads. The most desirable power electronic system is one whose
efficiency and reliability is 100%.

Power electronics combines power, electronics, and control.

Electronics :Deals with the semiconductor devices and circuits for processing of information of lower
level powers

Power: Deals with both rotating and static equipment for the generation, transaction, distribution and
utilization of vast quantities of electrical power.

Control: Deals with stability and response characteristics closed loop system using feedback

The below block diagram shows the components of a Power Electronic system and how they are
interlinked.

Fig 1 Components of a Power Electronic system

A power electronic system converts electrical energy from one form to another and ensures the
following is achieved −
Maximum efficiency
Maximum reliability
Maximum availability
Minimum cost
Least weight
Small size
History of power electronics
Power electronics started with the development of the mercury arc rectifier. Invented by Peter
Cooper Hewitt in 1902, it was used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).
From the 1920s on, research continued on applying thyratrons and grid-controlled mercury arc valves
to powertransmission.
Power electronics is a technology that deals with the conversion and control of electrical power with
high-efficiency switching mode electronic devices for a wide range of applications. These include as
dc and ac power supplies, electrochemical processes, heating and lighting control, electronic
welding, power line volt–ampere reactive (VAR) and harmonic compensators, high-voltage dc
(HVdc) systems, flexible ac transmission systems, photovoltaic and fuel cell power conversion, high-
frequency (HF) heating, and motor drives.
In 1956 four engineers of the Bell Telephone Laboratory, USA published a paper entitled "PNPN
transistor switches" in the proceedings of the institute of radio engineers. This triggered the research
on PNPN devices.
In 1957 Gordon Hall of General Electric Company, USA developed three terminal silicon based
semiconductor device called as Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR). Later on many other power device
shaving characteristic similar to that of SCR were developed.

Power Electronic Systems

Fig 2. Power Electronic Systems

Power source: The power source may be AC or DC supply system..1-phase or 3-phase 50 Hz AC

supplies are used depending on the application. . Very low power drives (systems employed for
motion contro] are called drives) are generally fed from single-phase source. Rest of the drives are
powered from 3-phase source.
Some loads are powered from a battery, e.g. fork lift trucks and milk vans. Depending on size,
battery voltage may have typical values of 6 V, 12 V, 24 V, 48 V and 110 V dc. Solar powered drives
which are used in space and water pumping applications are fed from a low voltage dc supply.
Power modulator: Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions:
(1) Converts electrical energy of the source as per the requirement of the load. For example, if the
load is a dc motor, the modulator output must be adjustable direct voltage. In case the load is a 3-
 phase induction motor, the modulator may have adjustable voltage and frequency at its output
terminals. When power modulator performs this function, it is known as converter.
(ii) Selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or braking.
(iii) Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is imparted
speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
(iv) During transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source and
motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source may overload it
or may cause a voltage dip.
Motors: Motors commonly used in power electronic systems are:
(i) DC motors (shunt, series, compound and permanent magnet)
(ii) Induction motors (squirrel-cage, wound rotor and linear)
(iii Synchronous motors (wound field and permanent magnet)
(iv) Brushless de motors
(v) Stepper motors and
(vi) Switched reluctance motors
Control unit : Power modulators are controlled by a control unit. Nature of the control unit for a
particular system depends on the power modulator that is used. Control unit operates at much lower
voltage and power levels. Sensing unit measures the load parameters, say speed in case of a rotating
machine and compares it with the command. The difference of the two parameters processed by the
control unit components now controls the turn-on of power semiconductor devices which are used in
power modulators

POWER ELECTRONIC CONVERTERS

The term “Converters” is used to refer a system which transforms one form of electrical energy into
another form of electrical energy. For example AC into DC or DC into AC. Here conversion of ac into
dc is called as “rectification” and conversion of dc into ac is known as “inversion”.
Power Electronic Circuits are also called as power converters. A converter uses a matrix of power
semiconductor switches to convert electrical power at high etficrency. The converter system is
comprised of switches, reactive components L, C, and transformers. Switches include two terminal
devices such as diodes and three terminal devices such as transistors or thyristors.
These converters are generally classified into the following five broad categories:
1. Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC to DC Converters):
These converters convert fixed ac voltage to a variable dc output voltage.

These converters takes power from one or more ac voltage/current sources of single or multiple
phases and delivers to a load.

The output variable is a low-ripple dc voltage or dc current.

These controller circuits use line voltage for their commutation. Hence they are also called as line
commutated or naturally commutated ac to dc converters.

These circuits include diode rectifiers and single/three phase controlled circuits.
 Applications:
High voltage dc transmission systems
DC motor drives
Regulated dc power supplies
Static VAR compensator
Wind generator converters
Battery charger circuits

2. Choppers (DC to DC Converter):

A chopper converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage.
The dc output voltage may be different in amplitude than the input source voltage. Choppers are
designed using semiconductor devices such as power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, Power
MOSFETs and thyristors.
Output voltage can be varied steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of the device by low power
signals from a control unit.
Chopper has either a battery, a solar powered dc voltage source or a line frequency (50— 60 Hz)
derived dc voltage source.
Applications: DC drives
Subway cars
Battery driven vehicles
Electric traction
Switch mode power supplies
3. Inverters (DC to AC Converter):
An inverter converts a fixed dc voltage to an ac voltage of variable frequency and of fixed or
variable magnitude.
A practical inverter has either a battery, a solar powered dc voltage source or a line frequency (50
Hz) derived dc voltage source
Inverters are widely used from very low-power portable electronic systems such as the flashlight
discharge system in a photography camera to very high power industrial systems.
Inverters are designed using semiconductor devices such as power transistors, MOSFETs,
{GBTs, GTQs and thyristors.

Applications:
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
Aircraft and space power supplies
Induction and synchronous motor drives
High voitage dc transmission system
Induction heating supplies

4. Cycloconverters (AC to AC Converters):

These circuits convert input power at one frequency to output power at a different frequency
through one stage conversion.
These are designed using thyristors and are controlled by triggering signals derived from a
control unit.
The output frequency is lower than the source frequency.
These are mainly used for slow speed, very high power industrial drives
Applications: AC drives like rotary kilns multi-MW ac motor drives.
5. AC Voltage Controllers (AC Regulators):
These converters convert fixed ac voltage directly to a variable ac voltage at the same frequency
using line commutation.
These converters employs a thyristorised voltage controller.
Stepless control of the output voltage can be obtained by controlling firing angle of converter
thyristors by low power signals from a control unit.
Applications: Lighting control
Speed control of large fans
pumps Electronic tap changers

POWER ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS

The importance of power electronics in industrial automation, energy systems, energy generation and
conservation, and indirectly for environmental pollution control is tremendous. As the technology is
maturing and cost is decreasing, power electronics 1s expanding in applications, such as switch mode
power supplies (SMPS), UPS systems, electrochemical processes, heating and lighting, static VAR
compensation, active filtering, high voltage de system, photo-voltaic system, and variable frequency
motor drives. The motor drives possibly constitute the most fascinating and complex applications of
power electronics where the applications include computer peripherals, servos and robotics, pumps
and fans, paper and textile mills, rolling mills, wind generation system, variable seed heat pump and
air-conditioning, transportation system, ship propulsion etc.
The importance of power electronics is being increasingly visible now-a-days in the energy saving of
electrical apparatus by more efficient use of electricity. The energy consumption in the world is
increasing by leaps and bounds to improve the human living standard, particularly in industrialized
countries. The major amount
Power Electronic Systems:
. The energy efficiency improvement of electrical apparatus with the help of power electronics not
only reduce electricity consumption but the corresponding reduced power generation indirectly helps
reduction of environmental pollution problem. It has been estimated that roughly 15% of electricity
consumption can be saved by extensive application of power electronics.
Principles of operation of SCR
The structure1 and symbol of SCR is as shown below.
SCR is a four (PNPN) layered device. It has three junctions J1,J2 and J3. It has three terminals
Anode(A), Cathode(K), Gate(G) Gate terminal is connected to the P layer near cathode.

When the anode voltage is made positive with respect to the cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are
forward biased but the middle junction J2 is reverse biased and only a small leakage current flows
from anode to cathode due to the mobile charge initially.
The leakage current is insufficient to make the device conduct. The depletion layer mostly of
immovable charges does not constitute any flow of current. The SCR is then said to be in the forward
blocking or OFF state.
The width of the depletion layer at the junction J2 decreases with increase in anode to cathode
voltage. If the anode to cathode voltage VAK is kept on increasing sufficiently to a large value, a stage
comes when the depletion layer at J2 vanishes. The reverse biased junction J2 will breakdown due to
the large voltage gradient across its depletion layer. This is known as avalanche breakdown and the
corresponding voltage is called forward breakdown voltage VBO.

When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the middle junction J2 becomes
forward biased but the two outer junctions J1 and J3 becomes reverse biased. The
junction J1 and J3 do not allow any current to flow through the device.
Only a very small leakage current may flow because of the drift the charges. This leakage current is
again insufficient to make the device conduct. The SCR is in the reverse blocking state
or OFF state and a reverse leakage current known as reverse current IRflows through the device.
Fig (a).Structure of SCR Fig (b).SCR Symbol

Two transistor model of SCR

The operation of an SCR can also be explained in a very simple way by considering it in terms of
two transistors. This is known as the two transistor analogy of the SCR. The SCR can be
considered as an npn and a pnp transistor, where the collector of one transistor is attached to
the base of the other and vice versa, as shown in Fig
 The two transistor equivalent circuit shows that the collector current of the NPN transistor feeds
directly into the base of the PNP transistor , while the collector current of T1 feeds into the base of
T2. These two inter-connected transistors rely upon each other for conduction as each transistor
gets its base-emitter current from the other’s collector-emitter current
So until one of the transistors is given some base current nothing can happen even if an Anode-to-
Cathode voltage is present.
When the thyristors Anode terminal is negative with respect to the Cathode, the centre N-P
junction is forward biased, but the two outer P-N junctions are reversed biased and it behaves
very much like an ordinary diode. Therefore a thyristor blocks the flow of reverse current until at
some high voltage level the breakdown voltage point of the two outer junctions is exceeded and
the thyristor conducts without the application of a Gate signal.
If the Anode terminal is made positive with respect to the Cathode, the two outer P-N junctions
are now forward biased but the centre N-P junction is reverse biased. Therefore forward current is
also blocked. If a positive current is injected into the base of the NPN transistor T2, the resulting
collector current flows in the base of transistor T1. This in turn causes a collector current to flow
in the PNP transistor, T1 which increases the base current of T2 and so on.

In the circuit shown above the collector current of T1 becomes the base current of T2
Ic1 =Ib2 and Ib1=Ic2
Static anode Cathode characteristics

Fig Elementary circuit to obtain SCR V- I Characteristics

In the circuit diagram above the anode and cathode are connected to the supply voltage through the
load. Another secondary supply Es is applied between the gate and the cathode terminal which
supplies for the positive gate current when the switch S is closed.
On giving the supply required V-I characteristics of a thyristor is obtained as shown in the figure
below for anode to cathode voltage Va and anode current Ia

A study of the characteristics shows that the thyristor has three basic modes of operation, namely the
 Reverse blocking mode,
 Forward blocking (off-state) mode
 Forward conduction (on-state) mode.

Reverse Blocking region:

Fig : Reverse blocking

Initially for the reverse blocking mode of the thyristor, the cathode is made positive with respect to
anode .

The gate to cathode supply voltage is detached initially by keeping switch S open

 Here Junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased whereas the junction J2 is forward biased.
 The behaviour of the thyristor here is similar to that of two diodes are connected in series with
reverse voltage applied across them.
 As a result only a small leakage current of the order of a few μ Amps flows.
 This is the reverse blocking mode or the off-state, of the thyristor.
  If the reverse voltage is now increased, then at a particular voltage, known as the critical
breakdown voltage VBR, an avalanche occurs at J1 and J3 and the reverse current increases
rapidly.
 A large current associated with VBR gives rise to more losses in the SCR, which results in
heating. This may lead to thyristor damage as the junction temperature may exceed its
permissible temperature rise.
 It should, therefore, be ensured that maximum working reverse voltage across athyristor does
not exceed VBR.
 The SCR in the reverse blocking mode may therefore be treated as open circuit.

Forward Blocking Mode

Fig : Forward blocking

 The thyristor is now forward biased by making anode positive with respect to cathode as
shown in fig.
 Here the junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased but junction J2 goes into reverse biased
condition.
 A small current, called forward leakage current is allowed to flow initially as shown in fig 10
characteristics of thyristor.
 By increasing the forward biased anode to cathode voltage the thyristor conducts currents from
anode to cathode with a very small voltage drop across it.
 In this mode, thyristor is in on-state but will not conduct.

Forward Conduction Mode

When the anode to cathode forward voltage is increased, with gate circuit open, the reverse junction J 2
will have an avalanche breakdown at forward break over voltage VBO leading to thyristor turn on.

In this mode of operation, the thyristor conducts maximum current with minimum voltage drop, this is
known as the forward conduction or the turn on mode of the thyristor.

A thyristor is brought from forward blocking mode to forward conduction mode by turning it on by
exceeding the forward break over voltage or by applying a gate pulse between gate and cathode .

Once the SCR is conducting a forward current which is greater than the minimum required value
called latching current the gate signal is no longer required to maintain the device in on state. Removal
of gate signal does not affect the conduction.

If the anode current falls below holding current SCR will go to forward conduction mode to forward
blocking mode.
Fig V-I characteristics of SCR

Static Characteristics of a Thyristor

 Thyristors are semiconductor devices that can operate only in the switching mode.
 Thyristor are current operated devices, a small Gate current controls a larger Anode current.
 Conducts current only when forward biased and triggering current applied to the Gate.
 The thyristor acts like a rectifying diode once it is triggered “ON”.
 Anode current must be greater than holding current to maintain conduction.
 Blocks current flow when reverse biased, no matter if Gate current is applied.
 Once triggered “ON”, will be latched “ON” conducting even when a gate current is no longer
applied providing Anode current is above latching current.

Latching current :Latching current of forward biased SCR is the minimum current which
anode current must attain to continue to remain in forward conduction mode even when gate current is
removed
Latching current limit is usually greater than holding current
The latching current is associated with turned on process

Holding current :Minimum value of anode current below which SCR must fall to stop conducting
in forward direction.
It is less than latching current. It is related to turn off process.

Holding current Latching current

Holding current is associated with turn Latching current is associated with turn
off process of SCR on process of SCR
Thyristor can be turned off or returned to It is the minimum value of anode current which
forward blocking state only if the forward it must attain during turn on process to
current falls below a low level current called maintain conduction when gate pulse is
the holding current removed.
Holding current is less than latching current Latching current is 2 to 3 times holding current
Gate characteristics of SCR

Gate characteristic of thyristor or SCR gives a brief idea to operate it within a safe region of applied
gate voltage and current.
So this is a very important characteristic regarding the thyristor.
At the time of manufacturing each SCR or thyristor is specified with the maximum gate voltage limit
(Vg-max), gate current limit (Ig-max) and maximum average gate power dissipation limit (Pgav).
These limits should not be exceeded to protect the SCR from damage and there is also a specified
minimum voltage (Vg-min) and minimum current (Ig-min) for proper operation of a thyristor.

Fig Gate characteristics of SCR

Fig Gate trigger circuit

A gate non triggering voltage (Vng) is also mentioned at the time of manufacturing of the device.
All noises and unwanted signals should lie under this voltage to avoid unwanted turn on of the
thyristor. Gate must be operated in this region whenever forward bias is applied across the thyristor
and triggering is not required.

Curve 1 represents the lowest voltage values that must be applied to turn on the SCR
Curve 2 represents the highest values of the voltage that can safely applied.

So from the figure we can see the safety operated area of SCR is bcdefghb.

Now, from the triggering circuit , we get,

Where,
Es = gate source voltage
Vg = gate cathode voltage
Ig = gate current
R = gate source resistance
s

A load line of gate source voltage is drawn as AD where OA = Esand OD = Es/Rswhich is trigger
circuit short circuit current
Let the V-I characteristic of gate circuit is given by curve 3. The intersection point of load line (AD)
and curve 3 is called as operating point S. S must lie between S1 and S2 on the load line.
For decreasing the turn ON time and to avoid unwanted turn ON of the device, operating point should
be as close to Pgav as possible. Slop of AD = source resistance R s. Minimum amount of Rs can be
determined by drawing a tangent to the Pgav curve from the point A.

SCR turn ON can be reduced by increasing gate current of higher magnitude.

This must be ensured that pulse width is sufficient to allow the anode current to exceed the latching
current.

Gate pulse width tonof SCR

T >= ton
Peak instantaneous gate power Pgmax = VgIg =Pgav/fT
F=1/T1
Duty cycle is ratio of pulse on period to the periodic time of pulse.

δ=T/T1

TURN – ON methods of thyristor

The SCR has two stable states as forward blocking and forward conduction state. Switching the SCR
from forward blocking state (OFF- state) to forward conduction state (ON- state) is known as turning
ON process of SCR . It is also called as triggering.
The criteria for triggering the SCR depends on the several variables like supply voltage, gate current,
temperature, etc. There are various methods to trigger the SCR so that it comes into the ON state

The different methods are as follows

1. Forward voltage triggering

2. Temperature triggering
3. dv/dt triggering
4. Light triggering
5. Gate triggering

Forward voltage triggering:

Forward voltage triggering”, means we will make SCR ON by applying forward voltage across its
terminals. This simply means that we will make it forward biased and will increase this bias voltage
till SCR gets ON
In a forward biased SCR or Thyristor, junction J1 and J3 are forward biased whereas junction J2 is
reversed bias. Therefore, increasing this bias voltage will narrow down the width of the depletion
region of junction J2 and at a particular voltage, this depletion region will vanish.

At this stage, reversed biased junction J2 is said to have avalanche breakdown and this voltage is
called the forward breakover voltage.

As soon as avalanche breakdown at junction J2 occurs, current starts flowing from anode to cathode
of SCR. The value of this anode current is only limited by the load. Thus SCR is now in its conduction
mode in forward direction i.e. from anode to cathode. This is forward triggering method of turning
SCR ON.

Normally this method is not used to turn on SCR as it may damage it

Temperature Triggering
Temperature triggering is also called thermal triggering. As we know that in reversed biased junction
a reverse saturation current flows whose value depends on the temperature of the junction.

If the temperature is increased to a certain value, the number of hole-pairs also increases. This causes
to increase the leakage current and further it increases the current gains of the SCR. This starts the
regenerative action inside the SCR

This type of triggering is practically not employed because it causes the thermal runaway and hence
the device or SCR may be damaged.

dv/dt Triggering
dv/dt Triggering is the technique in which SCR is turned ON by changing the forward bias voltage
with respect to time. dv/dt itself means rate of change of voltage w.r.t time.

In forward blocking state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. So the
junction J2 behaves as a capacitor (of two conducting plates J1 and J3 with a dielectric J2) due to the
space charges in the depletion region.

The charge on capacitor, voltage across the capacitor and capacitance are related as below:

Q = CV

Differentiating both sides w.r.t time, we get

dQ/dt = C(dV/dt)

But current I = dQ/dt

⇒ I = C(dV/dt)

Thus the current through the reversed biased junction J2 is directly proportional to (dv/dt). Therefore
if the rate of rise of forward voltage i.e. (dv/dt) is high, the charging current I will also be high. This
charging current acts like gate current and turns ON the SCR

However, this method is also practically avoided because this can produce very high voltage spikes
across the SCR so there will be considerable damage to it.

Light triggering
An SCR turned ON by light radiation is also called as Light Activated SCR (LASCR). This type of
triggering is employed for phase controlled converters in HVDC transmission systems. In this method,
light rays with appropriate wavelength and intensity are allowed to strike the junction J2.

These types of SCRs are consisting a niche in the inner p-layer. Therefore, when the light struck on
this niche, electron-hole pairs are generated at the junction J2 which provides additional charge
carriers at the junction leads to turn ON the SCR.

Fig 13 Light trigger circuit

Gate triggering

This is most common and efficient method to turn ON the SCR. When the SCR is forward biased, a
sufficient voltage at the gate terminal injects some electrons into the junction J2. This result to
increase reverse leakage current and hence the breakdown of junction J2 even at the voltage lower
than the VBO.

Depends on the size of the SCR the gate current varies from a few milli-amps to 200 milli amps or
more. If the gate current applied is more, then more electrons are injected into the junction J2 and
results to come into the conduction state at much lower applied voltage.

In gate triggering method, a positive voltage applied between the gate and the cathode terminals. We
can use three types of gate signals to turn On the SCR. Those are DC signal, AC signal and pulse
signal.

TURN OFF mechanism (TURN OFF characteristic)

Once the thyristor is switched on or in other point of view, the anode current is above latching current,
the gate losses control over it. That means gate circuit cannot turn off the device. For turning off the
SCR anode current must fall below the holding current.

After anode current fall to zero we cannot apply forward voltage across the device due to presence of
carrier charges into the four layers. So we must sweep out or recombine these charges to proper turn
off of SCR.

Turn off time of SCR can be defined as the interval between anode current falls to zero and device
regains its forward blocking mode. On the basis of removing carrier charges from the four layers, turn
off time of SCR can be divided into two time regions,

1. Reverse Recovery Time.

2. Gate Recovery Time
Fig 14 SCR turn OFF waveform

Reverse Recovery Time

It is the interval in which change carriers remove from J 1, and J3 junction. At time t1, anode current
falls to zero and it will continue to increase in reverse direction with same slope (di/dt) of the forward
decreasing current. This negative current will help to sweep out the carrier charges from junction J 1
and J3. At the time t2 carrier charge density is not sufficient to maintain the reverse current hence after
t2 this negative current will start to decrease. The value of current at t 2 is called reverse recovery
current. Due to rapid decreasing of anode current, a reverse spike of voltage may appear across the
SCR. Total recovery time t 3 – t1 is called reverse recovery time. After that, device will start to follow
the applied reverse voltage and it gains the property to block the forward voltage.

Gate Recovery Time

After sweeping out the carrier charges from junction J 1 and J3 during reverse recovery time, there
still remain trapped charges in J2 junction which prevent the SCR from blocking the forward voltage.
This trapped charge can be removed by recombination only and the interval in which this
recombination is done, called gate recovery time.

Turn OFF methods

The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as “Commutation”.

In all commutation techniques, a reverse voltage is applied across the thyristor during the turn OFF
process.
By turning OFF a thyristor we bring it from forward conducting to the forward blocking mode.

The condition to be satisfied in order to turn OFF an SCR are:

 Anode current must be less than holding current

 A reverse voltage is applied to SCR for sufficient time enabling it to recover its blocking state.

There are two methods by which a thyristor can be turned OFF.

  Natural Commutation
 Forced Commutation

Natural Commutation

 In AC circuit, the current always passes through zero for every half cycle.In natural commutation,
the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself.
 As the current passes through natural zero, a reverse Voltage will simultaneously appear across
the device.
 This will turn OFF the device immediately.
 This process is called as natural commutation, since no external circuit is required for this
purpose. It is also known as line commutation.
 AC voltage controllers or phase voltage controllers are the example for the natural commutation.

Forced Commutation:
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits, forward
current must be forced to zero with an external circuit to commutate the SCR hence named as forced
commutation.

 To turn OFF a thyristor, the forward anode current should be brought to zero for sufficient time to
allow the removal of charged carriers.
.
 The forced commutation is further classified as

This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors called as commutating
components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse voltage across the SCR that
immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.

Based on the manner in which the zero current achieved and arrangement of the commutating
components, forced commutation is classified into different types such as class A, B, C, D, and E.
This commutation is mainly used in chopper and inverter circuits.

Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the load

Fig (a)Load in parallel with capacitor (b) Load in series with capacitor
Fig 16 Volate and current in class A

Class A is one of frequently used thyristor commutation techniques.

The commutating components L and C are used in order to turn off the SCR.
When the load resistance of very small value is used, the inductor L and capacitor C are connected in
series with load.
Similarly the load resistance of high value is used; the loadresistance is connected across capacitor.
If thyristor is triggered or turned on, then anode current will flow by charging capacitor C with top
plate as positive. The L-C-R forms a second order under-damped circuit. The current through
the SCR builds up and completes a half cycle.

The inductor current will then attempt to flow through the SCR in the reverse direction and
the SCR will be turned off. The capacitor voltage is at its peak when the SCR turns off and the
capacitor discharges into the resistance in an exponential manner. The SCR is reverse-biased till the
capacitor voltages returns to the level of the supply voltage V.

The class A commutation is used for up to 1 kHz frequency because the cost of circuit increases due
to higher rating of inductor L and capacitor C at low frequency.

Class B - Self Commutation by LC Circuit:

Fig 17 Class B commutation Circuit and associated waveform

Initially, as soon as the supply voltage Edcis applied, the capacitor C starts getting charged with its
upper plate positive and the lower plate negative, and it charges up to the voltage Edc..
When thyristor T is triggered, the circuit current flows in two directions:
(1) The load current IL flows through the path Edc+−T−RL−Edc-
(2) Commutating current Ic .

The moment thyristor T is turned ON, capacitor C starts discharging through the path C+
−L−T−C−.When the capacitor C becomes completely discharged, it starts getting charged with
reverse polarity. Due to the reverse voltage, a commutating current IC starts flowing which opposes
the load current IL. When the commutating current IC is greater than the load
current IL ,thyristor T becomes turned OFF. When the thyristor T is turned OFF, capacitor C starts
getting charged to its original polarity through L and the load.
Thus, when it is fully charged, the thyristor will be ON again.
Hence, from the above discussion it becomes clear that the thyristor after getting ON for sometime
automatically gets OFF and after remaining in OFF state for sometime, it again gets turned ON. This
process of switching ON and OFF is a continuous process. The desired frequency of ON and OFF
states can be obtained by designing the commutating components as per the requirement.
The main application of this process is in d.c. chopper circuits, where the thyristor is required to be in
conduction state for a specified duration and then to remain in the OFF state also for a specif‌ied
duration

Gate trigger circuit

Gate triggering is the most efficient and reliable method.

The circuit in Fig.18 shows a simple method for varying the trigger angle and therefore, the power in
the load. Instead of using a gate pulse to trigger the SCR,the gate current is supplied by an a.c. source
of voltage eses through R min ,RvR min ,Rv , and the series diode D.

Operation:

 As es goes positive, the SCR becomes forward-biased from anode to cathode; however, it will
not conduct (eL=0) until its gate current exceeds Ig(min) .

 The positive es also forward biases the diode and the SCRs gate- cathode junction; this causes
flow of a gate current ig.

 The gate current will increase as es increases towards its peak value. When ig reaches a value
equal to Ig(min), the SCR turns "on" and eL will approximately equal es

 The SCR remains "on" and eL≈es until es decreases to the point where the load current is
below the SCR holding-current. This usually occurs very close to the point until es=0 and
begins to go negative.

 The SCR now turns off and remains off while es goes negative since its anode-cathode is
reverse biased, and since the SCR is now an open switch, the load voltage is zero during this
period.

 The purpose of the diode in the gate-circuit is to prevent the gate-cathode reverse bias from
exceeding peak reverse gate voltage during the negative half-cycle of es.. The diode is chosen
to have peak reverse- voltage rating greater than the input voltage E max
 .
 The same sequence is repeated when es again goes positive.

The load-voltage waveform in Fig.18 can be controlled by varying Rv which varies the resistance in
the gate circuit. If Rvis increased, the gate current will reach its trigger value Ig(min) at a greater value
of es making the SCR to trigger at a latter point in the es positive half-cycle. Thus, the trigger
angle α will increase.

The opposite will occur if Rv is decreased. Of course, if Rv is made large enough the SCR gate
current will never reach Ig(min) and the SCR will remain off. The minimum trigger angle is obtained
with Rv equal to zero.

As shown in Fig.18 the limiting resistor R(min) is placed between anode and gate so that the peak gate
current of the thyristor Igm is not exceeded. In the worst case, that is when the supply voltage has
reached its peak, Emax,

E max
Rmin≥
I gmin

he stabilising resistor Rb should have such a value that the maximum voltage drop across it
does not exceed maximum possible gate voltage Vg(max) . From the voltage distribution

( Rv + Rmin ) .Vgmax
Rb≤
(Emax−Vgmax)
The thyristor will trigger when the instantaneous anode voltage, es,, is
es=Ig(min) (Rv+ Rmin)+ Vd+ Vg(min)
The resistance trigger shown in Fig.18 is the simplest and most economical circuit. However, it suffers
from several disadvantages. First, the trigger angle αα is greatly dependent on the SCR's Ig(min)
which, can vary widely even among SCRs of a given type and is also highly temperature dependent.
In addition, the trigger angle can be varied only up to an approximate value of 90∘ with this circuit.
This is because es is maximum at its 90∘ point and the gate current has to reach Ig(min) somewhere
between 0−90∘,if it will if at all. This limitation means that the load voltage waveform can only be
varied from α=0∘ to α=90∘.

Resistance capacitance firing circuit

Figure 19 shows the RC half wave trigger circuit. By the RC network, a larger variation in the value of
the firing angle can be obtained by changing the phase and amplitude of the gate current. By varying
the resistor Rv, the firing angle can be controlled from 0 to 180∘.

In the negative half-cycle, capacitor C charges through diode D2 with lower plate positive to the peak
supply voltage E max .This capacitor voltage remains constant at −Emax until supply voltage zero
value. Now, as the SCR anode voltage passes through zero and becomes positive, capacitor C begins
to charge through Rv from the initial voltage −E max .When the capacitor charges to positive voltage
equal to gate trigger voltage Vgt=(Vg(min)+VD1), SCR is triggered and after this, the capacitor holds
to a small positive voltage, as shown in waveform .

During negative half-cycle, the diode D1D1 prevents the breakdown of the gate to cathode junction.

The thyristor will turn ON when the capacitor voltage ec equals (Vg(min)+VD1 )provided the gate
current Ig(min) is available. Therefore, the maximum value of Rv is given by

es≥ Ig(min)RV+ ec

=Ig(min)Rv+Vg(min)+VD1

Rv≤ es-Vg(min)-VD1/Ig(min)
Construction of UJT

UJT is a three-terminal,(Emitterb Base1, Base2), single-junction, two-layered device, and it is similar

to a thyristor compare to a transistors. The silicon bar has two Ohmic contacts designated as base1 and
base 2,It has a high-impedance off state and low-impedance on state quite similar to a thyristor. From
off state to an on state, switching is caused by conductivity modulation and not by a bipolar transistor
action.
The emitter is of P-type, and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2 when the emitter
is open-circuited is called an inter-base resistance. The emitter junction is usually situated closer to the
base B2 than the base B1. So the device is not symmetrical, because symmetrical unit does not
provide electrical characteristics to most of the applications.
Operation of a UJT

The device has normally B2 positive w.r.t. B1.

(i) If voltage VBB is applied between B2 and B1with emitter open, a voltage gradient is established
along the n-type bar.
Since the emitter is located nearer to B2, more than half of VBB appears between the emitter and B1.
The voltage V1 between emitter and B1 establishes a reverse bias on the pn junction and the emitter
current is cut off.
Of course, a small leakage current flows from B2 to emitter due to minority carriers.

(ii) If a positive voltage is applied at the emitter, the pn junction will remain reverse biased so long as
the input voltage is less than V1.
If the input voltage to the emitter exceeds V1, the pn junction becomes forward biased.
Under these conditions, holes are injected from p-type material into the n-type bar.

These holes are repelled by positive B2 terminal and they are attracted towards B1 terminal of the bar.
This accumulation of the holes in the emitter to B1 region results in the decrease of resistance in this
section of the bar.
The result is that internal voltage drop from emitter to B1 is decreased and hence the emitter current
IE increases.
As more holes are injected, a condition of saturation will eventually be reached.

At this point, the emitter current is limited by emitter power supply only. The device is now in the ON
sate.

(iii) If a negative pulse is applied to the emitter, the pn junction is reverse biased and the emitter
current is cut off. The device is then said to be in the OFF state.
Equivalent circuit of UJT

The resistance of the silicon bar is called the inter-base resistance RBB.
The inter-base resistance is represented by two resistors in series such as:

The inter-base resistance is represented by two resistors in series such as:

(i) RB2 is the resistance of silicon bar between B2 and the point at which the emitter junction lies.
(ii) RB1 is the resistance of the bar between B 1 and emitter junction. This resistance is shown variable
because its value depends upon the bias voltage across the pn junction.
The pn junction is represented in the emitter by a diode D.

The circuit action of a UJT can be explained more clearly from above equivalent circuit.

(i) With no voltage applied to the UJT, the inter-base resistance is given by ;

RBB = RB1 + RB2

(ii) If a voltage VBB is applied between the bases with emitter open, the voltage will divide up across
RB1 and RB2.
Voltage across RB1,

The ratio is called intrinsic stand-off ratio and is represented by η. The value of η lies between 0.51
and 0.82.
The voltage ηVBB appearing across RB1 reverse biases the diode. Therefore, the emitter current is zero.
(iii) If now a progressively rising voltage is applied to the emitter, the diode will become forward
biased when input voltage exceeds ηVBB by VD, the forward voltage drop across the silicon diode i.e.

When the diode D starts conducting, holes are injected from p-type material to the n-type bar. These
holes are swept down towards the terminal B1. This decreases the resistance between emitter and
B1( indicated by variable resistance RB1) and hence the internal drop from emitter to B 1. The emitter
current now increases regeneratively until it is limited by the emitter power supply.

Characteristic curve of UJT

The static emitter charÂacteristic (a curve showing the relation between emitter voltage V E and
emitter current IE) of a UJT at a given inter base voltage VBB is shown in figure. Â From figure it is
noted that for emitter potentials to the left of peak point, emitter current I E never exceeds IEo . The
current IEo corresponds very closely to the reverse leakage current I Co of the conventional BJT. This
region, as shown in the figure, is called the cut-off region.

Once conduction is established at VE = VP the emitter potential VEstarts decreasing with the increase
in emitter current IE. This Corresponds exactly with the decrease in resistance R B for increasing curr-
rent IE. This device, therefore, has a negative resistance region which is stable enough to be used with
a great deal of reliability in the areas of applications listed earlier.

Eventually, the valley point reaches, and any further increase in emitter current I E places the device in
the saturation region, as shown in the figure. Three other important parameters for the UJT are I P,
VV and IV and are defined below:

Peak-Point Emitter Current.Ip. It is the emitter current at the peak point. It represents the
minimum current that is required to trigger the device (UJT). It is inversely proportional to the
interbase voltage VBB.

Valley Point Voltage VV The valley point voltage is the emitter voltage at the valley point.
The valley voltage increases with the increase in interbase voltage VBB.

Valley Point Current IV The valley point current is the emitter current at the valley point. It
increases with the increase in inter-base voltage VBB.

UJT relaxation oscillator

UJT relaxation oscillator is a type of RC ( resistor-capacitor) oscillator where the active element is a
UJT (uni-junction transistor). UJT is an excellent switch with switching times in the order of nano
seconds. It has a negative resistance region in the characteristics and can be easily employed in
relaxation oscillators. The UJT relaxation oscillator is called so because the timing interval is set up
by the charging of a capacitor and the timing interval is ceased by the the rapid discharge of the same
capacitor.
UJT can be used as relaxation oscillator. Initially voltage across capacitor is zero. At t=0, V E=Vc=0.
UJT emitter diode is reverse biased and UJT is off

The amount of reverse bias is Vx volts which can be obtained using the voltage devider rule as

----(1)

Since R1 & R2 are very small can be neglected then equation (1) reduces to

.
The cap[acitor will begin to charge again towards Edc once again and previous chain
of event repeats.

To calculate the frequency of this waveform first period of one cycle need to be
calculated
In most cases Vp=ᵑEdc +VD then period can be written as

Since VD is small can be ignored then above equation reduces to

UJT triggering circuit for SCR:

The basic circuit shown above will be used as triggering circuit for SCR. The pulse output at B 1 is
used to trigger SCR
The UJT is used to more accurately trigger the SCR. The trigger voltage is equal to the capacitor
voltage, since the capacitor is connected between the anode and ground. When the capacitor
charges to the trigger voltage, the UJT turns on, discharging the capacitor, turn on the SCR.