Disaster Management

UNIT-3
3.1 Natural Disasters-
3.1.1 Hydro-meteorological Based Disasters:
Hydro- meteorological hazards are caused by extreme meteorological and
climate events, such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes, landslides, or
mudslides.

3.1.1.1 Flood:

Floods are among the most frequent and costly natural disasters. Conditions that
cause floods include heavy or steady rain for several hours or days that saturates
the ground. Flash floods occur suddenly due to rapidly rising water along a stream
or low-lying area.
A flood is an excess of water (or mud) on land that's normally dry and is a situation
where in the inundation is caused by high flow, or overflow of water in an
established watercourse, such as a river, stream, or drainage ditch; or ponding of
water at or near the point where the rain fell. This is a duration type event. A flood
can strike anywhere without warning, occurs when a large volume of rain falls
within a short time.

Types of Floods:

Flash Floods: Floods occurring within six hours, mainly due to heavy rainfall
associated with towering cumulus clouds, thunderstorms, and tropical cyclones or
during passage of cold weather fronts, or by dam failure or other river obstruction.
This type of flood requires a rapid localized warning system.

River Floods: Floods caused by precipitation over a large catchment’s area,

melting of snow or both. Built up slowly or on a regular basis, these floods may
continue for days or weeks. The major factors of these floods are moisture,
vegetation cover, depth of snow, size of the catchment’s basin, etc.
Coastal Floods:- Floods associated with cyclonic activities like Hurricanes,
Tropical cyclones, etc. generating acatastrophic flood from rainwater which often
aggravate wind-induced storm and water surges along the coast.
Urban Flood: As land is converted from agricultural fields or woodlands to roads
and parking lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization decreases the
ability to absorb water 2 to 6 times over what would occur on natural terrain.
During periods of urban flooding, streets can become swift moving rivers, while
basements can become death traps as they fill with water.

Ice Jam: Floating ice can accumulate at a natural or human-made obstruction and
stop the flow of water thereby causing floods. Flooding too can occur when there
the snow melts at a very faster rate.

Glacial Lake Outbursts Flood (GLOF): Many of the big glaciers which have
melted rapidly and gave birth to the origin of a large number of glacier lakes. Due
to the faster rate of ice and snow melting, possibly caused by the global warming,
the accumulation of water in these lakes has been increasing rapidly and resulting
sudden discharge of large volumes of water and debris and causing flooding in the
downstream.

Characteristics of flood:
Depth of water- Building foundations and vegetation will have different degrees
of tolerance to bring inundated water.
Duration – Damage to structures, infrastructure vegetation related to duration of
time with water inundation.
Velocity – High velocities of flow create erosive forces, hydrodynamic pressure,
which destroy foundation supports and may occur on floodplains or in the main
river channel.
Frequency of occurrence – The frequency of occurrence measured over period of
time determines types of construction or agricultural activities on the floodplain.
Seasonality – Flooding during a growing season destroy crops while cold weather,
floods seriously affect the community.

Causes of Floods:

Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain within their banks the high flows
brought down from the upper catchment areas following heavy rainfall, leads to
flooding. The tendency to occupy the flood plains has been a serious concern over
the years. Because of the varying rainfall distribution, many a time, areas which
are not traditionally prone to floods also experience severe inundation. Areas with
poor drainage facilities get flooded by accumulation of water from heavy rainfall.
Excess irrigation water applied to command areas and an increase in ground water
levels due to seepage from canals and irrigated fields also are factors that
accentuate the problem of water-logging. The problem is exacerbated by factors
such as silting of the riverbeds, reduction in the carrying capacity of river channels,
erosion of beds and banks leading to changes in river courses, obstructions to flow
due to landslides, synchronization of floods in the main and tributary rivers and
retardation due to tidal effects. The primary causes for Floods are:

Intense rainfall when the river is flowing full.

Excessive rainfall in river catchments or concentration of runoff from the
tributaries and river carrying flows in excess of their capacities.
Cyclone and very intense rainfall when the EL- Nino effect is on a decline.
Synchronization of flood peaks in the main rivers or their tributaries.
Landslides leading to obstruction of flow and change in the river course.
Poor natural drainage system.
Backing water in tributaries at their confluence with the main river.

Flood prone areas:

India is one of the most flood prone country in the world. The principal reasons
for flood lie in the very nature of natural ecological systems in this country,
namely, the monsoon, the highly silted river systems and the steep and highly
erodible mountains, particularly those of the Himalayan ranges. The average
rainfall in India is 1150 mm with significant variation across the country. The
annual rainfall along the western coast and Western Ghats, Khasi hills and over
most of the Brahmaputra valley amounts to more than 2500 mm. Most of the
floods occur during the monsoon period and are usually associated with tropical
storms or depressions, active monsoon conditions and break monsoon situations.

Floods occur in almost all rivers basins in India. The main causes of floods are
heavy rainfall, inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge,
inadequate drainage to carry away the rainwater quickly to streams/rivers. Ice jams
or landslides blocking streams; typhoons and cyclones also cause floods. Flash
floods occur due to high rate of water flow as also due to poor permeability of the
soil. Areas with hardpan just below the surface of the soil are more prone to, floods
as water fails to seep down to the deeper layers.

Brahmaputra, Ganga, Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, Krishna & Cauvery are the most
flood prone areas. Survey by Rashtriya Barh Ayog in 1980 says that 40 million
hectares areas are flood affected. Heavy rain in Himalayas during South west
monsoon causes flood in the rivers of U.P., Bihar, W.Bengal & Assam while
Central & Southern rivers get flooded by heavy rainfall due to depression in Bay of
Bengal during south-west monsoon season. In most flood prone states, land
depression, low-pressure areas are the two most important synoptic systems
responsible for floods. In Bihar 100% and in U.P. 82% flood is caused due to land
depression and well marked low pressure. In W.Bengal main reason for flood is
cyclonic circulation. Whereas in Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan & Jammu & Kashmir
the main reason is low pressure areas. Flood in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh is due
to monsoon depression.

Flood Preparedness and Mitigation:

Since ages, people have coped and learned to live with floods. They have generally
settled in areas away from flood and have adapted agricultural practices which can
sustain in flood waters. Traditional methods based on locally available resources
have been used to minimize the damages during flood. With the increase in
population, flood prone areas have been occupied and this is a principal factor in
the huge losses presently seen.

The various mitigation measures for flood can be categorized into structural and
non structural measures.

Regulation and Enforcement: Unplanned and unregulated developmental

activities in the flood plains of the rivers and encroachments into the waterways
have led to increase in flood losses as well as flood risk. The colossal loss of lives
and property due to the flooding of the towns and cities and the areas which get
flooded almost every alternate year is a recent phenomenon and effective steps are
required for regulating unplanned growth in the flood plains and preventing
encroachment in the waterways.
Capacity Development: The capacity development covers the aspects of flood
education, target groups for capacity development, capacity development of
professionals, training, research and development and documentation with respect
to flood management. The proposals for strengthening the existing systems are also
given therein. An action plan for capacity development has also been formulated.

Flood Response:
An effective and prompt response to floods is very important for minimizing the
loss of lives and properties and providing immediate relief to the affected people.
The role of communities and NGOs is vital in search, rescue and relief operations.
Immediate medical assistance to the affected people and steps for prevention of
outbreak of epidemics after the floods are essential components of flood response.
As per provisions of the DM Act, 2005, the GOI has constituted National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialized response to disasters. Over
and above this, a mechanism for coordinated approach and efforts are required for
effective response.

Structural Measures:

Embankments: This has been one of the major structural approaches in which the
river is restricted to its existing course and prevented from overflowing the banks.
Usually embankments are constructed with earth but at some places masonry and
concrete walls are also used. However what is important is to note here that
embankments are designed to provide a degree of protection against flood of a
certain frequency and intensity or a maximum recorded flood depending on the
location and economic justification. During recent times, divergent views have
emerged concerning effectiveness of embankment. While there are serious
concerns over their usefulness over a long time frame, there have also been
arguments in favor such as providing only road communication during flood
seasons and shelter in low lying areas. Studies on effectiveness of embankments
conducted around the world, have pointed out some of the problems such as poor
congestion in protected areas, silting of rivers which not only means rising river
bed level and consequent decrease in carrying capacity but also depriving
neighboring agricultural land from fertile soil and ground water recharge. There
have also been concerns on the issue of embankment capacity to withstand erosion.
Dams, Reservoirs and other Water Storage Mechanism:

Dams, reservoirs and other water storages, both natural and man-made, are an
effective means for reducing the flood peaks in the rivers. The important role
played by them in flood moderation and comprehensive mechanism for the
operation and regulation of reservoirs, which takes into account the international,
inter-state and inter-regional aspects. As large dams and reservoirs have potential
for huge damage guidelines for ensuring safety.

Channel Improvements:
The aim of Channel Improvements is to increase the area of flow or velocity of
flow or both to increase carrying capacity. Normally this measure involves high
cost and there are also problems of topographical constraints to execute such a
measure.

De-silting and Dredging of Rivers:

The de silting approach is still to be perfected in the sense that various committees
and expert groups appointed by Government of India are yet to recommend this
measure as an effective mitigation strategy. However, selective de silting and
dredging of rivers at outfalls/confluences or local reaches can be adopted.

Drainage Improvement:
This aims at construction of new channels or improving capacity of existing
channels to decongest and prevent flooding. However, what is important is to
ensure that such an approach do not cause congestion and flooding in downstream
areas.

Diversion of Flood Water:

This involves diverting all or part of flood water into natural or artificial
constructed channels which may be within or outside the flood plain. The diverted
water may or may not be returned to the river at a downstream. Usually effective to
prevent flooding around cities, the flood spill channel for Srinagar and the
supplementary drain in Delhi are examples of this approach.

Catchments Area Treatment: The aim in this approach is to provide protection to

catchment areas through measures such as afforestation which minimize siltation
of reservoirs and silt load in the rivers. This can be a very useful approach to
control flood peaks and suddenness of run offs.
Sea Walls/Coastal Protection Works:
The construction of Sea walls and other such work, try to prevent flooding from
Sea water. These are highly cost intensive apart from the fact that complexity of
sea behavior and other environmental aspects should also be considered.

Non-Structural Measures:

Flood Plain Zoning:

The basic idea here is to regulate land use in the flood plain in order to restrict the
damages. It aims at determining the location and extent of areas for developmental
activities so that damage is minimized. It lays down guidelines for various types of
development so that adequate mitigation is built for the worst flood scenario. There
can be different consideration for preparing flood plain zoning for example, one
can locate parks, playgrounds etc. for area which have a up to 10 year frequency
while prohibiting residential colonies, industries, etc. and allowing residential and
other public utilities with specific design guidelines in areas which have a 25 year
frequency.

Flood Forecasting and Warning:

A nationwide flood forecasting and warning system is developed by Central Water
Commission (CWC) and this initiative has also been supplemented by states who
make special arrangements for strategically important locations in their states. The
forecasts can be of different types such as forecast for water level (stage forecast),
discharge (flow forecast) and area to be submerged (inundation forecast). The
forecast when carries definite risk information is called warning. The flood
forecasting services involve collection of hydrological data (gauge, discharge),
meteorological data such as rainfall.

Flood Proofing:
These are measures designed to minimize the impact when flood water comes
such as raised platform for shelter to population, cattle etc., raised platform for
drinking water hand pumps, bore wells above flood level, house/building
architecture, provision for relocating vial installation such as communication,
power etc.
Flood Safety Tips:

Do’s and Dont’s :

Before and During :

All your family members should know the safe routes to nearest shelter/raised
pucca house.
If your area is flood-prone, consider suitable flood resistant building materials.
Tune to your local radio/TV for warnings and advice. Have an emergency kit
ready.

Keep dry food, drinking water and clothes ready. Drink preferably boiled water.
Keep your food covered, don't take heavy meals.
Do not let children and pregnant woman remain an empty stomach.
Be careful of snakes, as snake bites are common during floods.

After:

Pack warm clothing, essential medication, valuables, personal papers, etc. in

waterproof bags, to be taken with your emergency kit.
Raise furniture, clothing and valuable onto beds, tables and in attic.
Turn off the main electricity power supply. Do not use electrical appliances,
which have been in flood water.
Do not get into water of unknown depth and current.
Do not allow children to play in, or near flood water.
3.1.1.3 Cloud burst:

A cloudburst is a sudden rainfall which can be quite unexpected, very abrupt,

accompanied by hail and thunder.

It usually occurs in high altitude areas due to the formation of a low pressure area
on the top of a mountain. The low pressure zone attracts clouds to the top of the
mountain with great force. When they hit the peak, the moisture content is released
in the form of rain. In some cloudbursts, up to 5 inches (almost 13 centimeters) of
rain can fall in an hour, often in the form of extremely large droplets. All heavy
rains are not necessarily cloudbursts.

The effects of heavy rain are especially striking on mountain slopes because the
falling water is concentrated in valleys and gulleys. Mountain cloudbursts cause
sudden and destructive floods. The intensity of rainfall in the most severe
cloudbursts can only be conjectured.

Because of the amount of rain involved, a cloudburst can be quite dangerous,

especially if it lasts for several hours. Flooding is common with cloudbursts,
sweeping away people, animals and land on its way. Often, these severe rainstorms
appear in the summer, and in farming communities, they are sometimes welcomed,
as a cloudburst can irrigate crops very thoroughly.

Cloudbursts are known to frequently trigger flash floods and landslides also.

Causes of Cloud Burst:

Cloudbursts occur because the warm air current from the ground or below the
clouds rushes up and carries the falling raindrops up with it.
 Fig.3.1 Cloud Burst

The rain fails to fall down in a steady shower. This results in excessive
condensation in the clouds as new drops form and old drops are pushed back into it
by the updraft. The air current slows down or the clouds can't hold. The resulting
violent downpour can dump as much as 70,000 tonnes of water over an acre of
land. In India, a cloudburst mostly occurs in the mountains of India where the low
monsoon clouds are stopped by the high mountains. But it may happen elsewhere.

Cloud burst Preparedness and Mitigation:

With cloudbursts occurring with greater frequency over certain regions of the
country and the resulting flash floods and landslides sometimes leading to huge
death tolls, making them national tragedies. Rescue and relief and evacuations
cannot be enough due to the sudden nature of the disaster. The best solution has to
be a solution inbuilt into our habitations whereby the effects of cloudbursts can be
mitigated therein.

Preventive measures are inevitable to avoid and minimize the cloudburst-triggered

natural hazards. Hazards can be prevented through construction of settlements in
the suitable areas, avoiding their construction along the seasonal Nala and fragile
slopes. It needs suitability mapping of the entire mountainous mainland of the
state. Imparting training to the rural people for minimizing damage and
preparedness are the prominent preventive measures. Further, migration measures
are essential. Among the mitigation measures, deployment of trained personnel in
the hazard prone areas, proper rehabilitation of the affected people, proper
distribution of medicinal facilities and food, and deployment of NDRF, ITBP, and
SDRF are prominent.

3.1.1.4 Drought:

It is difficult to provide a precise and universally accepted definition of drought

due to its varying characteristics and impacts across different regions of the world,
such as rainfall patterns, human response and resilience, and diverse academic
perspectives.

Droughts are caused by lack of rain over a long period of time. If rain does occur it
usually isn't enough for the ground to absorb before it is evaporated again. Plants
and animals need water to survive, so if there is not enough water they will
eventually die from thirst and dehydration. Water is one of the main ingredients in
the food chain, for example: If a plant dies from lack of water then the animal that
eats that plant will also die, the cycle will then continue to die out.

Most droughts tend to occur during summer, as the weather is hot and water is
quickly evaporated. Droughts can last for years in most extreme cases. These types
of droughts affect outback properties and can devastate crops and livestock.
However, many crops are affected. If a farmer has lost his crop due to drought then
he will get no money to pay for the next seasonal crop. Droughts usually occur in
hot dry areas of land. In most cases the area is dry because there is very minimal
rainfall. The rain that does fall will be quickly absorbed into the ground or blown
away by the dry air flow that moves along the ground. Therefore the land is very
dry and not many things can live there.

Because drought is to dry and hot plants cannot survive without water and animals
cannot survive without plants, water and other living creatures. So drought has a
great effect on the food chain. If a drought is really long, measures are taken to
help to save the water. When a drought is that bad drastic measures such as never
washing your car or only having one shower per day are not much fun and can
sometimes lead to unclearly environments which can cause bacterial related
diseases and infections. Elderly people have trouble with living in very hot and dry
environments. They have trouble trying to stay cool and not many elderly folk
drink a lot of fluids. So drought has its own effect on every one.
Drought causes the land to be unhealthy as well. It can dry it out so much that large
cracks in the earth's crust and because no plants live within the dry climate it
means that the soil is not able to be held together by plant roots. This is the effect
that causes wind erosion.

Drought differs from other natural hazards such as cyclones, floods, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis in that:

No universal definition exists;

Being of slow-onset it is difficult to determine the beginning and end of the
event;
Duration may range from months to years and the core area or epicenter changes
over time, reinforcing the need for continuous monitoring of climate and water
supply indicators;
No single indicator or index can identify precisely the onset and severity of the
event and its potential impacts; multiple indicators are more effective;
Spatial extent is usually much greater than that for other natural hazards, making
assessment and response actions difficult, since impacts are spread over larger
geographical areas;
Impacts are generally non-structural and difficult to quantify; Impacts are
cumulative and the effects magnify when events continue from one season or year
to the next.

Types of Drought:

Meteorological Drought:

It is defined as the deficiency of precipitation from expected or normal levels over

an extended period of time. Meteorological drought usually precedes other kinds of
drought. According to the legend, meteorological drought is said to occur when the
seasonal rainfall received over an area is less than 25% of its long-term average
value. It is further classified as moderate drought if the rainfall deficit is 26–50%
and severe drought when the deficit exceeds 50% of the normal.

Hydrological Drought:

It is best defined as deficiencies in surface and subsurface water supplies leading to

a lack of water for normal and specific needs. Such conditions arise, even in times
of average (or above average) precipitation when increased usage of water
diminishes the reserves.

Agricultural Drought:

Usually triggered by meteorological and hydrological droughts, occurs when soil

moisture and rainfall are inadequate during the crop growing season causing
extreme crop stress and wilting. Plant water demand depends on prevailing
weather conditions, biological characteristics of the specific plant, its stage of
growth and the physical and biological properties of the soil. Agricultural drought
thus arises from the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of crop
development, from emergence to maturity. In India, it is defined as a period of four
consecutive weeks (of severe meteorological drought) with a rainfall deficiency of
more than 50% of the long-term average (LTA) or with a weekly rainfall of 5 cm
or less from mid-May to mid-October (the kharif season) when 80% of India‟s
total crop is planted or six such consecutive weeks during the rest of the year
(NRSC, Decision Support Centre).
Impacts of Drought:
Drought produces wide-ranging impacts that span many sectors of the national
economy. These impacts are felt much beyond the area experiencing physical
drought. The complexity of these impacts arises because water is integral to our
ability to produce goods and provide services.
Drought produces both direct and indirect impacts. Direct impacts or primary
impacts are usually physical / material and include reduced agricultural production;
increased fire hazard; depleted water levels; higher livestock and wildlife mortality
rates; and damage to wildlife and fish habitats. When direct impacts have
multiplier effects through the economy and society, they are referred to as indirect
impacts. These include a reduction in agricultural production that may result in
reduced income for farmers and agribusiness, increased prices for food and timber,
unemployment, reduced purchasing capacity and demand for consumption, default
on agricultural loans, rural unrest, and reduction in agricultural employment
leading to migration and drought relief programmes. The more removed the impact
from the cause, the more complex is the link to the cause. These multiplier effects
are often so diffuse that it is very difficult to generate financial estimates of actual
losses caused by a drought. The impacts of drought are generally categorized as
economic, environmental, and social:

Economic impacts: refer to production losses in agriculture and related sectors,

especially forestry and fisheries, because these sectors rely on surface and
subsurface water supplies. It causes a loss of income and purchasing power,
particularly among farmers and rural population dependent on agriculture. All
industries dependent upon the primary sector for their raw materials would suffer
losses due to reduced supply or increased prices. Drought thus has a multiplier
effect throughout the economy, which has a dampening impact on employment,
flow of credit and tax collections. If the drought is countrywide, macroeconomic
indicators at the national level are adversely impacted.

Environmental impacts: such as lower water levels in reservoirs, lakes and ponds
as well as reduced flows from springs and streams would reduce the availability of
feed and drinking water and adversely affect fish and wildlife habitat. It may also
cause loss of forest cover, migration of wildlife and their greater mortality due to
increased contact with agricultural producers as animals seek food from farms and
producers are less tolerant of the intrusion. A prolonged drought may also result in
increased stress among endangered species and cause loss of biodiversity. Reduced
streamflow and loss of wetlands may cause changes in the levels of salinity.
Increased groundwater depletion, land subsidence, and reduced recharge may
damage aquifers and adversely affect the quality of water (e.g., salt concentration,
increased water temperature, acidity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity). The degradation
of landscape quality, including increased soil erosion, may lead to a more
permanent loss of biological productivity of the landscape.

Social impacts: arise from lack of income causing out migration of the population
from the drought-affected areas. People in India seek to cope with drought in
several ways which affect their sense of well-being: they withdraw their children
from schools, postpone daughters‟ marriages, and sell their assets such as land or
cattle. In addition to economic hardships, it causes a loss of social status and
dignity, which people find hard to accept. Inadequate food intake may lead to
malnutrition, and in some extreme cases, cause starvation. Access and use of
scarce water resources generate situations of conflict, which could be socially very
disruptive. Inequities in the distribution of drought impacts and relief may
exacerbate these social tensions further.

Prevention and Preparedness:

Prevention and Preparedness means predisaster activities designed to increase the

level of readiness and improvement of operational and institutional capabilities for
responding to a drought. Drought prevention and preparedness involve water
supply augmentation and conservation (e.g. rainwater harvesting techniques),
expansion of irrigation facilities, effective dealing with drought, and public
awareness and education. Transport and communication links are a must to ensure
supply of food and other commodities during and just after a drought. Successful
drought management requires community awareness on the mitigation strategies,
insurance schemes for farmers, crop contingency plans, etc. Basic to drought
management in the Indian context is the delineation of drought prone areas. At the
block level, the following indicators are generally used.

Gradation of Drought Prone Areas:

(High, Moderate, and Low): Areas should also be graded on the basis of degree of
drought proneness since it would affect the steps required for greater preparedness.
This would require multiple criteria approach that includes:

Sensitivity to Rainfall Variation;

Frequency of Occurrence of Drought;
Vulnerability of Community (people and livestock) to Drought

Mitigation:

Mitigation actions, programs, and policies are implemented during and before
drought to reduce the magnitude of risk to human life, property, and productive
capacity. Emergency response will always be a part of drought management,
because it is unlikely that government and others will anticipate, avoid, or reduce
all potential impacts through mitigation programs. A future drought event will also
exceed the “drought of record” and the capacity of a region to respond. However,
emergency response will be used lesser and only, if it is consistent with the longer-
term drought policy goals and objectives. Considering the increase in the
frequency of droughts in different parts of the country, it is necessary that there is a
shift in public policy from drought relief to drought mitigation measures. These
measures are important for adapting to climate change, restoring ecological
balance, and bringing development benefits to the people.

Judicious use of surface and groundwater:

In drought prone areas rainwater is the main source of surface and ground water
recharge. Because of more intense use of ground water in most parts of the country
during the last few years, recharge of ground water did not take place.

Cloud seeding in Drought Prone regions of India:

The South African cloud seeding experiment was carried out during 1991-1995
with new technology. The results showed statistical increase in rainfall in all types
of clouds (i.e. small to large). This gave impetus to cloud seeding research in
different parts of the globe. The interior part of peninsular India is a rain shadow
region. The seasonal monsoon rainfall in these areas is lower compared to all India
mean monsoon rainfall. The rainfall variability is larger. The region is drought
prone. In the prolonged monsoon-dry conditions, there are demands for the cloud
seeding operations from the state governments.

Micro Irrigation Systems:

It has been recognized that use of modern irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler
irrigation is the only alternative for efficient use of surface as well as ground water
resources. The evapo-transpiration losses could be minimized and crop yield
optimized by micro-irrigation systems.

Post Harvest Management:

India suffers an estimated food grain and agriculture produce loss of Rs 50,000
crores every year due to the lack of adequate post harvest infrastructure and
inefficient supply chain management by the country’s farmers. India loses about
35-40% of the fruits and vegetable produce due to improper Post Harvest
Management. A loss estimated at Rs 40,000 crores per year. India wastes fruits and
vegetables every year equivalent to the annual consumption of the United
Kingdom. To avoid the Post Harvest Losses a chain of cold storages, need to be
created along with Post Harvest Management practices like pre cooling, cold
storages and refrigerated transport. Pre-harvest losses due to diseases and pests
need to be minimized through better management practices. In the absence or lack
of proper pre and post harvest crop management the impact of drought gets
compounded.

Water Conservation, Storage Structures and Management:

Water harvesting and conservation is very effective, as during the period of water
resource depletion, the drought affected area still has significant potential for
harvesting and conserving water if an integrated water resources management
approach is adopted, and proper policies and investment actions are implemented
using recent technologies. Drought mitigation measures have been of late more on
issues related to water resource management. The scarce water resource during the
drought period requires to be managed optimally.

Crop Insurance:
An important instrument to combat the adverse financial impact of droughts on the
farmers is agricultural insurance.

Drought Safety Tips: Do’s and Dont’s :

Never pour water down the drain, use it to water your indoor plants or garden.
Repair dripping taps by replacing washers.
Check all plumbing for leaks and get them repaired.
Choose appliances that are more energy and water efficient.
Develop and use cop contingency plan to meet drought situation
Plant drought-tolerant grasses, shrubs and trees.
Install irrigation devices which are most water efficient for each use, such as
micro and drip irrigation.
Consider implementing rainwater harvesting wherever it is suitable
Avoid flushing the toilet unnecessarily
Avoid letting the water run while brushing your teeth, washing your face or
shaving.
3.1.1.5 Cyclone:

A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low pressure centre

and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain.

Tropical cyclones feed on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in
condensation of water vapour contained in the moist air. The term ‘tropical’ refers
to both the geographic origin of these systems, which form almost exclusively in
tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in maritime tropical air masses.
The term ‘cyclone’ refers to such storms cyclonic nature, with counter clockwise
rotation in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise rotation in the Southern
Hemisphere. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called by
many other names, such as hurricane, typhoon, tropical storm, cyclonic storm,
tropical depression and simply cyclone. While tropical cyclones can produce
extremely powerful winds and torrential rain, they are also able to produce high
waves and damaging storm surges. They develop over large bodies of warm water,
and lose their strength if they move over land. This is the reason for coastal regions
receiving a significant damage from a tropical cyclone, while inland regions are
relatively safe from their effect. Heavy rains, however, can produce significant
flooding inland, and storm surges can produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40
kilometers from the coastline. Although their effects on human populations can be
devastating, tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions. They also carry
heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes,
which make them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation
mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the
earth’s troposphere, and to maintain a relatively stable and warm temperature
worldwide.

A strong tropical cyclone usually harbours an area of sinking air at the centre of
circulation. This area is called ‘eye of the cyclone’. Weather in the eye is normally
calm and free of clouds, although sea may be extremely violent. The eye is
normally circular in shape, and may vary in size from 3 km to 370 km in diameter.
Surrounding the eye is the region called ‘Central Dense Overcast (CDO)’, a
concentrated area of strong thunderstorm activity. Curved bands of clouds and
thunderstorms trail away from the eye in a spiral fashion. These bands are capable
of producing heavy bursts of rain and wind, as well as tornadoes. If one were to
travel between the outer edge of a hurricane to its centre, one would normally
progress from light rain and wind, to dry and weak breeze, then back to
increasingly heavier rainfall and stronger wind, over and over again with each
period of rainfall and wind being more intense and lasting longer.

Fig3.2: Formation of Cyclone

Classification of Tropical Cyclones:

The criteria followed by Meteorological Department of India (IMD) to classify the

low pressure systems in the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea as adopted by
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) are as under:
 Table 3.1 Classification of Tropical Cyclones
Type of Disturbances Associated Wind Speed in the
Circulation

Low pressure Area Less than17 knots (<31 kmph)

Depression 17 to 27 knots (31 to 49 kmph)

Deep Depression 28 to 33 knots (50 to 61 kmph

Cyclonic Storm 34 to 47 knots (62 to 88 kmph)

Severe Cyclonic Storm 48 to 63 knots (89 to 118 kmph)

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 64 to 119 knots (119 to 221 kmph

Super Cyclonic Storm 120 knots and above (222 kmph and
above)

Destruction caused by Cyclones:

There are three elements associated with cyclones which cause destruction during
its occurrence. These are:

Strong Winds/Squall:
Cyclones are known to cause severe damage to infrastructure through high speed
winds. Very strong winds which accompany a cyclonic storm damages
installations, dwellings, communications systems, trees etc., resulting in loss of life
and property. Gusts are short but rapid bursts in wind speed are the main cause for
damage. Squalls on the other hand, are longer periods of increased wind speed and
are generally associated with the bands of thunderstorms that make up the spiral
bands around the cyclone.
Torrential rains and inland flooding: Torrential rainfall (more than 30 cm/hour)
associated with cyclones is another major cause of damages. Unabated rain gives
rise to unprecedented floods. Rain water on top of the storm surge may add to the
fury of the storm. Rain is a serious problem for the people which become shelter
less due to cyclone. Heavy rainfall from a cyclone is usually spread over wide area
and cause large scale soil erosion and weakening of embankments.

Storm Surge: A Storm surge can be defined as an abnormal rise of sea level near
the coast caused by a severe tropical cyclone; as a result of which sea water
inundates low lying areas of coastal regions drowning human beings and life stock,
causes eroding beaches and embankments, destroys vegetation and leads to
reduction of soil fertility.

Cyclone warning system in India:

The India Meteorological Department is responsible for providing tropical cyclone
warnings in India. The tropical cyclone warning service is one of the most
important functions of the India Meteorological Department and it was the first
service undertaken by the Department which is more than 135 years old.

Organization:
Tropical cyclone warnings in India are provided through three Area Cyclone
Warning Centres (ACWCs) located at Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai and three
Cyclone Warning Centres at Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam and Ahmedabad. The
entire cyclone warning work is coordinated by the Deputy Director General of
Meteorology (Weather Forecasting) at Pune and Deputy Director General of
Meteorology (Services) at New Delhi.

Tracking of tropical cyclones:

Tracking of the tropical cyclones in India is done with the help of:

Conventional surface and upper air observations from inland and island stations,
coastal Automatic Weather Station (AWS), ships and buoy observations;
Cyclone detection radar including Doppler Weather Radar;
Satellite cloud pictures from the Geostationary Satellite (INSAT 3A &
Kalpana1).

Tropical cyclone warnings:

The bulletins and warnings issued in connection with tropical cyclones in India
may be divided into the following broad categories:
Warning bulletins for shipping on the high seas.
Warning bulletins for ships plying in the coastal waters.
Port warnings.
Fisheries warnings. (Fishermen & Fisheries Officials)
Four stage warnings for the State and Central Government officials.
Warnings for recipients who are registered with the department
(Designated/registered users).
Aviation.
Warnings for the general public through All India Radio, Doordarshan and the
Press.
Warning for Indian Navy.
Bulletins for Print / Electronic media.

Structural Mitigation Measures:

An important aspect of cyclone risk reduction is to ensure availability of adequate
numbers of shelters, community centers/school buildings, places of worship, etc.,
which can be utilized for moving people from vulnerable areas to safety. Besides
this, the structural safety of various lifeline infrastructure such as
roads/culverts/bridges, communication and transmission towers, power houses,
water towers and hospitals will be ensured, so that the communication system at all
levels remains useable, the electricity and water supply systems do not break down
and adequate medical attention is possible. It has been identified that design and
maintenance considerations are the main focal points to be addressed which would
improve the cyclone preparedness. This will cover:

Buildings, including multi-purpose cyclone shelters;

Road links, culverts and bridges; canals, drains, and surface water tanks, etc.
Saline embankments
Communication towers and power transmission networks.
It is very important to provide safe shelters to protect human life at the time of
cyclones. Many cyclone shelters constructed earlier were not connected by all-
weather roads with nearby habitats from where affected people need to be shifted
during emergency evacuation. There is a need to improve the existing road
network and provide at least one link road, in all weather conditions, for each
village that is accessible during cyclone or flooding periods as well. The
importance of coastal canals need not be over-emphasized as it serves as an
alternative to road communication in the event of a cyclone or flood. Failure of
even well-engineered structures such as communication and transmission towers
during past cyclones brings the importance of the structural safety of such
structures to the forefront.

Safety Tips: Do’s and Don’ts:

Before and During:

Listen to radio or TV weather reports and alert everyone through a loud speaker
or by going home to home.
Identify safe shelter in your area. These should be cyclone resistant and also find
the closest route to reach them.
Keep your emergency kit and basic food supply, medicines, torch and batteries
etc. ready.
Doors, windows, roof and walls should be strengthened before the cyclone
season through retrofitting and repairing. Store adequate food grains and water in
safe places.
Conduct Mock Drills for your family and the community.
Do not venture into the sea. Stay Indoors under the strongest part of the house if
not moved to the cyclone shelter.
Remain indoors until advised that the cyclone has passed away.

After:
Do not go out till officially advised that it is safe. If evacuated, wait till advised
to go back.
Use the recommended route to return to your home. Do not rush.
Be careful of broken powers lines, damaged roads and house, fallen trees etc.
3.1.1.6 Forest Fires:

The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the
forests themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the
entire regime to fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the
ecology and environment of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for
months, the forests become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which
could burst into flames ignited by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests,
particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been burning regularly during the last few
summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that region.

Forest fire causes imbalances in nature and endangers biodiversity by reducing

faunal and floral wealth. Traditional methods of fire prevention are not proving
effective and it is now essential to raise public awareness on the matter,
particularly among those people who live close to or in forested areas.

Forest fires destroy or damage between 15 and 36 million acres of tropical forest
every year. Sometimes the fires are started on purpose as a way to illegally clear an
area of trees.

CAUSES OF FOREST FIRE:

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Manmade causes:

 Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning
which set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fires without
causing much damage. High atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low
humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire to start.
 Man made causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame,
cigarette or bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact
with inflammable material.

Traditionally Indian forests have been affected by fires. The menace has been
aggravated with rising human and cattle population and the consequent increase in
demand for Forest products by individuals and communities. Causes of forest fires
can be divided into two broad categories: environmental (which are beyond
control) and human related (which are controllable).
Environmental causes: are largely related to climatic conditions such as
temperature, wind speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere
and duration of dry spells. Other natural causes are the friction of bamboos
swaying due to high wind velocity and rolling stones that result in sparks setting
off fires in highly inflammable leaf litter on the forest floor.

Human related causes: result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional, for example:

 graziers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain
good grazing grass as well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce
like flowers of different kind.
 The centuries old practice of shifting cultivation (especially in the North-
Eastern region of India and in parts of the States of Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh).
 the use of fires by villagers to ward off wild animals
 fires lit intentionally by people living around forests for recreation
 fires started accidentally by careless visitors to forests who discard cigarette
butts.

The causes of forest fire have been increasing rapidly. The problem has been
accentuated by the growing human and cattle population. People enter forests ever
more frequently to graze cattle, collect fuel wood, timber and other minor forest
produce. It has been estimated that 90% of forest fires in India are man-made

Classification of Forest Fire:

Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;

 Natural or controlled forest fire.

 Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in
summer through carelessness of people (human neglect) and
 Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.

Types of Forest Fire:

There are two types of forest fire:

i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire

Surface Fire:

A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground as
the surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor
and is engulfed by the spreading flames.

Crown Fire:

The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and shrubs
burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous
in a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn
furiously. On hill slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air
adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the
fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it spreading downwards.

EFFECT OF FOREST FIRE:

Fires are a major cause of forest degradation and have wide ranging adverse
ecological, economic and social impacts, including:

 loss of valuable timber resources

 degradation of catchment areas
 loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals
 loss of wildlife habitat and depletion of wildlife
 loss of natural regeneration and reduction in forest cover
 global warming
 loss of carbon sink resource and increase in percentage of CO2 in
atmosphere
 change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
 soil erosion affecting productivity of soils and production
 ozone layer depletion
 health problems leading to diseases
 Loss of livelihood for tribal people and the rural poor, as approximately 300
million people are directly dependent upon collection of non-timber forest
products from forest areas for their livelihood.
The needs of the fire management:

The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is
burned each year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the
problem. Both the national focus and the technical resources required for
sustaining a systematic forest fire management programme are lacking in the
country. Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centers,
coordination among Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire
research, fire management, and extension programmes are missing.
Taking into consideration the serious nature of the problem, it is necessary to make
some major improvements in the forest fire management strategy for the country.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a
National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a
well-coordinated and integrated fire-management programme that includes the
following components:

 Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental

modification. It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works,
people participation, and education and enforcement. It is proposed that
more emphasis be given to people participation through Joint Forest Fire
Management for fire prevention.
 Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation
points, efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote
sensing technology is to be given due importance in fire detection. For
successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger
Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in
the country.
 Fast initial attack measures.
 Vigorous follow up action.
 Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
 Firefighting resources.

Each of the above components plays an important role in the success of the entire
system of fire management. Special emphasis is to be given to research, training,
and development

Integrated forest protection:

The main objective of this scheme to control forest fires and strengthen the forest
protection in Tamilnadu. The works like fire line clearing, assistance to Joint
Forest Management committees, creating water bodies, purchase of vehicles and
communication equipments, purchase of fire fighting tools, etc., are being
undertaken.

3.1.2 Geological Based Disasters:

A natural disaster due to geological disturbances, often caused by shifts in tectonic

plates and seismic activity. Examples: Earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic eruptions,
avalanches.

3.1.2.1 Earthquake:

Earthquake, a geological disaster, is a phenomenon of sudden shaking of earth’s

crust due to natural causes (rock displacements, landslide, avalanche, volcanic
eruption, meteoritic impact, sub-marine sea faulting, etc). Apart from the natural
causes, this disaster can also occur due to human activities such as, explosions due
to chemical blasts or nuclear blasts or rock burst due to mining activities, and
reservoir induced earthquakes. Earthquakes result from crustal strain, volcanism,
landslides, and collapse of caverns. Stress accumulates in response to tectonic
forces until it exceeds the strength of the rock. The rock then breaks along a
preexisting or new fracture called a fault. The rupture extends outward in all
directions along the fault plane from its point of origin (focus). The rupture travels
in an irregular manner until the stress is relatively equalized. If the rupture disturbs
the surface, it produces a visible fault on the surface.
Earthquakes are recorded by seismograph consisted of seismometer, a shaking
detector and a data recorder. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is
conventionally reported, or the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude,
with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude
7 causing serious damage over large areas.
Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. In India
Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, which is
a macroseismic intensity scale, is used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking
on the basis of observed effects in an area of the earthquake occurrence. Due to
earthquake seismic waves are generated and measurements of their speed of travel
are recorded by seismographs located around the planet.

Causes of Earthquakes:
Earthquakes may last only a few seconds or may continue for up to several
minutes .They can occur at any time of the day or night and at any time of the year.

Fig.3.3 Earth Structure

They are caused by stress that builds up over time as blocks of crust attempt to
move but are held in place by friction along a fault. (The Earth’s crust is divided
into large plates that continually move over, under, alongside, or apart from one
another atop the partly molten outer layer of the Earth’s core.) When the pressure
to move becomes stronger than the friction holding them together, adjoining blocks
of crust can suddenly slip, rupturing the fault and creating an earthquake. No part
of Earth's surface is free from earthquakes, but some regions experience them more
frequently. They are most common at tectonic plate boundaries where different
plates meet. The largest events usually happen where two plates are colliding, or
colliding and sliding past one another. The earth has four major layers: the inner
core, outer core, mantle and crust. The crust and the top of the mantle make up a
thin skin on the surface of our planet. But this skin is not all in one piece – it is
made up of many pieces like a puzzle covering the surface of the earth. Not only
that, but these puzzle pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another
and bumping into each other. We call these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the
edges of the plates are called the plate boundaries. The plate boundaries are made
up of many faults, and most of the earthquakes around the world occur on these
faults. Since the edges of the plates are rough, they get stuck while the rest of the
plate keeps moving. Finally, when the plate has moved far enough, the edges
unstuck on one of the faults and there is an earthquake.

Plate Tectonics Theory:

The plate tectonics theory is a starting point for understanding the forces within the
Earth that cause earthquakes. Plates are thick slabs of rock that make up the
outermost 100 kilometers or so of the Earth. Geologists use the term "tectonics" to
describe deformation of the Earth's crust, the forces producing such deformation,
and the geologic and structural features that result. Earthquakes occur only in the
outer, brittle portions of these plates, where temperatures in the rock are relatively
low. Deep in the Earth's interior, convection of the rocks, caused by temperature
variations in the Earth, induces stresses that result in movement of the overlying
plates. The rates of plate movements range from about 2 to 12 centimeters per year
and can now be measured by precise surveying techniques. The stresses from
convection can also deform the brittle portions of overlying plates, thereby storing
tremendous energy within the plates. If the accumulating stress exceeds the
strength of the rocks comprising these brittle zones, the rocks can break suddenly,
releasing the stored elastic energy as an earthquake.
Three major types of plate boundaries are recognized. These are called Divergent
(spreading), convergent, or transform, depending on whether the plates move away
from, toward, or laterally past one another, respectively. Subduction occurs where
one plate converges toward another plate, moves beneath it, and plunges as much
as several hundred kilometers into the Earth's interior.

Fig. 3.4 Tectonic plate Movements

Ninety percent of the world's earthquakes occur along plate boundaries where the
rocks are usually weaker and yield more readily to stress than do the rocks within a
plate. The remaining 10 percent occur in areas away from present plate boundaries.

Types of Earthquake:

Classification of earthquake is based on several parameters.

Based on scale of magnitude (M), earthquake may be of Micro (M < 3.5) or macro
(M > 3.5) type.
Depending up on the extent of energy released and strength of the ground shaking
it may be of several types, like moderate strong, very strong, great and very great
earthquake.
Depending up on the scale of damage, the earthquake may be of various types,
such as less damaging earthquake, Moderate damaging earthquake, and
catastrophic earthquake.
Depending up on the focal depth (h) of the event, it could be shallow earthquake
(d< 70 km); intermediate depth earthquake (70 < h < 300 km); the deep earthquake
(300 < h < 700 km).
Depending up on the location of events in different tectonic settings, earthquake
may be of intra-plate, inter-plate, and sub-oceanic earthquake.
Depending up on involvement of other agencies / phenomena with earthquake
genesis, it may be of several types, such as Reservoir induced; Fluid-driven
earthquake; Tsunamigenic earthquake, and volcanic earthquake.
Depending up on the type of faulting involved during earthquake genesis,
earthquake may be categorized into several categories, such as normal faulting,
reverse faulting, thrust faulting, and mega thrust earthquake.
Depending up on the frequency content, the earthquake may be of Low-Frequency
tremors or high – Frequency tremors.
Depending up on the epicenter distance (distance between earthquake main shock
and the recording stations), the earthquake may be classified into Local, Regional
and Global earthquake.

Earthquakes Prediction: With the present state of knowledge of science, it is not

possible to predict earthquakes. It is so because the physics involved in earthquake
genesis is very complex. The mechanism of earthquake generating processes is still
not adequately understood us because of involvement of multi-component
parameters in earthquake genesis.
Earthquake forecasting and prediction is an active topic of geological research.
Geoscientists are able to identify particular areas of risk and, if there is sufficient
information, to make probabilistic forecasts about the likelihood of earthquakes
happening in a specified area over a specified period. These forecasts are based on
data gathered through global seismic monitoring networks, high-density local
monitoring in knowing risk areas, and geological field work, as well as from
historical records. Forecasts are improved as our theoretical understanding of
earthquakes grows, and geological models are tested against observation. Long-
term forecasts (years to decades) are currently much more reliable than short to
medium-term forecasts (days to months). It is not currently possible to make
deterministic predictions of when and where earthquakes will happen. For this to
be possible, it would be necessary to identify a ‘diagnostic precursor’ – a
characteristic pattern of seismic activity or some other physical, chemical or
biological change, which would indicate a high probability of an earthquake
happening in a small window of space and time. So far, the search for diagnostic
precursors has been unsuccessful. Most Geoscientists do not believe that there is a
realistic prospect of accurate prediction in the foreseeable future, and the principal
focus of research is on improving the forecasting of earthquakes.

PREVENTIVE AND MITIGATION MEASURES:

When earthquake strikes a building is thrown mostly from side to side, and also up
and down along with the building foundation the building structure tends to stay at
rest, similar to a passenger standing on a bus that accelerates quickly. Building
damage is related to the characteristics of the building, and the duration and
severity of the ground shaking. Larger earthquakes tend to shake longer and harder
and therefore cause more damage to structures. For better understanding of all the
possibilities of earthquake risk reduction, it is important to classify them in terms
of the role that each one of them could play. Therefore, in the pre-earthquake
phase, preparedness, mitigation and prevention are concepts to work on. Post-
disaster, immediate rescue and relief measures including temporary sheltering soon
after an earthquake until about 3 months later and re-construction and re-
habilitation measures for a period of about six months to three years need to
follow.

Structural: No buildings can be made 100% safe against earthquake forces.

Instead buildings and infrastructures can be made earthquake resistant to certain
extent depending upon serviceability requirements. Earthquake resistant design of
buildings depends upon providing the building with strength, stiffness and inelastic
deformation capacity which are great enough to withstand a given level of
earthquake-generated force. This is generally accomplished through the selection
of an appropriate structural configuration and the careful detailing of structural
members, such as beams and columns, and the connections between them. There
are several different experimental techniques that can be used to test the response
of structures to verify their seismic performance, one of which is the use of an
earthquake shaking table (a shaking table, or simply shake table). This is a device
for shaking structural models or building components with a wide range of
simulated ground motions, including reproductions of recorded earthquakes time
histories.

Nonstructural: For getting the structural measures implemented with due

earnestness, honesty of purpose and sense of compulsion host of non-structural
measures in the form of policies guidelines and training have to be provided.

 Policy decisions about construction of structures with due approval from

specified authorities have to be taken. The building codes etc have to be suitably
formulated/amended and appropriately detailed and legal implications properly
stated.

 Guidelines both for earthquake-resistant constructions as well as for retrofitting

have to be formulated with specifications about site selection, foundation,
construction, materials and workmanship making involvement of specialist
architects, trained engineer and masons mandatory.
The guidelines have to be formulated for the concerned authorities about land use
planning, monitoring of construction work and controlling of settlements in hazard
prone areas to avoid fatalities and loss of property.

Seismic Retrofitting: Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing

structures to make them more resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil
failure due to earthquakes. With better understanding of seismic demand on
structures and with our recent experiences with large earthquakes near urban
centers, the need of seismic retrofitting is well acknowledged.

Pre-Disaster Preventive Measures:

Long-term measures:
 Re-framing buildings codes, guidelines, manuals and byelaws and their strict
implementation. Tougher legislation for highly seismic areas.
 Incorporating earthquake resistant features in all buildings at high-risk areas.
 Making all public utilities like water supply systems, communication networks,
electricity lines etc. earthquake-proof. Creating alternative arrangements to reduce
damages to infrastructure facilities.
 Constructing earthquake-resistant community buildings and buildings (used to
gather large groups during or after an earthquake) like schools, dharamshalas,
hospitals, prayer halls, etc., especially in seismic zones of moderate to higher
intensities.
 Supporting R&D in various aspects of disaster mitigation, preparedness and
prevention and post-disaster management.
 Evolving educational curricula in architecture and engineering institutions and
technical training in polytechnics and schools to include disaster related topics.

Medium term measures:

 Retrofitting of weak structures in highly seismic zones.
 Preparation of disaster related literature in local languages with dos and don'ts
for construction.
 Getting communities involved in the process of disaster mitigation through
education and awareness.
 Networking of local NGOs working in the area of disaster management.

Post-Disaster Preventive Measures:

 Maintenance of law and order, prevention of trespassing, looting etc.
 Evacuation of people.
 Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal.
 Medical care for the injured.
 Supply of food and drinking water
 Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds etc.
 Repairing lines of communication and information.
 Restoring transport routes.
 Quick assessment of destruction and demarcation of destroyed areas, according
to the grade of damage.
 Cordoning off severely damaged structures that are liable to collapse during
aftershocks.
Do’s and Don’ts:
Before an earthquake:
 Know well seismic zonation of our area, get your house evaluated for retrofitting
(if any) and ensure expert civil engineer’s help in making your house earthquake
resistant.
 Pick couple of safe meeting places that are easy to reach. Practice Drop, Cover
and Hold on in each safe place at least once a month.
 Prepare an emergency kit and place it in a safe place. It should contain all
necessary items for your protection and comfort, sufficient for at least three days.
 Till date prediction of earthquake is not possible. Don’t listen to or spread
rumors.
During an earthquake:
 Don’t panic; stay calm and keep others clam, take necessary action.
 Protect yourself, drop to the floor, take cover under a sturdy desk or table and
hold on it so that it doesn’t move away from you. Wait there until the shaking
stops.
 Stay away from glass windows, heavy furniture and anything that could fall, such
as lighting fixtures or other similar items.
 If you are on the upper floor of the building, don’t jump from windows or
balcony. Do not try and run out of a building, you may be hit by falling debris.
Stay inside till the shaking stops and check if it is safe to go outside.
 If you are outdoors, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees, electrical lines
and narrow streets. Drop to the ground and stay there until the shaking stop.
 If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a clear location, stop and stay there with your
seatbelt fastened until the shaking stops. Avoid bridges, flyovers or ramps that
might have been damaged by earthquake.
 If in coastal area, move to higher ground and check tsunami warning.
 If you are in a hilly areas be alert and move away from slopes in case of
landslides and falling rocks.
After an earthquake:
 Check up: radio, TV, online updates, social network for emergency information
and safety guidance.
 Watch out for fallen power lines or broken gas lines and stay out of damaged
areas.
 Don’t enter partially damaged buildings. Strong aftershocks can cause further
damage to the buildings and weak structures may collapse.
 Don’t use your two-wheeler/car to drive around the area of damage. Rescue and
relief operations need the road for mobility.
 Anticipate aftershocks, if shaking lasts longer than usual.
 Leave a message stating where you are going if you must evacuate your
residence.
 Evaluate damages and repair any deep cracks in ceiling, beam, column and
foundation with the advice of an expert.

3.1.2.2 Tsunami:

A tsunami is a series of waves with a long wavelength and period (time between
crests). Time between crests of the wave can vary from a few minutes to over an
hour.
• Tsunamis are often incorrectly called tidal waves; they have no relation to the
daily ocean tides.
• Tsunami (soo-NAH-mee) is a Japanese word meaning harbour wave.
• Tsunamis can occur at any time of day or night.

How are tsunamis generated (causes)?

Fig. 3.5 Tsunami Generation

• Tsunamis are generated by any large, impulsive displacement of the sea bed level
• Earthquakes generate tsunamis by vertical movement of the sea floor. If the sea
floor movement is horizontal, a tsunami is not generated. Earthquakes of M > 6.5
are critical for tsunami generation.
• Tsunamis are also triggered by landslides into or under the water surface, and can
be generated by volcanic activity and meteorite impacts.

Specific Measures for safety from Tsunamis/Storm Surges:

Structural measures:
1. Construction of cyclone shelters
2. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line
3. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban) along the
coast lines to provide necessary training and emergency communication during
crisis time (e.g. centers developed by M.S. Swaminathan Foundation in
Pondicherry)
4. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with
experts
5. Development of well designed break waters along the coast to provide necessary
cushion against cyclone and tsunami hazards
6. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning dissemination
centres
7. Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along coastline.
Permanent structures, if any in this zone with strict implementation of suggested
norms. Bio-Shield can be developed as coastal zone disaster management
sanctuary, which must have thick plantation and public spaces for public
awareness, dissemination and demonstration.
8. Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for
tsunami/cyclone resistance of all such buildings as well as appropriate planning,
designing, construction of new facilities like:
 Critical infrastructures e.g. power stations, warehouses, oil and other storage
tanks etc. located along the coastline.
 All other infrastructure facilities located in the coastal areas
 Public buildings and private houses
 All marine structures
 Construction and maintenance of national and state highways and other
coastal roads
Non-Structural Measures:
1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations
2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and risk analysis
upto taluka /village level. Development of Disaster Information Management
System (DIMS) in all the coastal states.
3. Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people and the
administration for facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone, ‘based on
cutting edge level’
4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly vulnerable areas
5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area by
various means including AIR, Doordarshan & Other Media.
6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning dissemination and
evacuation techniques
7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials
from fisheries department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in
connection with evacuation and post tsunami storm surge management activities.
Regular drills should be conducted to test the efficacy of the DM plans.
8. Studies focusing on the tsunami risk in India may be taken under NCRM
project.

Actions Required in Coastal Areas for Protection against Tsunami / cyclone

mitigation:
To achieve the satisfactory level of disaster mitigation in coastal areas, following
activities need to be carried out.

 Revision of Coastal Zone Regulation Act in wake of tsunami storm surge

hazards and strict implementation of the same.
 This responsibility may be given to respective state disaster management
authorities.
 special task force for this purpose may be constituted comprising the
representatives from various departments of the government and other
relevant organizations (e.g. Departments of Forestry, Fisheries, Soil
Conservation, Town and Country Planning Organization, Navy, Coast
Guard, IMD,ISRO/DOS etc.)
 A state of the art EOC may be established within the authority for
monitoring purpose.
  Initiating disaster watch (bay watch) safety measures along important
beaches in the country, providing round the clock monitoring, warning,
lifeguard facilities & creation of website for missing personal etc.
 Organization of sensitization workshops on cyclone/tsunami risk mitigation
in various states for senior bureaucrats / politicians for these states.
 Organizing drills on regular basis to check the viability of all plans and to
check the readiness of all concerned
 Training of professionals, policy planners and others involved with disaster
mitigation and management programmes in the states
 Retrofitting of important buildings:
I. Fire stations / police stations/ army structures/ hospitals
II. VIP residences / offices/ railways, airport, etc.
III. Schools/colleges
IV. Hazardous industries
V. Other critical structures (i.e. power stations, warehouses, oil and other
storage tanks etc)
 Designing incentives: Providing legislative back up to encourage people to
adopt cyclone, tsunami resistant features in their homes e.g. tax rebate in
terms of house tax and/or income tax.
 Developing public –private partnerships.

3.1.2.3 Landslides:

A landslide is any geologic process in which gravity causes rock, soil, artificial fill
or a combination of the three to move down a slope.
A landslide occurs when stability conditions of the slope is disturbed either by the
increase of stress imposed on the slope and / or by the decrease in strength of the
earth material building up the slope and it involves enmass downward movement
of earth material under the influence of gravity.
It is important to determine the causes of the landslides, as this will help in
formulating effective remedial measures. Determination of causative factors of
landslide in any given area will also help in demarcating the landslide prone zones.

Causes of Landslides:
Many of the landslides are natural phenomenon that occurs independently of any
human actions. There are also landslides that have been induced by the very
actions taken to make land suitable for some human purposes.
Landslides can be triggered due to external causes or internal causes.
External Causes:
1. Undercutting of the foot of the hill slope due to river erosion, quarrying,
excavation for canals and roads, etc.
2. External loads such as buildings, reservoirs, highway traffic, stockpiles of rocks,
accumulation of alluvium on slopes, etc.
3. Increase in unit weight of slope material due to increased water content.
4. Vibrations due to earthquakes, blasting, traffic, etc., causing increase in shearing
stresses.
5. Anthropic changes caused by deforestation
6. Undermining caused by tunneling, collapse of underground caverns, seepage
erosion, etc.

Internal Causes:
1. Increase in pore water pressure.
2. Reduction in cohesive strength caused by progressive lateralization.
3. Hair cracks due to alternate swelling and shrinkage from tension.
4. Presence of faults, joints, bedding planes, cleavage etc., and their orientation.
5. Freezing and thawing of rocks and soils.
6. Material properties such as compressive strength, shearing strength, etc., of earth
material.

Effect of Increase in Water Content:

There is clear correlation between landslide activity and storms, as the saturation of
earth material increases the pore water pressure. The addition of water to clay-
bearing materials decrease cohesion and the angle of internal friction as well,
leading to a decrease in shear strength (resisting force) and decrease in weight
(driving force).
Recurring landsides usually occurs in the years of high rainfall. Studies have
shown that single short periods of heavy rainfall can trigger small landslides such
as soil slips and debris flows, which affect only the near surface material. Deeper
slides in unconsolidated materials will be triggered only by the cumulative effects
of a series of storms. Bedrock slides appear to depend on the accumulation of
precipitation over a long period of time during which precipitation consistently
exceeds the average precipitation level for the region. A temporary rise in water
pressure due to heavy rainfall in the material lying on the bedrock on a slope is
sufficient to account for a decrease in strength, leading to debris slips and then
debris flows.
Increase in Slope Gradient:
Steeper the slope, greater is the chances of its failure. An increase in the steepness
or gradient, of a slope leads to an increase in shear stress on the potential rupture
plane and to a decrease in normal stress. Such increase in slope gradient may be
due to undermining of the foot of the slope by stream erosion or by excavation.
Exceptionally, the change of slope gradient may be produced by subsidence and
upliftment of the earth’s surface. When the slope is designed, a factor of safety has
to be computed and efforts are to be made to construct the slope in such a way as
to maintain a factor of safety greater than 1.

Earthquake Vibrations:
Vibration due to earthquakes not only triggers devastating landslides but also rock
falls and the like. Earthquake shocks, particularly those of shorter duration,
acceleration of ground motion, tilt of the slope, and modifies the system of forces
in a manner that driving forces get the upper hand. The vibrations generated by the
vehicular traffic create oscillation of different frequency in rocks and they change
the stress pattern, reducing shear strength and inducing mass movement.

Loosely deposited, fully saturated sand (void ratio larger than critical void ratio)
may be compacted by seismic tremors (contractant deformation) so that the
increased pore water pressure practically balances the effective stress and the soil
liquefies, causing grave damages to the construction, pipelines, etc.

Excess Load on the Slope:

The addition of weight on the slopes like dumping of debris or wastes and the
construction of dams, reservoirs, buildings, etc., increases the intensity of the
driving force and reduces the slope stability.

Changes in Vegetation Cover:

Vegetation helps in retaining the soil cover firmly. Trees with strong and long
roots increase the cohesive strength and effectively hold the formations in to
relatively weaker foundations increasing thereby the tensile and cohesive strength.
However, surface growths of bushy plants promote greater seepage, which may
lead to increasing pore pressure. In the absence of vegetal cover rainfall initiates a
set of process like rain slash erosion, sheet erosion and gully erosion, which
ultimately results in to slope failure. The degree of effectiveness of the vegetation
depends upon the condition of the soil, thickness of the overburden, slope, type of
vegetation and climate.
MITIGATIVE MEASURES:

Certain steps can be taken to reduce the risk or damage from the landslides:

▪ Demarcating landslide prone areas and accordingly plan the future development
activities.
▪ Reduce the slope angle.
▪ Place additional supporting material at the foot of the slope.
▪ Reduce the load on the slope (rock, soil or artificial structures).
▪ Stabilize near-surface soil by preferably fast growing plants with sturdy root
system
▪ Build thick retaining walls at the toe of the slope (high thin walls have been less
successful)
▪ Decrease the water content or pore pressure of the rock or soil;
 By covering the surface completely with an impermeable material and
diverting the surface runoff above the slope.
 By providing surface drainage
 By drilling boreholes (horizontal) to increase sub-surface drainage.

▪ Driving of vertical piles into the foot of a shallow slide to hold the sliding block
(on thin slides and on low angle slopes).
▪ Use of rock bolts to stabilize rocky slopes (on thin slide blocks of very coherent
rocks on low angle slopes) Post-Landslide Measures
▪ Clear the blocked drainage channels.
▪ Clear the debris, especially the huge rock boulders and tree trunks on the slopes.
▪ Stabilize the depositional area (characterized by loose soil, small rock boulders,
etc.) by fast growing trees/plants.
▪ Rehabilitate the affected people.

CONCLUSION: All the causes mentioned above may act in sequence or in

combination to trigger a landslide. It is important to determine the causes of
landslide in a given area, as this will help in understanding the mechanism of the
landslide and also the factors, which are influencing the slope failure. Once the
mechanism and the factors of landslide are determined, remedial measures can be
identified and adopted to minimize the environmental hazards due to landslides
3.1.2.4 Volcanic Eruptions:

A volcano is a vent or chimney which transfers molten rock known as magma from
depth to the Earth's surface. Magma erupting from a volcano is called lava and is
the material which builds up the cone surrounding the vent.

A volcano is active if it is erupting lava, releasing gas or generates seismic activity.

A volcano is dormant if it has not erupted for a long time, but could erupt again in
the future. Once a volcano has been dormant for more than 10,000 years, it is
termed extinct. The explosiveness of a volcanic eruption depends on how easily
magma can flow and the amount of gas trapped within the magma. Large amounts
of water and carbon dioxide are dissolved in magma causing it to behave in a
similar way to gas expanding in fizzy drinks, which forms bubbles and escapes
after opening. As magma rises quickly through the Earth's crust, gas bubbles form
and expand up to 1000 times their original size. Volcanoes can be different in
appearance with some featuring perfect cone shapes while others are deep
depressions filled with water. The form of a volcano provides a clue to the type
and size of its eruption which is controlled by the characteristics and composition
of magma. The size, style and frequency of eruptions can differ greatly, but all
these elements correlated to the shape of a volcano. Three common volcanoes are:

Shield volcano:
When magma is very hot and runny, gases can escape and eruptions are gentle
with considerable amounts of magma reaching the surface to form lava flows.
Shield volcanoes have a broad, flattened dome-like shape created by layers of
runny lava flowing over its surface and cooling. Because the lava flows easily, it
can move down gradual slopes over great distances from the volcanic vents. The
lava flows are sufficiently slow for humans to outrun or outwalk them. This type of
magma has a temperature between 800°C and 1200°C and is called basaltic
magma.

Composite volcano (Strato):

Also known as strato-volcanoes, these volcanoes are characterized by an explosive
eruption style. When magma is slightly cooler it is thick and sticky, or viscous,
which makes it harder for gas bubbles to expand and escape. The resulting pressure
causes the magma to foam and explode violently, blasting it into tiny pieces known
as volcanic ash. These eruptions create steep sided cones. They can also create lava
flows, hot ash clouds called pyroclastic flows and dangerous mudflows called
lahars. This type of magma has a temperature between 800°C and 1000°C and is
called andesitic magma.

Caldera volcano: These erupt so explosively that little material builds up near the
vent. Eruptions partly or entirely empty the underlying magma chamber which
leaves the region around the vent unsupported, causing it to sink or collapse under
its own weight. The resulting basin-shaped depression is roughly circular and is
usually several kilometres or more in diameter. The lava erupted from caldera
volcanoes is very viscous and generally the coolest with temperatures ranging from
650°C to 800°C and is called rhyolitic magma. Although caldera volcanoes are
rare, they are the most dangerous. Volcanic hazards from this type of eruption
include widespread ash fall, large pyroclastic surges and tsunami from caldera
collapse into oceans.

Volcanic hazards:
Volcanic hazards include explosions, lava flows, bombs or ballistics, ash or tephra,
pyroclastic flows, pyroclastic surges, mudflows or lahars, landslides, earthquakes,
ground deformation, tsunami, air shocks, lightning, poisonous gas and glacial
outburst flooding known as ‘jokulhlaups’. Each hazard has a different
consequence, although not all occur in all eruptions or in association with all
volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions are measured using a simple descriptive index
known as the Volcano Explosivity Index, which ranges from zero to eight. The
index combines the volume of material ejected with the height of an eruption
column and the duration of the eruption.

What Causes Volcanoes?

Volcanoes occur when material significantly warmer than its surroundings is
erupted onto the surface of a planet or moon from its interior. On Earth, the erupted
material can be liquid rock ("lava" when it's on the surface, "magma" when it's
underground), ash, cinders, and/or gas. There are three reasons why magma might
rise and cause eruptions onto Earth’s surface.
 Fig 3.6 Cross section of a Volcano

Volcanoes on Earth form from rising magma. Magma rises in three different ways.
Magma can rise when pieces of Earth's crust called tectonic plates slowly move
away from each other. The magma rises up to fill in the space. When this happens
underwater volcanoes can form.
Magma also rises when these tectonic plates move toward each other. When this
happens, part of Earth's crust can be forced deep into its interior. The high heat and
pressure cause the crust to melt and rise as magma.
A final way that magma rises is over hot spots. Hot spots are exactly what they
sound like-hot areas inside of Earth. These areas heat up magma. The magma
becomes less dense. When it is less dense it rises. Each of the reasons for rising
magma are a bit different, but each can form volcanoes.

Fig 3.7 Volcano Magma Rising

 How is the Volcano Formed?
The glowing magma of Earth’s mantle pushes up towards the surface,
searching for ways to escape through cracks in the Earth’s crust. It does not
always get through. If the crust is too dense, the magma stops and flows
back, until, with the gasses of the magma, it stays trapped. In time it
succeeds in escaping- then, it explodes like a cork from a bottle. A volcano
is ‘born’. This erupts magma into the air in the form of molten lava, gas,
ash and solid fragments.

How safe are Volcanoes?

Volcanoes are much safer than other natural events such as earthquakes,
floods, and hurricanes. However, volcanic eruptions can hurl hot rocks for
at least 30 km. Floods, airborne ash, or noxious fumes can spread 160 km
or more. If you live or work near a known volcano, active or dormant, be
ready to evacuate at a moment’s notice. Stay out of the area. A lateral blast
of a volcano can travel many km from the mountain. Trying to watch an
erupting volcano is a deadly idea.

Be prepared for these disasters that can be spawned by volcanoes:

earthquakes, flash floods, landslides and mudflows, thunderstorms,
tsunamis.
Evacuation: Although it may seem safe to stay at home or in the
office and wait out and eruption, doing so could be very dangerous.
The rock debris from a volcano can break windows and set buildings
on fire. Leave the area before the disaster begins.

Safety recommendations when visiting an active Volcano:

Pre-Planning:
Read about past eruptions: Volcanic eruptions can repeat themselves. What the
volcano has done in the past is what it is capable of doing in the future. While
volcanoes are inherently unpredictable, studies of past eruptions at a particular
volcano will give an indication of what is possible.
Read about past accidents: Analyze what went wrong in past accidents. The
Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network (Smithsonian Institute) has the best
monthly volcanic activity reports including accident reports.

Observe the volcano for at least 24 hours before getting close to the danger
zone:
Record the number of explosions per hour and know what the volcano is doing.
Sometimes a two to three day observation period is required before approaching
the summit area. Simply arriving at the volcano and climbing straight to the
summit is asking for trouble!

Know the current volcano warning level: How does this compare to the
"normal" state of volcanic activity. Volcano warning levels may be expressed in
different forms. Warning levels may mean different things on different volcanoes.
Learn what the current activity level means for the particular volcano you are
visiting. Remember, most volcanoes are not monitored by scientists so don't rely
on the authorities knowing the danger level. If there is no current eruption warning,
it does not necessarily mean the volcano is safe.

Be self sufficient: Do not expect other people to come into the danger zone and
rescue you. Don't expect people to risk their life to get you out of danger.

Take all precautions in Preventing an accident: Be very conservative in your

actions. Don't assume the volcano is safe if everything looks quiet. It may be the
"calm before the storm". A blocked vent can be quiet but the pressure can be
building to a large eruption.

Obey local Authorities: Don't enter any area on the volcano if the local authorities
prohibit it.

Precautions in the Danger Zone Wear the correct equipment at all times:
Wear a helmet and take a gas mask. If your helmet is not strapped on at all times it
is useless. Even effusive volcanoes like Kilauea may send dangerous projectiles
into the air from lava sea-water interactions and methane explosions. Unstable
ground can result in falls and head injuries.
Beware of many sources of danger on a volcano: Extreme heat, cold,
windstorms, heavy rain/ acid rainfall, lightning, altitude sickness, blizzards, getting
lost, volcanic activity, unstable terrain, dangerous plants, animals, and insects.
Volcanoes generate their own weather which can be severe and different from that
only a few km away. Localized wind storms may reach 150 km/hr without
warning. Cooling lava flows may still be deadly, when rain falling on the hot
surface may displace breathable air after it flashes to steam (people died from the
effect at Nyiragongo eruption in 2002).

Survey the ground on approach to the crater: Look for evidence of recent
ejecta. If you can see recent bombs on the ground then you can be hit. Limit your
time in that area. It is preferable you relocate to a safer zone. Some vents eject
projectiles in a particular direction. Don't stay in the firing line. Recent bombs are
black and stand out from the brown color of older lava.

Watch out for rock falls and avalanches when climbing the crater: Falling
rocks and unstable ground pose one of the most immediate hazards when climbing
a volcano. Don't kick rocks down the slope and try to limit your impact on the
unstable terrain. Watch out for other climbers above and below you. The crater
edge may be overhanging. Know where you are walking at all times. Be careful of
new ground slumping or cracking.

Beware of Hazardous Gases: Hazardous gases emitted by volcanoes include

carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, radon, hydrogen chloride,
hydrofluoric acid, and sulfuric acid. Gases can be toxic directly or displace oxygen
from the environment leading to anoxia. Never enter a depression near active
fumaroles, especially on a day without wind. Toxic gases can pool in the
depression leading to a dangerous situation.

Can you directly see the vent: If you can directly see the vent then the projectiles
have a direct line of sight to you. Rocks and lava can be ejected at 200 m per
second, sometimes even supersonic. You might be hit before you even hear the
explosion. Lateral projectiles are some of the most dangerous and can be lethal in
even a minor eruption. Beware of periods of low activity: Quiet periods at a
volcano may lure you into a false sense of security, and make you go closer than
you would otherwise. Beware of a quiet volcano. Limit your time in the danger
zone: The closer you go to the vent, the greater the risks. In zone 1 (see above)
even a minor eruption can be fatal. The risks multiply exponentially in this zone.
Spend only minutes in this zone, if you need to be there at all. There is really no
reason to be in zone 1 of a volcano. The scientists at Galeras made the fatal error of
staying 4 hours in this area! Remember you will be killed here if you stay long
enough. It is like sleeping on a freeway. Eventually something will hit you if you
stay long enough. Some scientists enter the danger zone immediately after a large
eruption because they believe the magma column may be lowered for a while.

Exit the danger zone well before sunset: Start the climb early and exit by
midday. If something goes wrong, then rescue will be almost impossible at night.
If you survive the accident, then you may die of exposure during the cold night at
altitude. Observe from a safe location: Stay up wind and away from the direction
of travel of projectiles. Have an evacuation plan with 2 exits. Mentally rehearse
your escape plan continuously while in the danger zone. Vent migration may make
a previously safe area off limits. Take time to study the volcano topography before
going too close.

If caught in an eruption near the crater take cover: You have a 50% chance of
survival if you are caught in an eruption. Hiding behind boulders or in a depression
will shield you from lateral projectiles. Watch for vertical projectiles.

Visibility may suddenly reduce to almost zero without warning: This can be
due to fog, cloud, rain, volcanic fumes or nightfall. Be sure you can deal with these
situations. Most people would have severe problems walking out of an area under
these conditions. A familiar location will become a nightmare under limited
visibility. If you find yourself in very low visibility then you may just have to sit
and wait until conditions improve.

Leave the area if it becomes dangerous: There is no point having a safety plan if
it is ignored. Two scientists were killed on Guagua Pichincha Volcano in 1993
when they remained in the crater despite getting a radio warning of possible
eruption 85 minutes earlier. Do not approach lava flowing through vegetation:
Underground explosions occur in front of lava flowing over burning vegetation.
Plants burn without oxygen as they are covered by lava, creating methane gas. The
gas fills underground lava tubes. When the methane ignites, the ground explodes
up to 100 meters in front of the advancing lava flow. Rocks and debris blast in all
directions. Look for warning signs of an eruption: Explosive activity may be
preceded by earthquakes or rock falls. You may only have 30 seconds warning but
this may give you time to take cover or evasive action.

Watch out for Heavy Rain: Heavy rain can cause flash flooding. A decision to
climb an erupting volcano should be based on a risk-benefit analysis. To see an
eruption is one of the greatest sights in nature but the challenge must be accepted
with common sense and knowledge of the risks.

Do’s & Dont’s:

Before a Volcano:
There is usually plenty of warning that a volcano is preparing to erupt. Scientists
monitor the Cascade range volcanoes as well as those in Hawaii and Alaska for
information to help predict volcanic events. Many communities close to volcanoes
now have volcano warning systems to alert citizens. But, if you live anywhere in
Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Utah, and possibly Wyoming and Nevada
you may be affected by an eruption in the Cascade range. Taking a few precautions
now won't cost much and are a good idea to do anyway:
Keep 3 extra air filters and oil filters on hand for your vehicle.
Keep 3 extra filters for your home heating/cooling system.
Keep a roll of plastic wrap and packing tape so you can wrap and protect
computers, electronics, and appliances from ash.
Store emergency food and water in your home.
Find out if your community has a warning system and know the warning signs.
Create an evacuation plan. It is best to head for high ground away from the
eruption to protect against flood danger.
Define an out-of-town contact for all family members to reach to check in.
 Besides your family emergency kit, have disposable breathing masks and
goggles for each family member.

During an Eruption:
Much like a tsunami, a volcano is usually a sudden, explosive disaster requiring
immediate evacuation to a safer location. The rock debris, pyroclastic flows, and
floods will make the area around the volcano dangerous to anyone that stays. The
lower valleys will be most dangerous.
Follow the directions of authorities.
Take your family emergency kit and evacuate.
Evacuate to an area upwind rather than downwind if possible.
When evacuating, if you are in a valley, or close to a stream, or crossing a
bridge, check upstream for mudflows. A mud flow is extremely heavy and can
destroy a bridge quickly. Take a different route or get to high ground quickly -
mudflows can be extremely fast too.

If you are unable to evacuate,

Seek shelter indoors if possible. Close all windows and doors to keep ash out.
Seal up drafts. Do what you can to keep ash out.
Seek higher ground - flash floods, mud, and poisonous gasses will accumulate in
low-lying areas.
Put on long pants, long-sleeved shirt, and hat.
Wear a dust mask or wetted handkerchief to help filter ash.
Leave your vehicles turned off until the eruption has ended and the dust can
settle. Ash destroyed many vehicle engines during the Mount eruption.

After an Eruption:
There is still danger after an eruption even if there is no flowing lava. The fact is,
it may take years for the environment to recover from the changes caused by the
volcano. And, ongoing tremors and further eruptions may make the area
uninhabitable for a long time. In the short-term, recovery and clean-up includes:
Stay inside and listen for volcano information on your radio or tv.
Minimize your movements and keep all windows and doors closed.
 Keep your skin covered with long pants, long-sleeved shirt and hat to avoid
irritation from ash.
If you have to go outside, where a dust mask and eye goggles.
Drive slowly and carefully with your lights on - the ash is slippery and stirring it
up will clog your engine. If you do any driving in the ash, there is a good chance
you will destroy your engine. Change your oil and air filters after 100 miles at the
most when driving through heavy dust.
Remove ash from your roof if you are concerned about its weight. More than 3
or 4 inches may be too much.
Spray your yard with your water hose to dampen the ash. This helps keep it from
blowing around more. Use as little water as possible.
Check with your neighbors to see what help they need.
Shake off and remove your outdoor clothes in your garage before going inside.
Use your vacuum to dust - dustrags will act like sandpaper rubbing the ash
around.
Check in with your emergency contact to let them know your status and plan.
Check with authorities on guidelines for ash removal and disposal.