Fluid Dynamics

Fluid Machineries
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
• Bernoulli’s equation is widely used to solve
energy-based problems of incompressible
fluid flow. Some of the fluid flow measuring
devices in which Bernoulli’s equation is used
are (i) venturi meter, (ii) orifice meter, (iii) pitot
tube, (iv) rotameter, (v) siphon, and (vi) sluice
gate.
Venturi Meter

• A venturi meter is commonly used to measure

fluid flow rate through a pipe. It is named after the
notable Italian physicist G. B. Venturi (1746 –
1822). In the venturi meter, a pressure difference
is created by reducing the cross-sectional area of
the flow passage, and the measurement of the
pressure difference enables the determination of
the flow rate through the pipe. A venturi meter
consists of the following three parts.
Venturi Meter
 Venturi Meter
i. A short converging part (at the inlet) with a cone angle of about 21° to
22°. The inlet of the venturi meter has the same diameter as that of
the pipe, i.e., d1. The length of the convergent cone is kept nearly
equal to 2.7 (d1 -d2 ), where (d2) is the throat diameter.
ii. Throat is a short cylindrical region of a constant area. The throat
diameter d2 may vary from 0.33d1 to 0.75d1, but commonly, it is taken
as 0.5d1.
iii. A divergent cone (or diffuser at exit) with a diverging angle of about 5°
to 7°. The divergent cone of the venturi meter is kept longer with a
gradual divergence (preferably 6°) to avoid flow separation. The
divergent part is not used for discharge measurement since separation
of flow may take place in this portion.
 Venturi Meter

We get the expression of Bernoulli’s equation at

sections 1 and 2 of the horizontal venturi meter.
 Venturi Meter

The term ( p1 − p2 )/(ρg) in expression (ii) is the

difference in pressure heads between the two
sections, which is called venturi head and it is
denoted by h. Thus

From continuity equation between sections 1 and 2,

we get:
 Venturi Meter

Substituting the value of V1 in expression (iii), we

get:
 Venturi Meter
If Qth is the theoretical discharge through the pipe, then we get the following
expression.

the expression for actual discharge Qa is given by

Here, Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the venturi meter which is defined as the
ratio of actual discharge to the theoretical discharge. Its value is always less than 1
(lies between 0.96 and 0.98) and in general for fluids of low viscosity, it is taken as
0.98. It can also be calculated from the following relation.

Here, hf is the friction head loss between the inlet and the throat of the venturi meter.
 Venturi Meter
• Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer
Case I: The differential manometer contains heavier liquid
(say mercury) than the liquid flowing through the pipe.
Thus, the value of h is given below.

Here, y is the difference of the mercury column (heavier liquid

column) in U-tube, Sm is the specific gravity of mercury
(heavier liquid) and S is the specific gravity of the liquid
flowing through the pipe.
 Venturi Meter
• Value of ‘h’ given by differential U-tube manometer
Case II: The differential manometer contains lighter
liquid than the liquid flowing through the pipe. Thus, the
value of h is given below.

Here, y is the difference of the lighter liquid column in U-

tube, Sl is the specific gravity of lighter liquid and S is the
specific gravity of the liquid flowing through the pipe.
 Venturi Meter
Inclined venturi meter The Equation can also be used for
calculating the discharge through inclined or vertical venturi meter. A
venturi meter fitted to an inclined pipe. The value of h for inclined
venturi meter in the differential manometer contains a liquid which is
heavier than the liquid flowing through the pipe and it is given below.

The value of h for inclined venturi meter in which the differential

manometer contains a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing
through the pipe is given below.
 Sample Problems
1. A venturimeter has a diameter of 0.16 m at the
enlarged end and 0.08 m diameter at the throat. It is
fitted in a horizontal pipeline of diameter 0.16 m which
carries an oil (specific gravity = 0.85). If the coefficient of
discharge of the venturimeter is 0.98 and the difference
of pressure head between the enlarged end and the
throat recorded by a U-tube is 0.18 mHg, then
determine the discharge through the pipe. Take specific
gravity of mercury as 13.6.
 Sample Problems
3. A venturimeter with its axis vertical is used to measure the
flow rate of petrol (specific gravity = 0.8) in a vertical pipeline.
The inlet and throat diameters of venturimeter are 0.15 m and
0.075 m, respectively. The throat is 0.25 m above the inlet
and its coefficient of discharge is 0.97. If the rate of flow
through the venturimeter in the upward direction is 0.03 m3/s,
then determine the pressure difference between the inlet and
the throat.

.
 Sample Problems
4. A venturimeter inclined at 60° to the vertical is fitted to a 300 mm
diameter pipe and its 150 mm diameter throat is 1.3 m from the
entrance along its length. The gasoline (specific gravity = 0.78)
flows upwards at a rate of 230 litres per second. Determine (i) the
discharge coefficient of venturimeter if the pressure gauges fitted at
the entrance and throat indicate pressures of 150 kPa and 80 kPa,
respectively and (ii) if pressure gauges fitted at the entrance and
throat of the meter are replaced by a U-tube mercury manometer,
then determine the reading in differential mercury column.
Take specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
.
 Sample Problems
4.
 Orificemeter
An orificemeter (or orifice plate) is another simple
device which is commonly used for measuring the
discharge of a fluid through a pipe. The cost of this
device is inexpensive and it requires less space
than venturimeter. It also works on the same
principle as that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat
thin circular plate with a circular sharp edged hole
called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
Orificemeter
Generally, the diameter of the orifice is kept 0.5 times the
diameter of the pipe, but it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times
the diameter of the pipe. A differential manometer is
connected at section 1–1 which is at a distance of 1.5 to 2
times the diameter of the pipe on upstream from the orifice
plate and at section 2–2 which is at a distance of about half
the diameter of the orifice on the downstream from the
orifice plate as shown in Figure
 Orificemeter
Expression for discharge through orificemeter Let a1 be
the area, V1 be the velocity of fluid and p1 be the pressure at
section 1–1 (inlet section), and a2, V2 and p2 be the
corresponding values at section 2–2 (i.e., at vena contracta
which is the least cross section of the converging jet) and a0
be the area of the orifice.

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections 1–1 and 2–2 of

the orificemeter as shown in Figure 7.11, we get the following
expression.
Orificemeter
Orificemeter
Orificemeter
Orificemeter
 Example Problems
1. An orificemeter of diameter 0.1 m in a 0.2 m
diameter pipe carrying oil (specific gravity = 0.78)
has a discharge coefficient equal to 0.67. If the
pressure difference on the two sides of the orifice
plate measured by a mercury oil differential
manometer is 0.6 mHg, determine the discharge
through the pipe. Take the specific gravity of
mercury as 13.6.
Example Problems
 Example Problems
2. The water flows at the rate of 15 liters per
second through a 0.15 m diameter orifice fitted in a
0.3 m diameter pipe. If the coefficient of discharge is
0.65, then determine the difference in pressure
head between the upstream section and the vena
contracta section.
Example Problems
 Pitot Tube
A pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the
velocity of flow at any point in a channel or pipe. It is
named in honor of its inventor Henri de Pitot (1695–
1771), a French engineer. In its simplest form, the pitot
tube consists of a glass tube bent at a right angle and
open at both ends. The lower limb known as the body is
inserted in the direction of flow, whereas the other end
(vertical end) known as the stem remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in figure. The liquid enters the
tube and rises in the vertical end to a height h.
Pitot Tube
 Pitot Tube
A pitot tube works on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a
point is reduced to zero, then the pressure at that point increases
due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure energy. Thus,
by measuring the increase in pressure energy at this point,
the velocity can be measured.
The pressure in the flow far away from the tube is called static
pressure which can be measured by fitting a piezometer tube in the
static orifice (or a pressure tap). The fluid velocity at the tip of the
tube becomes zero and that point is called the stagnation point,
where the velocity head is converted into pressure head. Therefore,
the rise of liquid in the tube represents the sum of the static head
and the velocity head. The pressure at the stagnation point is known
as stagnation pressure.
 Pitot Tube
Consider two points 1 and 2 at the same level in such a
way that point 1 is far away from the tube and point 2 is
just at the inlet of the pitot tube (i.e., at the stagnation
point). Applying Bernoulli’s equation at points 1 and 2,
we get:

.
 Pitot Tube

• From expression (i), we get:

• Equation (7.22) gives the value of theoretical

velocity and the actual velocity is given below.
 Pitot Tube
The velocity of flow can be measured by inserting a pitot tube as
shown in Figure 7.13(a). The dynamic pressure head h can be
measured by connecting a differential mercury manometer
between the pitot tube and the static orifice for measuring the
static pressure as shown in Figure 7.13(a). The following relation
is used to determine the velocity head.
 Example Problem
1. A pitot tube connected to the limbs of a U-tube mercury
manometer is placed in front of the submarine moving
horizontally in the sea whose axis lies below the water surface. If
the difference in mercury level is observed to be 165 mm and
specific gravity of sea water is 1.023, then find the speed of
submarine. Take specific gravity of mercury as 13.6 and
coefficient of the tube as unity.
Example Problem
 Example Problem
2. One of the orifices of a pitot-static probe placed in the center
of a 0.2 m pipeline points upstream and the other perpendicular
to it. When the water flow rate through the pipe is 20 liters per
second, the pressure difference between the orifices is 3.5 cm of
water. If the mean velocity in the pipe is 0.82 times the central
velocity, then determine the coefficient of the probe.
Example Problem
 Example Problem
3. A pitot tube placed at the center of the pipe of 0.35 m diameter
pipe indicates stagnation pressure and static vacuum pressure
as 10 kPa and 0.11 mHg, respectively. If the coefficient of
velocity is 0.975 and the mean velocity of flow is 0.82 times the
velocity at the center of the pipe, then find the discharge through
the pipe. Take the specific gravity of mercury as 13.6.
Example Problem
 FREE LIQUID JET
A jet of liquid coming out from a nozzle in the atmosphere is
called a free liquid jet. Under the action of gravity, the liquid jet
travels a parabolic path known as trajectory. Consider a jet
coming out from a nozzle at point A with a velocity V which
makes an angle α with the horizontal as shown in Figure.
 FREE LIQUID JET
The horizontal and vertical components of the velocity are Vcosα
and Vsinα, respectively. Let t be the time taken by a liquid
particle to reach from point A to point P. The horizontal distance
(x) and vertical distance (y) traveled by the liquid particle is
respectively expressed below.
 FREE LIQUID JET
It can be observed from the above expressions that the
horizontal component of velocity remains constant but the
vertical component is affected by the gravity.

Equation (7.29) is the equation of a parabola and thus, the path

travelled by the free liquid jet is parabolic.
 FREE LIQUID JET
1. Maximum height attained by the jet:
To find the maximum height attained by the jet, we use the following
relation.

As the particle moves upwards and gravity acts downwards,

negative sign is used in the above equation. Here V1 =Initial vertical
component=Vsinα and V2 =0 at the highest point. Thus
0−(Vsinα)2=−2gh
 FREE LIQUID JET
2. Time of flight: It is the time taken by the fluid particle in
reaching from point A to point B.
FREE LIQUID JET
FREE LIQUID JET

3. Horizontal range of the jet: It is the total horizontal

distance travelled by the fluid particle which is denoted by
R (Figure 7.17). It is given by the product of horizontal
velocity component and the time taken by the particle in
reaching from A to B.
Thus

‘
FREE LIQUID JET
 Example Problem

1. A liquid jet of 30 mm diameter comes out of a

nozzle into atmosphere with a velocity of 4.5 m/s at
an angle 60° above the horizontal. Determine (i)
the equation of trajectory, (ii) maximum height
attained by the jet, (iii) horizontal range of the jet
and (iv) maximum range. Neglect air friction and
assume the jet continuous throughout the trajectory.
Example Problem
 Example Problem

2. A jet of water produced from a nozzle with a

velocity of 16 m/s is projected to the top of a 7 m
high wall. If the nozzle is at a distance of 13 m from
the wall, then determine its angle of projection with
the horizontal. .
Example Problem
 Example Problem

3. A jet of water coming out from a 25 mm diameter

nozzle strikes the ground at a horizontal distance of
4.5 m from the nozzle. The nozzle is positioned at a
vertical height of 0.6 m from the ground level. If the
nozzle is inclined at an angle of 30° with the
ground, then determine the discharge from the
nozzle.
Example Problem
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM
EQUATION
The impulse-momentum equation is based on
Newton’s second law of motion according to which the
rate of change of momentum is equal to the applied
force and it takes place in the direction of force.
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity of the
body and it represents the energy of motion stored in a
moving body.
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM
EQUATION
Let m be the mass of fluid, V be the velocity of
fluid, F be the force acting on the fluid and a =(dV /dt)
be the acceleration in the direction of force.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, we
get:

Since m is a constant, it can be taken inside the

differential.

.
 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM
EQUATION
Equation (7.36) is known as impulse-momentum
principle which can be written as follows.

Equation (7.37) is known as impulse-momentum equation

in which F.dt is the impulse and d(mV) is the resulting
change in momentum in the direction of force. It is a very
useful principle for solving several fluid flow problems, such
as (i) force on a pipe bend, (ii) force exerted by a fluid jet
striking fixed or moving vanes (or blades), (iii) force on
propeller vanes and (iv) jet propulsion.
.
 Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend

Consider a steady flow through a diverging stream

tube in a pipe lying in the x− y plane as shown in
Figure 7.20(a).
Assume the flow as uniform and normal to the inlet
and outlet areas.
Let ρ1, A1 and V1 be the density, area and
velocity respectively at the entrance and ρ2 , A2 and
V2 be the corresponding values at the exit. Let α1
and α2 be the inclinations with horizontal to the
centerlines of the pipe and p1 and p2 be the static
pressures at the entrance and exit, respectively. .
 Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend

Let the mass of fluid in the region ABDC moves to

A’B’D’C’ in a short time dt. Let AA’ = ds1 = V1dt and
CC’ = ds2 = V2dt. The area A’B’DC is common to both
the regions and thus, it will not experience any
momentum change. Therefore, the fluid masses in
the section ABB’A’ and CDD’C’ are to be considered.
According to the principle of mass conservation, we
get the following relation.
Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend
Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend
Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend
Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend
Impulse-Momentum Equation for Steady
Flow and Force on a Pipe Bend
 Example Problems

1. A 0.3 m diameter pipe carries water under a head

of 20.6 m with a velocity of 4 m/s. If the axis of the
pipe turns through 45°, then find the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force on the bend.
Example Problems
Example Problems
 Example Problems

2. In a system, 260 liters per second of oil of specific

gravity 0.9 is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of
0.3 m. If the pipe is bent by 135° and the pressure of
oil flowing in the pipe is 400 kPa, then find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the
bend.
Example Problems
Example Problems
 Example Problems
3. A right angled vertical reducing bend with inlet diameter of 0.3
m and exit diameter of 0.2 m is fitted to a pipe which carries 0.4
m3/s of water. The volume of the bend is 0.1 m3 and the
pressure at its inlet is 125 kPa. Find the magnitude and direction
of force on the bend if water enters the bend at 45° to the
horizontal level. Neglect friction and take both inlet and outlet at
the same horizontal level.
Example Problems
Example Problems
Example Problems
Example Problems
 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
(ANGULAR MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE)

The moment of momentum equation is based on the

principle of moment of momentum which states that
the resulting torque (T) acting on a rotating fluid is
equal to the rate of change of moment of momentum.
The moment of the force is called the torque and the
moment of momentum is called the angular
momentum, where the moments are taken about the
axis of rotation.
 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
(ANGULAR MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE)

Let Q be the rate of fluid flow, ρ be the density of the

fluid, m= ρQ be the mass of fluid per unit time, V1 be
the velocity of fluid flow at section 1 (i.e., inlet), Vw1 is
the component of velocity V1 in tangential direction at
section 1 and r1 be the radius of curvature at section
1. V2, Vw2 and r2 be the corresponding values at
section 2 (i.e., exit).
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
(ANGULAR MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE)
 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION
(ANGULAR MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE)
According to the moment of momentum principle, we get:

Resultant torque = Rate of change of angular momentum

In a turbine, the fluid exerts torque on the runner, thus Equation

(7.44) becomes,

Equation (7.44) is known as moment of momentum equation. It is

used to find the torque exerted by water on the sprinklers and to
analyze the flow problems in turbomachines, such as turbines and
centrifugal pumps
 Example Problems

1. A lawn sprinkler has two similar nozzles of diameter 10 mm each

fitted at the ends of rotating arms. One of the nozzles discharges
water in vertically upwards direction while the other downwards.
The nozzles are at a radial distance of 0.4 m and 0.3 m from the
center of the rotor. If the velocity of flow from each nozzle is 8 m/s,
then determine (i) the torque required to hold the arm stationary
and (ii) the speed of rotation of the arm neglecting friction.
Example Problems
Example Problems
 Example Problems

2. A lawn sprinkler has two similar nozzles of diameter 5 mm each

fitted at the ends of rotating arms. The nozzles are at a radial
distance of 0.3 m and 0.2 m from the center of the rotor which is fed
with 0.15 liter of water per second. Both the nozzles have equal
discharge of water in vertically downwards direction. Determine (i)
the torque required to hold the arm stationary and (ii) the speed of
rotation of the arm neglecting friction.
Example Problems
Example Problems
 Exercises
1. The difference of mercury level in a differential U-tube manometer
connected to the pitot tube is 10 cm. If the coefficient of tube is 0.975
and the specific gravity of oil is 0.82, then find the velocity of flow.
2. Determine the discharge of oil for the following data given for an
orificemeter, such as diameter of the pipe = 0.25 m, diameter of the
orifice = 0.125 m, specific gravity of oil= 0.8, reading of mercury
differential manometer = 0.5 m and coefficient of discharge of the
meter = 0.65.
3. A jet of water comes out from a 50 mm diameter nozzle and strikes
the ground at a horizontal distance of 4 m from the nozzle. The nozzle
is positioned at a vertical height of 1.2 m from the ground level. If the
nozzle is inclined at an angle of 45° with the ground, then determine
the discharge from the nozzle.
 Exercises
4. An orifice of diameter 0.3 m is fitted in a pipeline of 0.6 m
diameter carrying oil (specific gravity = 0.9). If the manometer
indicates 400 mmHg and coefficient of discharge as 0.65, then
determine the oil flow rate and the velocity through the pipe.
5. If a nozzle of diameter 25 mm is fitted in a water pipe of
diameter 50 mm, then calculate the force exerted by the nozzle
on the water flowing through the pipe at the rate of 1250 liters per
minute.
6. with a water jet, issued from a nozzle 3 cm in diameter and
discharging 1800 kg per minute. If the nozzle height is 2 m above
the ground, then determine the maximum horizontal distance
from the building where the fireman can stand and still the water
jet reaches the window. Also determine the amount of water
falling on the window.
 Exercises
7. A lawn sprinkler has two similar nozzles of diameter 3.5 mm each fitted
at the ends of rotating arms. The nozzles are at a radial distance of 0.25 m
and 0.15 m from the center of the rotor which is fed with 0.2 liters of water
per second. Both the nozzles have equal discharge of water in vertically
downward direction. Determine (i) the torque required to hold the arm
stationary and (ii) the speed of rotation of the arm neglecting friction.
8. A horizontal water pipe fitted with a 90° bend of 0.3 m diameter gives
discharges 320 liters per second. If the pressure at the inlet and exit of the
bend are 245 kPa and 235 kPa, respectively, then determine the resultant
force exerted on the bend.
9. A 0.4 m diameter pipe carries water under a head of 20 m with a
velocity of 4 m/s. If the axis of the pipe turns through 45°, then determine
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force on the bend.
 Exercises
10. A lawn sprinkler has two similar nozzles of diameter 7.5 mm
each fitted at the ends of rotating arms. One of the nozzles
discharges water in vertically upwards direction while the other
downwards. The nozzles are at a radial distance of 0.2 m and
0.15 m from the center of the rotor. If the velocity of flow from
each nozzle is 12 m/s, then determine (i) the torque required to
hold the arm stationary and (ii) the speed of rotation of the
arm neglecting friction.