Functions, Limits &

Continuity
Math for Electronics 1
Andrew Thangaraj
Electrical Engineering, IIT Madras
Power/exponentials:
a for a, b ∈ R
b
ab for real a, integer b
ab = a ⋅ ab−1 = a ⋅ a ⋯ a

multiply b times

Properties Examples
a0 =1 40 =1
ab+c = ab ⋅ ac a10+9 = a10 ⋅ a9
abc = (ab )c = (ac )b a32 = (a2 )16 = (a4 )8 = (a8 )4 = (a16 )2
(ab)c = ac ⋅ bc 129 = 69 ⋅ 29 = 49 ⋅ 39
−b 1 −3 1
a = b a = 3
a a
ab for real a, rational b = r/s

ab = ar/s = (a1/s )r

1 Choose u1
= (1 − ) un + s−1
a
a1/s = lim un un+1
n→∞ s sun suitably

Properties Examples
a0 =1 73 = 73/2
ab+c
=a ⋅ab c ar/s = lim urn
n→∞ 3 64 4
= 4/3
abc = (ab )c = (ac )b 81 3
(ab)c = ac ⋅ bc 4 32 25/4
=
−b 1 625 5
a = b
a
ab for real a, b
ab : can be computed
b: integers or rationals
Properties: used for manipulation

b: irrational Examples: 2 = 1.414 ⋯, π = 3.141 ⋯ etc.

Defined as limit of sequence of rationals

Properties
b: real a0 =1
b = lim un
n→∞
ab = lim aun ab+c = ab ⋅ ac
n→∞
abc = (ab )c = (ac )b
un : rational
(ab)c = ac ⋅ bc
1
a−b = b
a
Examples a1 = 2, an+1 = an /2 + 1/an , lim an = 2
n→∞

2 an 2
2 = lim 2 2 = lim aann
n→∞ n→∞
= 2.665 ⋯ = 1.632 ⋯

1 1 1 (−1)n
bn = 4(1 − 3
+ 5
− 7
+⋯+ 2n−1
), lim bn =π
n→∞

2π = lim 2bn π π = lim bbnn

n→∞ n→∞
= 8.824 ⋯ = 36.462 ⋯
Recall Problem 1: Function evaluation

How to evaluate functions like f (x) = x1/2 or f (x) = x2/3 or f (x) = 10x for all real x?

eg: how to find 2? how to find 10 2

?

Solved! Limit of sequence of rationals.

Functions: x and a
a x
Caution: Computing a1/s

For computing s-th root, we assume that a is positive, and

we compute the unique positive s-th root.

Negative s-th roots exist in some cases

when s is even
For negative a
real s-th roots exist in some cases
when s is odd
General case of computing s-th root
Wait for complex numbers!
Basic tasks: Compute, Plot, Invert

f (x) = xa f (x) = ax

Compute
Given x, find f (x) Limit of sequence of rationals

Plot
Plot f (x) versus x

Invert
Given y0 , find x0 x0 = y01/a
s.t. y0 = f (x0 )
Plot xa versus x for a > 0, x > 0

Passes through (0, 0) and (1, 1) for all a

For large x, eventually becomes large
and unbounded for all a
Fix x in the interval 0 < x < 1
xa0 > xa1 for a0 < a1
Fix x in the interval x > 1
xa0 > xa1 for a0 > a1
Plot xa versus x for a = 1, 2, …, all x

Passes through (0, 0) and (1, 1)

For large positive x, goes to ∞
a even
Passes through (−1, 1)
For large negative x, goes to ∞
Even symmetry: (−x)a = xa
a odd
Passes through (−1, −1)
For large negative x, goes to −∞
Odd symmetry: (−x)a = −xa
Plot xa versus x for a = −1, −2, …, all x

Passes through (1, 1)

For large x, goes to 0
a even
Passes through (−1, 1)
For x close to zero, goes to ∞
Even symmetry
a odd
Passes through (−1, −1)
For positive x close to 0, goes to ∞
For negative x close to 0, goes to −∞
Odd symmetry
Plot ax versus x, a > 1

Passes through (0, 1)

For large positive x, goes to ∞
For large negative x, goes to 0
x>0
ax > 1
ax0 > ax1 for a0 > a1
x<0
ax < 1
ax0 < ax1 for a0 > a1
Plot ax versus x, 0 < a < 1

Passes through (0, 1)

For large positive x, goes to 0
For large negative x, goes to ∞
x<0
ax > 1
ax0 < ax1 for a0 > a1
x>0
ax < 1
ax0 > ax1 for a0 > a1
Symmetry
a−x = (1/a)x
Basic tasks: Compute, Plot, Invert

f (x) = xa f (x) = ax

Compute
Given x, find f (x) Limit of sequence of rationals

Plot
Plot f (x) versus x

Invert
Given y0 , find x0 x0 = y01/a
s.t. y0 = f (x0 )
Limit of a function
Recall Problem 2: Function plotting & continuity

How to join the points

f (x) to make a curve?

Why is a smooth curve

justified?

What exactly is
"smooth"?
x

Limit of a function is an important

ingredient in defining "smoothness".
Sequence, limit and function

f (x) g(x)
(x0 , f (x0 ))
f (x0 ) an for large n g(x0 )

f (an ) for large n

g(an ) for large n
x0 x x0 x
Sequence tending to x0
"Smooth" at x0 "Jump" at x0
an : a1 , a2 , a3 , … lim an = x0
n→∞

Behaviour of the sequence f (an ) is important to capture "smoothness"

Limit of a function and continuity

Definition
A function f is said to have a limit L at a point x0 if the following holds:
For every sequence {an } with limit x0 , i.e. lim an = x0 , we have that the
n→∞
sequence {f (an )} has limit L, i.e. lim f (an ) = L.
n→∞

Notation lim f (x) = L denotes that f has limit L at x0

x→x0

Definition
A function f is said to be continuous at x0 if lim f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0
Illustration: Continuous vs Jump discontinuous
"Smooth" at x0 "Jump" at x0
f (x) g(x)

f (x0 ) g0
Jump
g1 discontinuity

x0 x x0 x

Sequence an → x0 Sequence an = x0 + 1
n → x0 Sequence bn = x0 − 1
n → x0
Sequence f (an ) → f (x0 ) Sequence g(an ) → g0 Sequence g(bn ) → g1

lim f (x) = f (x0 ) lim g(x) does not exist

x→x0 x→x0

f : Continuous at x0 g : Discontinuous at x0
Illustrations: Discontinuities of different types

1 2x
sign(x)
x x2 − 1

1
⌊x⌋ 0, x < 0
(x − 1)2
2x , x > 0
Illustration: Removable discontinuity

⎧
⎪
2 −1
x
At x = 0, what should f be?
f (x) = ⎨ x
x
=0
⎩
⎪ ? Can f be continuous at 0?
x=0

f (x) versus x We will show later that

x f (x)
−0.1 0.669 ⋯ lim f (x) = ln 2 = 0.693 ⋯
x→0
−0.01 0.690 ⋯
Definition
−0.001 0.6929 ⋯
Removable discontinuity
0.001 0.693 ⋯ if continuity is obtained
0.01 0.695 ⋯ by assigning a value for f

Looks continuous at 0? 0.1 0.717 ⋯

Identifying discontinuities

From the From the

graph expression

Jumps at specific locations Piecewise definitions - look for jumps

Going unbounded at some location Denominator going to 0

Continuity depends on limits of functions.

How to compute limits of functions?
Computing limits of functions
& determining continuity
Constant and identity functions

f (x) = c f (x) = x

Suppose a1 , a2 , … converges to x0 . Suppose a1 , a2 , … converges to x0 .

f (a1 ) = c, f (a2 ) = c, … converges to c. f (a1 ) = a1 , f (a2 ) = a2 , … converges to x0 .

lim f (x) = c = f (x0 ) lim f (x) = x0 = f (x0 )

x→x0 x→x0

Both functions have limits at all points on the real line.

Both functions are continuous at all points on the real line.

From known to new: Rules for combining limits of functions

Known lim cf (x) = c lim f (x)

Scaling, x→x0 x→x0

lim c = c lim x = x0 Addition, lim f (x) + g(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
Subtraction lim f (x) − g(x) = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
Suppose lim f (x)
x→x0
lim f (x)g(x) = ( lim f (x))( lim g(x))
and lim g(x) exist x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
x→x0
Multiplication, lim (f (x))k = ( lim f (x))k , k = 1, 2, …
and are finite.
Powers,
x→x0 x→x0
lim f (x)
Division f (x) x→x0
lim = if lim g(x) 
=0
x→x0 g(x) lim g(x) x→x0
x→x0

If f , g continuous at x0 , the following are continuous at x0 :

cf (x), f (x) ± g(x), f (x)g(x), f (x)k (k = 1, 2, …), f (x)/g(x) (if g(x0 ) 
= 0)
Polynomial functions
2
Assume pm 
= 0.
p(x) = p0 + p1 x + p2 x + ⋯ + pm x m
Degree m

Using the combining rules and the known

limits for constant/identity functions,

lim p(x) = p(x0 ) for all x0

x→x0

Polynomials are continuous at all points on the real line.

Rational functions
p0 + p1 x + p2 x2 + ⋯ + pm xm
f (x) =
q0 + q1 x + q2 x2 + ⋯ + qn xn Assume pm , qn 
=0
Numerator degree m
Numerator p(x) = p0 + p1 x + p2 x2 + ⋯ + pm xm Denominator degree n

Denominator q(x) = q0 + q1 x + q2 x2 + ⋯ + qn xn

Using the combining rules and the known

limits for constant/identity functions,

lim f (x) = f (x0 ) if q(x0 ) 

=0
x→x0

Rationals are continuous at all points where denominator is nonzero.

Examples
Find the limits (from Thomas' Calculus, 14th edition). Comment on continuity.

lim 4x(3x + 4)2 t2 + 4t + 3

x→1/2 lim
t→2 t2 − 9

lim x3 − 2x2 + 4x + 8 x+4

lim
x→−2 x→3 x2 + 7x + 12

x−5 t2 + 3t + 2
lim lim
x→5 x2 − 25 t→−1 t2 − t − 2

1 1
x−1
+ x+1 u4 − 81
lim lim 3
x→0 x u→3 u − 27
Limits and continuity of
powers/exponentials
Limits of abn and ban when {an } converges and b is
real
Theorem
Suppose the sequence a1 , a2 , … converges to L. Then, for a real number b,
1. the sequence ab1 , ab2 , … converges to Lb (if Lb is well-defined).
2. the sequence ba1 , ba2 , … converges to bL (if bL is well-defined).

Examples
1 2n2 − 5 3 n
lim lim lim
n→∞ n1/10 n→∞ 3n + 5 n→∞ 3n

n1/3
1/n 2 n
+2
lim 2 lim (3 + 1/n)(12 − 1/n) lim
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞ 2n2/3
Limits of functions xa and ax

Suppose a1 , a2 , … converges to x0 . Suppose a1 , a2 , … converges to x0 .

aa1 , aa2 , … converges to xa0 . aa1 , aa2 , … converges to ax0 .

lim xa = xa0 lim ax = ax0

x→x0 x→x0

Both functions have limits at all points, where they are

well-defined, on the real line.

Both functions are continuous at all points, where they are

well-defined and finite, on the real line.
Examples
Find the limits (from Thomas' Calculus, 14th edition). Comment on continuity.

lim x2 − 10 6h + 10 − 5
x→4 lim
h→1 h

x−1 x2 + 8 − 3
lim lim
x→1 x+3−2 x→−1 x+1

x2/3 −3 2 x
+5
lim 2x 2
x→8 lim
x→1 22x + 2x + 1

x
9 3 −9 2x − 2
lim lim x
x→1 2 2 − 2
x
x→9
3 3 −3
One-sided limits and
Limits at infinity
Limit of a function from left and from right

Definition (limit from left) Definition (limit from right)

For every sequence {an } with an ≤ x0 For every sequence {an } with an ≥ x0
and an → x0 , the sequence f (an ) → L. and an → x0 , the sequence f (an ) → L.

lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = L

x→x0 − x→x0 +

f has left-sided limit L at x0 f has right-sided limit L at x0

f : left-continuous at x0 if lim f (x)=f (x0 ) f : right-continuous at x0 if lim f (x)=f (x0 )

x→x0 − x→x0 +

f : continuous at x0 if both left and right continuous.

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (x0 )
x→x0 + x→x0 −
Examples

1 2x
sign(x)
x x2 − 1

1
⌊x⌋ 0, x < 0
(x − 1)2
2x , x > 0
Examples
(from Thomas' Calculus, 14th edition)
⎧
⎪3 − x x<2
f (x) = ⎨2
f (x) = { x
3−x x<2 x=2
+1 x>2 ⎪x
⎩
2 2 x>2

Find lim f (x), lim f (x). Does lim f (x) exist?

x→2− x→2+ x→2

⌊x⌋
f (x) = (x + 3) ∣x+2∣
x+2
, a = −2 f (x) = x
, a=3

2x(x−1)
f (x) = ∣x−1∣ , a=1 f (x) = x − ⌊x⌋, a = 4

Find lim f (x), lim f (x). Does lim f (x) exist?

x→a− x→a+ x→a
Asymptotics: Limit of a function at infinity

Definition (limit at ∞)
What about x → −∞?
For every sequence {an } with an → ∞,
the sequence f (an ) → L. lim f (x) = lim f (−x)
x→−∞ x→∞

lim f (x) = L
x→∞

Basic limits
a>0 0<a<1 a>1
lim x = ∞ lim xa = ∞ lim ax = 0 lim ax = ∞
lim c = c x→∞ x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
x→∞
1 lim x−a = 0 lim a−x = ∞ lim a−x = 0
lim =0 x→∞ x→∞ x→∞
x→∞ x

All rules for combining limits work for x → ∞. (∞ − ∞ and 0 × ∞ issues!)

Examples
Find the limits.

2 + 3x
lim lim x − x
a b lim 1 − 2−3x
x→∞ 3 + 5x x→∞ x→∞

2 + 3x 1 + xa 1 + (0.5)x
lim lim lim
x→∞ 3 + 5x + 7x2 x→∞ 1 − xb x→∞ 2 + (0.7)x

1 1 1 2x + 5
lim − lim lim
x→∞ x x−1 x→∞ 2x + 3 x→∞ 5 ⋅ 3x + 7
Summary remarks

Sequences Function f acts on a Limit of a

& Limits sequence with a limit function

Continuity

Skill: Compute limits for sequences and functions

Some topics I have omitted!

ϵ − δ definition of limit of function
Proofs!