Department of Chemical Engineering

College of Engineering
Bicol University
Legazpi City

MODULE IN MATH 11 – CALCULUS 1

LESSON 1 – FUNCTIONS AND INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS

Objectives:
1. Review functions and their operations;
2. Discuss the graphical interpretation of limits;
3. Discuss the theorem on limits and apply them to problems.

A. Functions
• Correspondence from a set 𝑋 of real number 𝑥 to a set 𝑌 of real number 𝑦 where the number 𝑦
is unique for a specific value of 𝑥
• The set of number 𝑥 is called the domain, while the set of number 𝑦 is called the range
• Can be one-to-one relation or many-to-one relation

A.1.Types of Functions
1. Algebraic Functions
• Linear Functions (𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏)
• Quadratic functions (𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
• Polynomial functions (𝑦 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 )
𝑃(𝑥)
• Rational Functions (𝑦 = )
𝑄(𝑥)
2. Transcendental Functions
• Trigonometric functions (𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 , 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 , etc)
• Exponential functions (𝑦 = 𝑐𝑎𝑛 , 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑒 𝑛 )
• Logarithmic Functions (𝑦 = 𝑐 log 𝑎 𝑥)
• Inverse Trigonometric Functions (𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 , etc)
• Hyperbolic functions (𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐. )
1 1
sinh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ); cosh 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )
2 2

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 3. Some special functions
• Piece-wise Functions
𝑓 (𝑥) if 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎
𝑦={1
𝑓2 (𝑥) if 𝑥 < 𝑎
• Absolute Value functions (𝑦 = |𝑓(𝑥)|)
• Greatest Integer function (𝑦 = ⟦𝑥 ⟧
+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
• Signum function (𝑦 = sgn 𝑥 = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0 )
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
4. Inverse functions (anti-function)
a function that "reverses" another function: if the function 𝑓 applied to an input 𝑥 gives a
result of 𝑦, then applying its inverse function 𝑔 to 𝑦 gives the result 𝑥
𝑦 = log 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 10𝑦 → 𝑦 = 10𝑥
5. Even and Odd functions (Even: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥), Odd: 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 : 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐. ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ; 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ; 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)3 = −𝑥 3

A.2. Operations of Functions

1. Evaluation
a. Given the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, find 𝑓(2).
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
𝑦 = 𝑓(2) = 22 + 1 = 5
1
b. Given the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + + 1, find 𝑓(−1).
𝑥
1
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + + 1
𝑥
1
𝑦 = 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + (−1)2 + +1 = 0
−1
c. Given the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 2𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 , find 𝑓(𝜋) and 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥).
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 2𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜋) = cos 2𝜋 − 2 sin 𝜋 = 1 − 2(0) = 1
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(−𝑥) = cos 2𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 − cos(−2𝑥) + 2 sin(−𝑥)
= cos 2𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 − cos 2𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 = −4 sin 𝑥
2. Addition and Subtraction: (𝑓 ± 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)
3. Multiplication: (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
4. Division: ( ) (𝑥) =
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)
5. Nested function (Circle operation): (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))

Example 1.
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1, find
1. 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1
2. 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)
5 1
𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥(𝑥 2 + 1) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2
𝑔(𝑥)
3.
𝑓(𝑥)

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 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 1 (𝑥 2 + 1)√𝑥
= =
𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥 𝑥
4. (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 1
5. (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥)
2
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = (√𝑥) + 1 = 𝑥 + 1
6. 𝑓 (𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)))
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1
2
𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = (√𝑥) + 1 = 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑔(𝑓(𝑥))) = √𝑥 + 1
7. 𝑓 (𝑓(𝑔(𝑔)))
𝑔(𝑔) = (𝑥 2 + 1)2 + 1 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 2
𝑓(𝑔(𝑔)) = √𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 2
4
𝑓 (𝑓(𝑔(𝑔))) = √𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 2

Example 2.
1
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1, find
𝑥+1
a. 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) + 2𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
1 2𝑥 2 − 2
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) + 2𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) = − 𝑥2 + 1 +
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
1 − 𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 2 − 2 1 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 + 2𝑥 2 − 2
= =
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3
=
1+𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 1 1 1
b. = 3 = 4 2 3 = 4 3 2
𝑥𝑔(𝑥) (𝑥+1)(𝑥 −𝑥) 𝑥 −𝑥 +𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 1 1 1
= = 4 = 4
𝑥𝑔(𝑥) (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 𝑥) 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥
3 2 3 3
1 1
c. 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = =
𝑥 2 −1+1 𝑥2

B. Limits
B.1. Definition
• Describes the behavior of a function as it approaches a certain value
• Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function of 𝑥 and 𝑎 be a constant. If there is a number 𝐿 such that, in order to
make the value of 𝑓(𝑥) as close to 𝐿 as may be desired, it is sufficient to choose 𝑥 close enough
to 𝑎, but different from 𝑎, such that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎
• For every positive number 𝜖, there exists a number 𝛿 such that, in order to make |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝐿| <
𝜖, it satisfies |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 , such that:
If 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿, then |𝑓(𝑎) − 𝐿| < 𝜖

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 • Consider the parabola 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
❖ We define two points: one movable point (Q), with coordinate (𝑥, 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) and one
fixed point (P), with coordinate (1,2)
❖ The equation of a secant line passing through P and Q
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
❖ 𝑦 is defined for all values of 𝑥 except at 𝑥 = 1
❖ What is the behavior of 𝑦 as it approaches 𝑥 =
1?
• Slope of the secant line passing thru 𝑃 and 𝑄
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1
• Thus, we can know the limit of the function 𝑓(𝑥) =
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
by analyzing the behavior of the secant line
𝑥−1
passing thru 𝑃 and 𝑄 as 𝑄 approaches 𝑃
2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3
• The behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) = will approach a limiting value as 𝑄 → 𝑃
𝑥−1
• Requirement: we must choose a value of 𝑥 close enough to 𝑎, such that the error of the value of
the function will not differ to the limiting value 𝐿.
• What is this limiting value?
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
0 3 2 7
0.25 3.5 1.5 6
0.75 4.5 1.25 5.5
0.9 4.8 1.1 5.2
0.99 4.98 1.01 5.02
0.9999 4.998 1.001 5.002
∴ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 5
𝑥→1

B.2. Theorems on Limits

1. Limit of a constant
lim 𝑐 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑎
2. Limit of a function
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎); 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑅
𝑥→𝑎
3. Sum and difference of limits
If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑛 , then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) ± lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) ± ⋯ ± lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 ± 𝐿2 ± ⋯ ± 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
4. Multiplication of limits
If lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 , lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝐿2 , … , lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿𝑛 , then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓1 (𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑓2 (𝑥) ∙ … ∙ lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝐿1 ∙ 𝐿2 ∙ … ∙ 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

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 5. Power of a limit
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑛 is any positive integer, then
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛
[lim 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐿𝑛
𝑥→𝑎
6. Limits of a sum or difference
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
7. Limits of a product
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
8. Limits of a rational function
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀, then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 = ; 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0, 𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎
9. Limits of a radical
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑛 is any positive integer, then
𝑥→𝑎
𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
10. Uniqueness Theorem
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑀, then 𝐿 = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

B.3. Examples on Limits

Evaluate the ff. limits using theorems discussed.
1. lim 𝑥(2𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 ∙ lim (2𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 ∙ [lim 2 ∙ lim 𝑥 + lim 1] = 3(2 ∙ 3 + 1) = 21
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥→3

3 𝑥 3 𝑥 3 lim 𝑥 3 4 13
𝑥→4
2. lim √ = √lim =√ =√ = − √4
𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 𝑥→4 −7𝑥 + 1 lim (−7𝑥) + lim 1 −28 + 1 3
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
𝑥 2 − 25 (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 + 5)
3. lim = lim = 5 + 5 = 10
𝑥→5 𝑥 − 5 𝑥→5 𝑥−5
𝑥−4 (√𝑥 − 2)(√𝑥 + 2)
4. lim = lim = √4 + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4
𝑥→4 √𝑥 − 2 𝑥→4 √𝑥 − 2
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 3)
5 lim = lim = lim (2𝑥 + 3) = 2(1) + 2 = 5
𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1
1 − cos 𝑦 1 − cos 𝑦 1 − cos 𝑦 1 1
6. lim = lim = lim = =
𝑦→0 sin2 𝑦 𝑦→0 (1 − cos 2 𝑦) 𝑦→0 (1 − cos 𝑦)(1 + cos 𝑦) 1 + cos 0 2
sin 𝑦 sin 2𝑦 sin 𝑦 (2 sin 𝑦 cos 𝑦) 2 cos 𝑦 (1 + cos 𝑦)(1 − cos 𝑦)
7. lim = lim = lim
𝑦→0 1 − cos 𝑦 𝑦→0 1 − cos 𝑦 𝑦→0 1 − cos 𝑦
= 2 cos 0 (1 + cos 0) = 4
Study the ff:
• One-Sided limit
• Infinite limits
• Limits at Infinity
sin 𝑥
• The limit of the form lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

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