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LESSON 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM Parts of the CNS

NERVOUS SYSTEM A. BRAIN

- The nervous system receives and • comprised of billions of

Relays informa琀椀on about ac琀椀vi琀椀es within interconnected neurons and glia
the body and monitors and responds to
Internal and External Changes.

Func琀椀ons of the 2 Halves of the Cerebrum

Neurons

- specialized cells that carry messages

throughout the nervous system
- It is the basic func琀椀oning unit of the
Nervous System

4 FUNCTIONS:

 Sensory Func琀椀on - Gathers informa琀椀on

both from the outside world and from
inside the body.
 Transmits the informa琀椀on to the
processing area of the brain and spinal
cord.
 Integra琀椀ve Func琀椀on - Processes the
informa琀椀on to determine the best response Division of the Brain
 Motor Func琀椀on - Sends informa琀椀on to
muscles, glands, and organs so they can
respond correctly. Muscular contrac琀椀on or
glandular secre琀椀ons.

2 MAJOR DIVISIONS
1. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

- Relays messages, processes

informa琀椀on, and compares and analyzes
informa琀椀on 1. Forebrain
- It consist of the brain and the spinal  Telencephalon (Cerebrum)
cord
- Conscious thought processes,
intellectual func琀椀ons
- Memory storage and
processing

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- Conscious and Subconscious Func琀椀ons of the Di昀昀erent Parts of the

regula琀椀on of skeletal muscle contrac琀椀on. Brain
 Diencephalon
Thalamus – relay and proce-
ssing centers for sensory
informa琀椀on.

Hypothalamus – Centers
controlling emo琀椀ons, auto-
nomic func琀椀ons, and horm-
one produc琀椀on.
2. Midbrain
 Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
- Processing of Visual and
Lobes of the Brain
Auditory data.
- Genera琀椀on of re昀氀exive
soma-琀椀c motor responses.
3. Hindbrain

 Metencephalon (Cerebellum)
- Coordinates complex soma琀椀c
motor pa琀琀erns
- Adjust output of other
soma琀椀c motor centers in the brain and
spinal cord.
(Pons)
- Relays sensory informa琀椀on B. SPINAL CORD
to cerebellum and thalamus
- Subconscious Soma琀椀c and
Visceral motor centers.
 Myelencephalon (Medulla
Oblongata)
- Relays sensory informa琀椀on
to thalamus
- Autonomic centers for
regula琀椀on of visceral func-琀椀ons such as
cardiovascular, respiratory, etc.

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2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TYPES OF NEURONS

- connects the central nervous system to 1. Sensory Neuron

the organs and other body parts
 Receptor
Subdivisions  bring messages to CNS
 a昀昀erent neuron
a) Sensory Division - carries info to the
brain and spinal cord. 2. Motor Neuron
b) Motor Division - carries info from the
 Carry impulses from the brain and spinal
brain to the bodies e昀昀ectors (things that do the cord to MUSCLES or GLANDS.
work)
 Muscles contract
 Glands secrete
 Soma琀椀c nerves relay commands to  e昀昀erent neuron
and from skeletal muscle (VOLUNT-
ARY 3. Interneuron
CONTROL)
 Connects sensory & motor neurons
Parts:
  Found en琀椀rely within the Central
1. Spinal Nerves spinal cord and body Nervous System

2. Cranial Nerves brain stem

 Autonomic nerves send signals to

and from smooth muscles
(INVOLUNTARY CONTROL)
Subdivision:

1. Sympathe琀椀c under stress

2. Parasympathe琀椀c return to no-rmal
or relaxed mode

PARTS OF A NEURON
 Dendrites
- Receive s琀椀mulus and carries impulses
toward the cell body

 Cell Body
- Contains nucleus & most of cytoplasm

- Performs most of the metabolic ac琀椀vity

of the cell, including the genera琀椀on of ATP and
LESSON 2: NEURONS synthesis of protein

NEURON  Axon
- Basic func琀椀onal cell of nervous system - Fiber which carries impulses away from
- Messages take the form of electrical the cell body
signals, and are known as IMPULSES.
- A Neuron carries impulses in only ONE - Ends in a series of small swellings called
direc琀椀on. axon terminals
- Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)

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Excitatory: depolarize
postsynap琀椀c cell
Inhibitory: hyperpolarize
postsynap琀椀c cell
 Role of postsynap琀椀c neuron: integrate
and process informa琀椀on

LESSON 3: DISORDERS OF THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
MEMORY

 Associa琀椀on is the linkage of informa琀椀on

to structural and chemical changes
 Schwann Cells
- Cells which produce myelin or fat layerr Short Term - few bits lasts a couple of
in the Peripheral Nervous System hours Long Term - permanent and limitless

 Myelin sheath
– Dense lipid layer which insulates the DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS
axon
– Makes the axon look gray SYSTEM TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

- A nondegenera琀椀ve, noncongenital
 Node of Ranvier damage to the brain from an external
– Gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath mechanical force.
- CAUSES Falls (28%)
Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to Motor vehicle-tra昀케c crashes (20%)
axon Struck by/against (19%)
Assaults (11%)

CLOSED BRAIN INJURY

1. Concussion
- Most common type of TBI
- Damage to nerves or blood vessels in the
brain o昀琀en caused by an impact to the head

2. Cerebral Contusions
TYPES OF CHEMICAL SYNAPSE
- Is a bruise or bleeding on the brain that
 Acetylcholine: neuromuscular junc琀椀ons, can be caused by an impact
glands, brain and spinal cord
3. Di昀昀use Axonal Injury
 Norepinepherine: a昀昀ects brain regions
concerned with emo琀椀ons, dreaming - Tearing of nerve 琀椀ssue or blood vessels
when the brain is jostled in the skull, can result
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM NEURON from shaking or whiplash
TO TARGET
4. Coup-contrecoup Injury
Synap琀椀c transmission:
- Impact not only injures the site of
 Release of neurotransmi琀琀er: graded impact, but causes the brain to impact with the
poten琀椀al achieved skull
 E昀昀ects of neurotransmi琀琀er:

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OPEN BRAIN INJURY - The nose, kidneys, and male

reproduc琀椀ve organs may also be a昀昀ected
 Object penetrates brain 琀椀ssue, such as a
bullet or sha琀琀ered piece of skull
3. Polio
INFECTIONS It is caused by the poliovirus. It spreads from
1. Meningi琀椀s person to person and can invade an infected
person’s brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis.
(HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE MENINGITIS) Subclinical Infec琀椀on
 Caused by Haemophilus in昀氀uenzae Type
 No symptoms, or symptoms las琀椀ng 72
b bacteria
hours or less; may go unno琀椀ced.
 Usually spreads from somewhere in the  Symptoms:
respiratory tract to the bloodstream and then
to the meninges
 Slight fever
 headache
(MENINGOCOCCAL MENINGITIS)  general discomfort or uneasiness
 Sore throat
 Infec琀椀on caused by the bacterium
Neisseria meningi琀椀dis
 red throat
 vomi琀椀ng
 Cause infec琀椀on in a part of the body
then, for unknown reasons, the bacteria may Nonparaly琀椀c
then spread through the bloodstream to the
nervous system  develop symptoms that doesn't lead to
paralysis (abor琀椀ve polio), which can last up to 10
(PNEUMOCOCCAL MENINGITIS) days
 Caused by a bacteria called  causes the same mild, 昀氀u-like signs and
streptococcus pneumonia symptoms typical of other viral illnesses

 Can be carried harmlessly in the back of Paraly琀椀c

the throat by both adults and children
 Same symptoms as nonparaly琀椀c polio
 Blood vessels in the lining of the brain
within a week, but may include:
are damaged
 Meninges become in昀氀amed and  Loss of re昀氀exes
pressure around the brain can cause nerve  Severe muscle aches or weakness
damage
 loose and 昀氀oppy limbs (昀氀accid paralysis)

2. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease)

4. Tetanus
It is an infec琀椀on caused by slow-growing
bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae. It is a  A disease caused by the toxin of the
disease that causes severe, dis昀椀guring skin bacterium Clostridium tetani that a昀昀ects the
sores and nerve damage in the arms, legs, and central nervous system, some琀椀mes resul琀椀ng in
skin areas around the body. death.
 Tuberculoid  Spores of the bacterium produce a
neurotoxin, called tetanospasmin
- have only one or a few patches of 昀氀at,
pale-colored skin (paucibacillary leprosy)
- A昀昀ected area of skin may feel numb 5. Botulism
because of nerve damage underneath
 Lepromatous  Botulism is caused by Clostridium
- has widespread skin bumps and bacteria that live in soil and dust. These bacteria
rashes (mul琀椀bacillary leprosy), numbness, and may also contaminate foods, especially honey.
muscle weakness

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 Clostridium bacteria produce a toxin  PRIMARY - caused by overac琀椀vity of

called botulinum toxin, which blocks the normal or problems with pain-sensi琀椀ve structures in
messages between muscles and nerves and your head
a昀昀ects muscles everywhere in the body. a. Tension Headaches
- cause mild to moderate
pain and come and go over 琀椀me.
6. Shingles (Herpes Zoster)
- Usually have no other
 An infec琀椀on caused by the varicella- symptoms.
zoster virus, which is the same virus that causes
chickenpox b. Migraine Headaches
 Develops when the virus reac琀椀vates in
the body. - O昀琀en described as
pounding, throbbing pain
 Characterized by a red skin rash that can
cause pain and burning
- can last from 4 hours to 3
days and usually happen one to four 琀椀mes a
month
7. Encephali琀椀s

 An acute in昀氀amma琀椀on (swelling) of the c. Cluster Headaches

brain usually resul琀椀ng from either a viral - Cyclical pa琀琀erns or cluster
infec琀椀on or due to the body's own immune periods
system mistakenly a琀琀acking brain 琀椀ssue - Commonly awakens you in
 Di昀昀erent types have di昀昀erent causes the middle of the night with intense pain in or
 Japanese encephali琀椀s - mosquitoes around one eye on one side of your head.
 Tick-borne encephali琀椀s - 琀椀cks
 Rabies - mammal  SECONDARY - caused by overac琀椀vity
 Primary or infec琀椀ous encephali琀椀s - of or problems with pain-sensi琀椀ve structures in
fungus, virus, or bacterium your head.
 Secondary, or post-infec琀椀ous - immune
mistakenly a琀琀acks the brain.
2. Epilepsy
8. Rabies  A condi琀椀on characterized by recurrent
seizures (two or more) result from an abnormal
 Deadly virus spread to people from the
and excessive neuronal discharge
saliva of infected animals. The rabies virus is
 Sign of cerebral dysfunc琀椀on
usually transmi琀琀ed through a bite
a. Localized - caused by localized
 Preliminary symptoms are mild and
varied, may resemble many other infec琀椀ons area of brain dysfunc琀椀on (the epilep琀椀c focus in
cerebral cortex and do not spread) and
 When CNS becomes involved person
symptoms are related to area involved
alternates between agita琀椀on and calm
 Muscle spasms of mouth and pharynx
b. Generalized - the abnormal
impulses originate from the cerebral cortex and
spread
FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS

1. Headache - Can be a sign of stress or

3. Neuroglia - A stabbing, burning, and o昀琀en
emo琀椀onal distress, or it can result from a
severe pain due to an irritated or damaged
medical disorder, such as migraine or high
nerve.
blood pressure, anxiety, or depression

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STRUCTURAL DISORDERS VASCULAR DISORDERS

Spinal Cord Injury 1. Stroke - occurs when the blood supply to
part of your brain is interrupted or reduced,
 Trauma琀椀c - may stem from a sudden, depriving brain 琀椀ssue of oxygen and nutrients
trauma琀椀c blow to the spine that fractures,
dislocates, crushes or compresses one or more a) Ischemic stroke
of the vertebrae  occur when the arteries to your
 Non-Trauma琀椀c - may be caused by brain become narrowed or blocked, causing
arthri琀椀s, cancer, in昀氀amma琀椀on or infec琀椀ons, or severely reduced blood 昀氀ow (ischemia)
disk degenera琀椀on of the spine  Thrombo琀椀c stroke
 Embolic stroke
Disorders:
b) Hemorrhagic stroke
1. Bell’s Palsy  occurs when a blood vessel in
your brain leaks or ruptures
- causes sudden, temporary weakness in  Intracerebral hemorrhage.
the facial muscles
 Subarachnoid hemorrhage
- makes half of the face appear to droop c) Transient ischemic a琀琀ack (TIA)
Smile is one-sided, and the eye on that side  Some琀椀mes known as a
resists closing ministroke. It is a temporary period of
symptoms similar to those you'd have in a
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
stroke
- occurs when the tunnel becomes 2. Aneurysm
narrowed or when 琀椀ssues surrounding the
昀氀exor tendons swell, pu琀�ng pressure on the - A bulge or ballooning in a blood vessel
median nerve in the brain.
- Can leak or rupture, causing bleeding
3. Spondylosis
into the brain (hemorrhagic stroke).
- refers to degenera琀椀ve changes in the
spine such as bone spurs and degenera琀椀ng
intervertebral discs between the vertebrae DEGENERATION

4. Brain or Spinal Cord Tumors 1. Parkinson’s Disease

- Masses of abnormal cells in the brain or - Certain nerve cells (neurons) in the
spinal cord that have grown out of control brain gradually break down or die.
- benign (non-cancerous) tumors and - Symptoms are due to a loss of neurons
malignant tumors (cancerous) that produce a chemical messenger in your
brain called dopamine.
5. Peripheral Neuropathy
2. Mul琀椀ples Sclerosis
- a result of damage to the peripheral
nerves, o昀琀en causes weakness, numbness and - Immune system malfunc琀椀on destroys
pain, usually in your hands and feet the fa琀琀y substance that coats and protects
nerve 昀椀bers in the brain and spinal cord
6. Guillain-Barré Syndrome (myelin).
- a result of damage to the peripheral 3. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) or Lou
nerves, o昀琀en causes weakness, numbness and Gehrig's disease
pain, usually in your hands and feet
- Progressive nervous system disease that
a昀昀ects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord,
causing loss of muscle control.

4. Hun琀椀ngton Chorea

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- an inherited disease that causes the THE CHEMISTRY OF HOMONES

progressive breakdown (degenera琀椀on) of nerve
 Amino acid-based hormones
cells in the brain
a. Proteins
5. Demen琀椀a
b. Pep琀椀des
- Overall term for diseases and condi琀椀ons
characterized by a decline in memory, c. Amines
language, problem-solving and other thinking
 Steroids – made from cholesterol
skills that a昀昀ect a person's ability to perform
everyday ac琀椀vi琀椀es.  Prostaglandins – made from highly
ac琀椀ve lipids
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
• ACTION: a昀昀ects higher brain func琀椀ons  Hormones a昀昀ect only certain 琀椀ssues or
organs (target cells or organs)
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE: user
craves the feeling associated with the drug  Target cells must have speci昀椀c protein
receptors
• TOLERANCE: takes more of the
substance to achieve the same a昀昀ect  Hormone binding in昀氀uences the
working of the cells
• ADDICTION: the need to con琀椀nue
obtaining and using a substance; no free choice EFFECTS CAUSED BY HORMONES

• WITHDRAWAL: physical symptoms that  Changes in plasma membrane

occur upon stopping the drug permeability or electrical state

 Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes

LESSON 4: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM  Ac琀椀va琀椀on or inac琀椀va琀椀on of enzymes

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM  S琀椀mula琀椀on of mitosis

- Second messenger system of the body CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE

- Uses chemical messages (hormones)  A s琀椀mulus or low hormone levels in the
that are released into the blood blood triggers the release of more hormone

 Hormone release stops once an

HORMONES appropriate level in the blood is reached
- Hormones control several major  Hormone levels in the blood are
processes maintained by nega琀椀ve feedback
 Reproduc琀椀on
 Growth and development HORMONAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE
 Mobiliza琀椀on of body defenses
GLANDS

 Maintenance of much of hom-eostasis

 Endocrine glands are ac琀椀vated by other
hormones
 Regula琀椀on of metabolism
- Produced by specialized cells
- Secreted by cells into extracellular 昀氀uids
- Transferred by blood to the target sites
- Regulate the ac琀椀vity of other cells

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 Changing blood levels of certain ions  Prolac琀椀n (PRL)

s琀椀mulate hormone release  S琀椀mulates and maintains milk
produc琀椀on following childbirth
NEURAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 Func琀椀on in males is unknown
 Nerve impulses s琀椀mulate hormone  Thyroid-s琀椀mula琀椀ng hormone (TSH)
release  In昀氀uences growth and ac琀椀vity of
the thyroid
 Most are under control of the  Adrenocor琀椀cotropic hormone (ACTH)
sympathe琀椀c nervous system
 Regulates endocrine ac琀椀vity of
the adrenal cortex
 Gonadotropic Hormones – regulates
hormonal ac琀椀vity of the gonads

 Follicle-S琀椀mula琀椀ng Hormone
(FSH) - S琀椀mulates follicle (ov-aries) and
sperm (testes) deve-lopment
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Triggers ovula琀椀on
- Ruptured follicle become
MAJOR PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM corpus luteum
- S琀椀mulates testosterone produ-
c琀椀on

Posterior pituitary (nervous 琀椀ssue)

 Oxytocin
 S琀椀mulates contrac琀椀ons of the
uterus during labor
 Milk ejec琀椀on
1. Pineal Gland  An琀椀diure琀椀c Hormone (ADH)
 Inhibit urine produc琀椀on
- Found on the third ventricle of the brain  Large amounts cause
vasoconstric琀椀on leading to increased BP
- Secretes melatonin (helps establish the
(vasopressin)
body’s wake and sleep cycles)
2. Pituitary Gland
- Size of a grape
- Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary (glandular 琀椀ssue)

 Growth Hormone
 General metabolic hormone
 skeletal muscles and long bones
 Amino acids into protein
 Fat broken down for energy

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“Pituitary - Hypothalamus Rela琀椀onship”

• Release of hormones is controlled by

releasing and inhibi琀椀ng hormones produced by
the hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones
that are transported to the posterior pituitary
• The posterior pituitary is NOT STRICTLY
an endocrine gland, but does release
5. Adrenal Glands
hormones
- Sits on top of the kidneys
- Two glands
3. Thyroid Gland
Adrenal Cortex (outer glandular region in
- Found at the base of the throat three layers)
- Consists of two lobes and a connec琀椀ng  Mineralocor琀椀coids (mainly aldosterone)
isthmus  Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte balance
 Thyroid Hormone  Target organ: kidney
 Major metabolic hormone  Regulate the concentra琀椀on of
 Composed of two ac琀椀ve iodine- potassium and sodium in the body
containing hormones  Glucocor琀椀coids (including cor琀椀sone and
cor琀椀sol)
a. Thyroxin (T4) – secreted by
 Promote normal cell metabolism
thyroid follicles
 Help resist long-term stressors
b. Triiodothyronine (T3) –
 Released in response to increased
conversion of T4 at target 琀椀ssues blood levels of ACTH
 Calcitonin  Sex hormones: Androgens and
 Decreases blood calcium levels by some Estrogen
deposi琀椀on of bone
 Antagonis琀椀c to parathyroid
hormone Adrenal Medulla (inner neural 琀椀ssue
region)
 Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
 Increase cardiac output
 Raise glucose levels in the blood
 Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
 Increases heart rate and BP
 Triggers release of glucose
 Increases blood 昀氀ow to skeletal
muscle
 Reduces blood 昀氀ow to the
4. Parathyroid Gland gastrointes琀椀nal system
 Inhibits voiding of the bladder and
- Tiny masses on the posterior of the gastrointes琀椀nal mo琀椀lity
thyroid
6. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
 Parathyroid Hormone (Parathormone) - The pancreas is a mixed gland
 S琀椀mulate osteoclasts to remove - The islets of the pancreas produce
calcium from bone hormones:
 S琀椀mulate the kidneys and intes琀椀ne
to absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood

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 Insulin LESSON 5: DISORDERS OF THE

 Allows glucose to cross plasma ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
membranes into cells from beta cells
 Glucagon LESSON 6: MALE
 Allows glucose to enter the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
blood from alpha cells
- Male and female reproduc琀椀ve systems
develop from similar embryonic 琀椀ssue.

7. Thymus - During fetal development they are near

- Located posterior to the sternum the kidneys and slowly move inferiorly in the
- Largest in infants and children abdominal cavity.
th
 Thymosin - During the 7 month they descend
through the inguinal canals
 Matures some types of white
blood cells
 Important in developing the PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
immune system
1. Scrotum

8. Ovaries  Sac of skin and super昀椀cial fascia that

 Estrogens hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity at the
root of the penis
 S琀椀mulates the development of
secondary female characteris琀椀cs  Its external posi琀椀oning keeps the testes
 Matures female reproduc琀椀ve organs 3C lower than core body temperature
 Helps prepare the uterus to receive
a fer琀椀lized egg
 Produced by the placenta
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Prepares breasts to produce milk
 Progesterone
 Acts with estrogen to bring about
menstrual cycle
PARTS OF THE SCROTUM
 Helps in the implanta琀椀on of an
embryo in the uterus a. Dartos Muscle
9. Testes - a thin layer of smooth muscle
 Androgens in the dermis
 Crucial for male sexual and - contrac琀椀ons of this muscle
reproduc琀椀ve func琀椀on causes wrinkling of the skin
 Testosterone (most important b. Tunica Vaginalis
androgen)
- encloses each testes
 Male secondary characteris琀椀cs
 Growth and matura琀椀on of male - a con琀椀nua琀椀on of the
reproduc琀椀ve system peritoneum that lines the abdominopelvic
 Required for sperm cell reproduc琀椀on cavity
c. Tunica Albuginea
- A 昀椀brous capsule covers each
tes琀椀s

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DUCT SYSTEM OF THE MALE R.S

2. Tes琀椀cle (Testes)
- Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts
 An oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 to reach the outside of the body. A昀琀er they
cm in diameter leave the testes, the sperm passes through the
 The tunica albuginea gives rise to septa epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct,
(par琀椀琀椀ons) that divide the tes琀椀s into lobules and urethra.
(about 250)
 Each lobule contains 3 or 4 highly coiled
seminiferous tubules
 These converge to become rete tes琀椀s
which transport sperm to the epididymis
 Inters琀椀琀椀al cells (cells of Leydig) – pro-
duce male sex hormones, are located between
the seminiferous tubules within a lobule.
3. Epididymis
PARTS OF THE DUCT SYSTEM
 A long tube (about 6 meters) located
along the superior and posterior margins of the 5. Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)
testes
 A 昀椀bromuscular tube that is con琀椀nuous
 Complete sperm matura琀椀on process and with the epididymis
become fer琀椀le as they move through the
epididymis. 6. Ejaculatory Duct
 Mature sperm are stored in the lower  passes through the prostate gland and
por琀椀on, or tail, of the epididymis emp琀椀es into the urethra
7. Urethra

 Extends from the urinary bladder to the

external urethral ori昀椀ce at the 琀椀p of the penis.
 A passageway for sperm and 昀氀uids from
the reproduc琀椀ve system and urine from the
urinary system
4. Sperma琀椀c Cord

 Contains the structures running from the ACCESSORY GLANDS OF THE MALE R.S
tes琀椀cles to the pelvic cavity
 Contents: 8. Seminal Vesicle
a. Vas Deferens  Lie on the posterior wall of the bladder and
b. Nerves secrete 60% of the volume of semen
c. Blood Vessels  Seminal Fluids:
a. Fructose: provides energy for the
sperm.

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b. Fibrinogen: helps turn semen into DISORDERS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE

a bolus that can be readily propelled into the SYSTEM
vagina.
Cryptorchidism
c. Prostaglandins: decrease cervical
mucus viscosity and s琀椀mulate reverse - Literally “hidden tes琀椀cle.” A condi琀椀on of
peristalsis of the uterus. lack of descent of one or both testes into the
scrotum. If not corrected, usually by surgery,
9. Prostate Gland
before puberty, can lead to sterility and increased
 Doughnut-shaped gland that encircles risk of tes琀椀cular cancer.
part of the urethra inferior to the bladder Erec琀椀le dysfunc琀椀on (ED)
 Plays a role in the ac琀椀va琀椀on of sperm
 Enters the prosta琀椀c urethra during - Sexual dysfunc琀椀on characterized by the
ejacula琀椀on regular and repeated inability of a sexually mature
 Prosta琀椀c Secre琀椀ons: male to obtain or maintain an erec琀椀on. It is a
a. Citrate: is a food source (TCA common disorder that a昀昀ects about 40 percent of
cycle) males, at least occasionally
b. Proteoly琀椀c enzymes: acts to Epididymi琀椀s
"decoagulate" the semen that was coagulated
by seminal vesicle secre琀椀ons, which helps the - In昀氀amma琀椀on of the epididymis. Discomfort
sperm begin their journey once inside the or pain and swelling in the scrotum are typical
vagina symptoms of epididymi琀椀s, which is a rela琀椀vely
common condi琀椀on, especially in young men.
10. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands)
Prostate cancer
 Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
 Produce alkaline mucus prior to - The most common type of cancer in men,
ejacula琀椀on that neutralizes traces of acidic and the second leading cause of cancer death in
urine in the urethra men.

11. Penis Tes琀椀cular cancer

 Is a cylindrical pendant organ located - It is the most common cancer in males

anterior to the scrotum and func琀椀ons to between the ages of 20 and 39 years. A lump or
transfer sperm to the vagina swelling in one tes琀椀s, 昀氀uid in the scrotum, and
 Consists of three columns of erec琀椀le tes琀椀cular pain or tenderness are possible signs and
琀椀ssue that are wrapped in connec琀椀ve 琀椀ssue symptoms of tes琀椀cular cancer.
and covered with skin.

 The two dorsal columns are the

corpora cavernosa. The single, midline ventral
column surrounds the urethra and is called the
corpus spongiosum.
 3 parts:
a. root
b. body (sha昀琀)
c. glans penis

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LESSON 7: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE  Fer琀椀liza琀椀on of the egg occurs here

SYSTEM
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- To perpetuate the species through

sexual or germ cell fer琀椀liza琀椀on and
reproduc琀椀on
 Tube widens to form the ampulla
 The isthmus is the por琀椀on that
connects to uterus
 Fimbria are the 昀椀nger-like projec琀椀ons
around the opening that trap the egg as it
leaves the ovary
PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE  End of tube is called the infundibulum
SYSTEM  Opening is called the os琀椀um
1. Uterus

 A hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ 3. Ovaries

about the size of a woman’s clenched 昀椀st
 A琀琀ached to each side of the uterus by
 Can be divided into the body (corpus), a ligament
and the bo琀琀om cervix
 Oval-shaped, about the size of a large
 Fundus: rounded top por琀椀on, above the olive
fallopian tubes
 Filled with egg-containing sacs called
 Provides a place for the protec琀椀on and follicles
nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy
 Each egg is called an ovum
 It contracts during labor to expel the
fetus
 3 layers:
a. Perimetrium
b. Myometrium
c. Endometrium
Func琀椀ons:

- The endometrium sheds the lining of

the uterus every 21 to 40 days by menstrua琀椀on
- It provides a place for the protec琀椀on 4. Vagina
and nourishment of the fetus during pregnancy
- It contracts during labor to expel the  Extend from the cervix to the outside
fetus of the body
 3 ½ inch long muscular tube that
expands in length and width during sexual
2. Fallopian Tube arousal
 Female organ for copula琀椀on
 4-6 inches long
 A passageway for menstrua琀椀on or the
 Egg is moved along inside the tube by birth of a fetus
muscular contrac琀椀ons and the waving ac琀椀on of
cilia
 Takes an egg about 3-4 days to travel 5. Vulva - 5 organs making up the external
the length of the tube genitalia of the female

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DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM
Menstrual Abnormali琀椀es

 Amenorrhea – absence of
menstrua琀椀on
 Dysmenorrhea – pain associated with
menstrua琀椀on
 Abnormal uterine bleeding – excessive
Mons Pubis
amount or dura琀椀on of menstrual bleeding
- Triangular-shaped pad of fa琀琀y
琀椀ssue over the pubis bone,
covered with pubic hair Endometriosis
Labia Majora
 Growth of endometrial 琀椀ssue outside
- 2 large folds of adipose 琀椀ssue on
of the uterus
the side of the vaginal opening
 Tissue responds to hormonal changes
Labia Minora
by prolifera琀椀ng then breaking down and
- 2 smaller folds of adipose 琀椀ssue on bleeding
the inside of the labia majora
Ves琀椀bule
- Area between labia with openings Cancer
for the vagina, urethra, and 2 excretory ducts for
nd
Bartholin’s glands (provide lubricant)  Breast Cancer – 2 leading cause of
Clitoris cancer death in the US
- Sensi琀椀ve fold of 琀椀ssue par琀椀ally  Ovarian Cancer – most common cause
covered by hood of gynecological death excluding breast cancer
 Cervical Cancer – starts as cervical
dysplasia (change in shape, growth, and no. of
cells)

Sexually Transmi琀琀ed Diseases

 Chlamydia – bacteria; asymptoma琀椀c,

leads to sterility from scar 琀椀ssue forma琀椀on
 Gonorrhea – bacteria; discharge
 Perineum common, blindness if newborn is infected
- The area located between the during delivery
vaginal opening and the anus  Syphilis – bacteria; painless sores
 Episiotomy nd
(chancre), 2 stage: all organs
- A surgical incision done to avoid involved, 3
rd
stage:
uncontrolled tearing of the perineum organ degenera琀椀on is
apparent (neurosyphilis)
6. Breast  Genital Herpes – virus; incurable,
painful blisters
 Are the mammary glands  AIDS & Hepa琀椀琀椀s B – viruses
 Each has 15-20 glandular lobes
separated by connec琀椀ve 琀椀ssue

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Yeast Infec琀椀on 28 1

27 2

 Candida albicans is yeastlike fungus 26 3

that grows on mucous membranes 25 4

24 5
 Causes vulvovaginal candidiasis or
Menstruation
vagini琀椀s 23 6

- in昀氀amma琀椀on of the vagina 22 7

- severe itching and pain 21 8

20 9
- yellow discharge with odor 19 10

 More likely a昀琀er an琀椀bio琀椀c therapy for most fertile

some other disease 18 11

17 12

16 13

15 14

LESSON 8: THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

 It is carefully regulated by several
TERMINOLOGIES: hormones: Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-
 Endometrium - Lining of the uterus s琀椀mula琀椀ng Hormone (FSH), and the female sex
hormones Estrogen and
 Oocyte - Developing egg cell
 Ovum - Mature egg Progesterone
 Menopause - Last menstrua琀椀on  Divided into three phases:
a. Follicular (before the egg is
FACTS: released)
b. Ovulatory (egg is released)
- 20 weeks gesta琀椀on, ~ 5 million eggs
c. Luteal (a昀琀er release of the egg)
(oocytes)
- At birth, ½ to 1 million
- Ovarian reserve, housed by primordial
follicles. PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

- 30 to 40 follicles develop before 1. Follicular Phase

ovula琀椀on but usually only one egg is released.
 The key aspect of this phase is the
- 400 eggs are ovulated in a woman’s
development of follicles in the ovaries.
reproduc琀椀ve life
- Age of 30, ~ 12% of eggs they had at  At the start of the follicular phase, the
birth lining of the uterus is thick with 昀氀uids and
nutrients intended to nourish an embryo
(fer琀椀lized egg).
Menstrual Cycle  If no embryo is present, estrogen and
progesterone levels are low. This causes the
 Begins when a girl reaches the age of uterus lining to shed.
puberty
 The reproduc琀椀ve cycle that produces Menstrua琀椀on - This phase begins on the
eggs for fer琀椀liza琀椀on 昀椀rst day of bleeding (can last for 3-7 days)
 During this cycle the uterus
(endometrium) prepares itself for  The pituitary gland increases its’
implanta琀椀on of a fer琀椀lized egg, if this produc琀椀on of FSH. This hormone s琀椀mulates the
growth of several follicles (each contains an
does not occur the uterus lining is shed
egg) to develop in the ovaries.
from the body; this is known as
menstrua琀椀on or a "period".
 Lasts between 28-35 days
 Day 1 of the cycle begins on is the 昀椀rst
day of bleeding and the cycle ends just before
the next menstrual period.

 The levels of FSH hormone decreases and

the follicles begin to secrete estrogen.
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 The follicle that develops 昀椀rst (the

dominant follicle) secretes the most
amount of estrogen.

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 The follicular phase roughly lasts about  LH and FSH levels fall back to low and
13 or 14 days. The phase ends when the level steady levels.
of luteinizing hormone (LH) surges drama琀椀cally  Estrogen levels fall a li琀琀le a昀琀er the LH/FSH
surge, but rise due to con琀椀nued secre琀椀on of
estrogen and progesterone by the corpus luteum.
2. Ovulatory Phase  If the egg is not fer琀椀lized, the corpus luteum
shrinks and begins to degenerate a昀琀er 14 days (the
 Begins with the luteinizing hormone corpus luteum is designed to die a昀琀er 14 days).
surge (LH surge). The level of FSH increases to a
lesser extent.  If the egg is fer琀椀lized the cells, around the
developing embryo begin to produce a
 LH s琀椀mulates enzymes in the dominant
hormone called human chorionic
follicle and along with the increased pressure
gonadotropin (hCG).
causes the follicle to rupture and release the
egg (ovula琀椀on).  This hormone rescues the corpus luteum
and allows it to con琀椀nue secre琀椀ng progesterone
 The egg travels into the fallopian tube,
and estrogen, un琀椀l the growing fetus can produce
ready for fer琀椀liza琀椀on. The egg can survive for
its’ own hormones.
12 to 24 hours a昀琀er ovula琀椀on.
 Pregnancy tests are based on detec琀椀ng an
 The LH surge can be used as a
increase in the human chorionic gonadotropin
measurement to determine when a woman is
level.
fer琀椀le. Around 12 to 24 hours a昀琀er the egg is
released, the LH surge can be detected by
measuring the level of this hormone in urine. LESSON 9: SPERMATOGENESIS
 The ovulatory phase usually lasts 16 to
32 hours and ends when the egg is released.

3. Luteal Phase
 This phase begins a昀琀er ovula琀椀on.
 It lasts about 14 days and ends just
before a menstrual period, unless of course
fer琀椀liza琀椀on occurs.
HORMONES
 The egg travels along the fallopian tube
by wave like mo琀椀ons caused by the 昀椀nger-like - Follicle-s琀椀mula琀椀ng hormone (FSH)
projec琀椀ons in the walls of the fallopian tube. s琀椀mulates spermatogenesis
 The remainder of the ruptured follicle in - Inters琀椀琀椀al Cell S琀椀mula琀椀ng Hormone (ICSH)
the ovary closes a昀琀er releasing the egg and (aka LH) s琀椀mulates the produc琀椀on of testosterone
forms a structure called a corpus luteum. - Testosterone s琀椀mulates the development of
 The corpus luteum secretes large male secondary sex characteris琀椀cs &
quan琀椀琀椀es of progesterone and estrogen and spermatogenesis
prepares the uterus for fer琀椀liza琀椀on.
 Progesterone also causes increase in
body temperature during the luteal phase and
remain elevated un琀椀l a menstrual period
begins.

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PROCESS - The sperm are released into the lumen of

the seminiferous tubule and leave the testes.
- Sperm are produced within the They then enter the epididymis.
seminiferous tubules

- The en琀椀re process, beginning with a

- Interspersed within the tubules are
primary spermatocyte, takes about 74 days.
large cells which are the sustentacular cells
A昀琀er ejacula琀椀on, the sperm can live for about
(Sertoli's cells), which support and nourish the
48 hours in the female reproduc琀椀ve tract.
other cells.

- Early in embryonic development,

primordial germ cells enter the testes and LESSON 10: PREGNANCY
di昀昀eren琀椀ate into spermatogonia TERMINOLOGIES

- Spermatogonia are diploid cells, each  Obstetrician - doctor who specializes in

with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) located care of a pregnant women and the developing
around the periphery of the sem-iniferous fetus
tubules.  Gynecologist - doctor who specializes in
care of the female reproduc琀椀ve system
 Urine tests - about 2 weeks a昀琀er
ovula琀椀on.
 Blood tests - about 6 to 8 days a昀琀er
you ovulate

Blood tests can pick up hCG earlier in a

pregnancy than urine tests can
- At puberty, hormones s琀椀mulate these
cells to begin dividing by mitosis. Some remain Pregnancy lasts an average of 266 days
at the periphery as sperma-togonia. (38 weeks); approximately
9 months – divided into
3 trimesters.
- Others become primary sperma-
tocytes. Because they are produced by mitosis,
primary spermatocytes are diploid and have 46 Signs of Pregnancy
chromosomes
 Missed menstrual period

- Each primary spermatocytes goes  Excessive tenderness in her breasts

through the 昀椀rst meio琀椀c division, meiosis I, to
produce two secondary spermatocytes, each  Fa琀椀gue

with 23 chromosomes (haploid)  Change in appe琀椀te

- During meiosis I, one chromosome,  Morning Sickness

goes to each secondary spermatocyte. In the

second meio琀椀c division, meiosis II, each
secondary spermatocyte divides to produce FERTILIZATION
two sperma琀椀ds.
 Ovum can be fer琀椀lized for 昀椀rst 24
hours during its 3-7 day journey through the
- The 昀椀nal step in the development the Fallopian tube to the uterus.
sperma琀椀ds formed from spermatogenesis
 Most sperm live only 3 days inside the
become mature spermatozoa, or sperm.
woman’s reproduc琀椀ve tract; some for
5 days.

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 The egg pulls one sperm to its surface,  S琀椀mulated 昀椀rst by hCG and later by
the “zona pellucida” where sperm then the placenta, estrogen helps the uterus
secretes an enzyme allowing it to penetrate grow, regulates the produc琀椀on of other
and enter. key hormones, and triggers the
 Within 24-30 hours, nuclei of sperm and development of baby’s organs
egg fuse to form the one-celled  Among its many other purposes,
“zygote progesterone encourages breast 琀椀ssue
 Cell division begins growth and later helps so昀琀en ligaments
a. Morula stage (small collec琀椀on of and car琀椀lage to prepare you for labor.
cells)
b. Blastocyst stage (over 100 cells;  First trimester (Months 1-3) (Ini琀椀al
昀氀uid center development and rapid growth):
o At the end of the 昀椀rst month,
the embryo has a heartbeat,
CONCEPTION AND IMPLANTATION
a two-lobed brain, and a
 Blastocyst arrives in the uterus which is spinal cord.
recep琀椀ve to implanta琀椀on for only 4-5 days. o By the end of the second
 Corpus luteum will not deteriorate month, the embryo is
 8-11 days a昀琀er ovula琀椀on the blastocyst recognizable as a human and is
a琀琀aches itself to the endometrium; then the called a fetus
conceptus is referred to as an embryo.  Second trimester (Months 4-6) (Fetus
Con琀椀nues to form):
 Embryo’s outer layer = trophoblast,
grows rapidly, forming 4 protec琀椀ve layers o By the end of the fourth month,
(membranes) around the embryo. 昀椀ngernails, toenails, eyebrows,
 Trophoblast membranes – and eyelashes have developed.
a. One produces blood cells Teeth begin to form, lips
nd appear, and head hair may
b. A2 develops into the umbilical
cord begin to grow.
rd o Movement of the fetus can be
c. A 3 , the amnion; protec琀椀ve
昀氀uid-昀椀lled sac felt by the mother. The fetus
th can bend its arms and make a
d. A 4 , the chorion, develops into
昀椀st. During the 昀椀昀琀h month, the
the placenta, which will serve as an interface with
the mother
heartbeat can be detected by a
stethoscope.
 The chorion secretes the hormone
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)  Third trimester (Months 7-9) (Growth):
o By the seventh month = lanugo
 HCG takes the place of LH and maintains
the corpus luteum appears on the baby
o By the eighth months fetus
 The human chorionic gonadotropin
growth slows down and moves
steps in to increase the produc琀椀on of estrogen
into a head-down posi琀椀on.
and progesterone. It also suppresses your
immune system to support your growing baby. o By the ninth month the fetus is
full term. Skin is smooth and
 A昀琀er about 3-4 months of pregnancy,
waxy looking. Languo drops o昀昀.
corpus luteum degenerates
 Placenta now produces its estrogen and
progesterone and maintains endometrium

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