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Theory of Computation

Theory of Computation (Gujarat Technological University)

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

1. Define the following terms:

1. Set: Set is defined as collection of objects. These objects are called elements of the set. All the
element are enclosed in a curly brackets ‘{’ and ‘}’ and every element is separated by commas.
2. Subset: The set A is called subset of set B if every element of set A is present in set B but reverse
is not true.
3. Complement: A complement of a set A is the set A’ of everything that is not an element of A.
This makes sense only in the context of some “Universal Set” U containing all the elements. For
Ex :- A’ = { x U | x A }
4. Set Difference: Considering two sets A and B. The difference A – B is the set of everything in A
but not in B. For Eg. :- A – B = { x | x A and x B }
5. Symmetric Difference: For the two set A and B the symmetric difference can be given as the A
B. For Ex :- A B = (A – B) (B - A)
6. Proposition: A preposition is a declarative statement that is sufficiently objective, meaningful
and precise to have a truth value.
For Ex:- Fourteen is an even integer.
7. Conjunction: The conjunction p of p and q is read as “p and q”. It is denoted by .
P Q P Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 1.1. Truth table of Conjunction
8. Disjunction: The disjunction p q of p and q is read as “p or q”. It is denoted by .
P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 1.2. Truth table of Disjunction
9. Negation: The negation p of p is read as the “not p”. It is denoted by ¬
p Q ¬p
T - F
F - T
Table 1.3. Truth table of Negation 10.
Conditional: The proposition p q is commonly read as “if p then q”.
P Q P Q
T T T

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T F F
F T T
F F T
Table 1.4. Truth table of conditional
11. Tautology: If all the entries of the truth table for any compound proposition are true then the
proposition is termed as tautology.
12. Onto function / subjective / surjection: For the function f : A B, if f(A) = B (the range and
codomain of f are equal and every element of the codomain is actually one of the values of the
functions), the function f is said to be a onto function.
13. One to one function / injective / injunction: For the function f : A B, we say f is one-to-one if
no single element y of B can be f(x) for more than one x in A.
14. Bijection function: For the function f: A B, f is bijection if f is one-to-one as well onto function.
15. Composite function: Suppose we have function f : A → B and g : B → C. the function h : A → C
defined by h(x) = g (f(x)) is called the composite of g and f.
16. Inverse function: For f: A → B, then for any y B there is at least one x A with f(x) = y and f is
onto function and for any y B there is at most one x A with f(x) = y where f is one-to-one.
Therefore for any y B it makes sense to speak of the element x A for which f(x = y)
We denote it x by f -1 (y). For Eg.:- f : A → B f -1 : B → A
17. Relation: A relation R on a set A is a subset of A × A.
18. Equivalence relation: Assume that R is a relation on a set A; in other words, R A × A Then
1. R is reflexive if for every a A, aRa.
2. R is symmetric if for every a and b in A if aRb then bRa
3. R is transitive if for every a, b and c in A if aRb and bRc then aRc. R is equivalence on A if R
is reflective, symmetric and transitive

2. Prove that f: R → R, f(x) = x2 is not one-to-one and not onto

function.
• The range and codomain of f(x) = x2 are not equal or every element of codomain is not actually
one of the value of function. So function f is not onto function.
• The function is not one to one because every element y of B is f(x) for more than one x in A. EX:
f(-1) = f(1) =1.

3. Prove that f: R → R+, f(x) = x2 is not one-to-one and onto function.

• The range and codomain of f(x) = x2 are equal or every element of codomain is actually one of
the value of the function. So function f is onto function.
• The function is not one to one because every element y of B is f(x) for more than one x in A. EX:
f(-1) = f(1) =1.

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

4. Prove that f: R+ → R, f(x) = x2 is one-to-one and not onto function.

• The range and codomain of f(x) = x2 are not equal or every element of codomain is not actually
one of the value of the function. So function f is not onto function.
• Given function is one to one because no single element of codomain can be f(x) for more than
one element in domain.

5. Prove that f: R+ → R+, f(x) = x2 is one-to-one and onto function.

(bijection).
• The range and codomain of f(x) = x2 are equal or every element of codomain is actually one of
the value of the function. So function f is onto function.
• Given function is one to one because no single element of codomain can be f(x) for more than
one element in domain.
• The function f(x) = x2 is onto function as well as one-to-one function. So, it is called as bijection
function.

6. Give quantified statement saying that p is prime.

• Let us consider that statement “P is prime” involving the free variable p over the universe N of
natural number.
• We take our definition of a prime number, a number greater than 1 whose only divisor are itself
and 1.
• The first statement is now to express the fact that one number is a divisor of another.
• The statement “k is a divisor of p” means that p is a multiple of k or there is an integer m with
p=m*k
• Next saying that the only divisors of p are p and 1 is the same as saying that every divisor of p is
either p or 1.
• Adapting the statement that “for every k, if k is a divisor of p, then k is either p or 1”.
• Considering all these together we get that “p is prime”.{ ( p > 1 ) k ( m ( p = m * k ) )→ (k =
1) (k = p ) }

7. What is Proof?
• A proof of a statement is essentially just a convincing argument that the statement is true.
There are several methods for establishing a proof, some of them are :
1. Direct Proof
2. By Contradiction
3. By Contra positive
4. By Mathematical Induction

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

8. For any integers a and b, if a and b are odd, then ab is odd.

Proof:
• An integer n is odd if there exists an integer x so that n=2x+1.
• Now let a and b be any odd integers. Then according to this definition, there is an integer x so
that a=2x+1, and there is an integer y so that b=2y+1.
• We wish to show that there is an integer z so that ab=2z+1. Let us therefore calculate ab:
=(2x+1)(2y+1)
=4xy+2x+2y+1
=2(2xy+x+y)+1
• Since we have shown that is a z, namely, 2xy+x+y, so that ab=2z+1, the proof is complete.
Example:
X=45 & y= 11
xy= 2(2xy+x+y)+1
= 2(2(45)(11)+45+11)+1
= 2(1046)+1
xy=2093
Hence proved.

9. To Prove: For every three positive integers i, j, and n, if i*j = n,

.
• The statement we wish to prove is of the general form “for every x, if p(x) then q(x).” For each
x, the statement “if p(x) then q(x)” is logically equivalent to “if not p(x) then not q(x).” and
therefore the statement we want to prove is equivalent to this: For any positive integer i, j,

• , then i > and j> . A generally accepted fact from

mathematical is that if a and b are number with a> b, and c is a number >0, then ac>bc.
• Applying this to the inequality i> with c=j, we obtain i*j > * j. since n>0, we know that
>0, and we may apply the same fact again to the inequality j> , this time letting c= , to
obtain j =n. We now have i*j > j
• Hence, the proof is complete.

10. (Root two) is irrational number. (Most IMP)

• Suppose for the sake of contradiction that is rational. Then there are integers m’ and n’ with
= m’/ n’.

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

• By dividing both m’ and n’ by all the factors that are common to both, we obtain =m/n, for
some integer m and n having no common factors. Since m/n= , m= n . Squaring both sides
of this equation, we obtain m2=2n2, and therefore m2 is even.
• If a and b are odd, then ab is odd. Since a conditional statement is logically equivalent to its
contra positive, we may conclude that for any a and b, if ab is not odd, then either a is not odd
or b is not odd.
• However, an integer is not odd if and only if it is even, and so for any a and b, if ab is even, m
must be even.
• This means that for some k, m=2k. Therefore, (2k) 2=2n2.
• Simplifying this and canceling 2 from both side, we obtain 2k2=n2. Therefore n2 is even.
• The same argument that we have already used to show that n must be even, and so n=2j for
some j.
• We have shown that m and n are both divisible by 2. This contradicts the previous statement
that m and n have no common factor. The assumption that is rational therefore it leads to a
contradiction, and the conclusion is that is irrational.

11. Explain principle of Mathematical Induction.

Suppose P(n) is a statement involving an integer n. Then to prove that P(n) is true for every n>=n 0,
it is sufficient to show these two things:
1. P (n0) is true.
2. For every k>= n0, if P(k) is true, P(k+1) is true.

12. Prove
Step-1: Basic step
We must show that p(0) is true.
0 = 0(0+1)/2
And, this is obviously true. Step-2:
Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and

Step-3: Proof of Induction p(k+1)

= 1+2+3+….+k+(k+1)

+ (k+1) by induction hypothesis

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

P(k+1)
Hence by principle of mathematical induction is true.

13. Prove
Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(0) is true.

And, this is obviously true. Step-2:

Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and

P(k) = 1+4+9+….k
Step-3:Proof
of Induction
P(k+1)

Hence by principle of mathematical induction is true.

14. Prove
Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(0) is true.

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

P(0) =

And, this is obviously true. Step-2:

Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and

p(k)=
Step-3: Proof of Induction

p(k+1)

=
=

Hence by principle of mathematical induction is true.

15. Prove 7+ 13+19+…..+(6n+1)= n(3n+4)

Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(0) is true.
P(0)= 0(3(0)+4)=0
And, this is obviously true. Step-2:
Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

p(k) = 7+13+19+…..+(6k+1)=k(3k+4)
Step-3: Proof of Induction
P(k+1) = 7+13+19+…..+(6k+1)+(6(k+1)+1)
= k(3k+4)+(6(k+1)+1)
= k(3k+4)+(6k+6+1)
= 3k2+4k+6k+7
= 3k2+10k+7
= 3k2+3k+7k+7
= 3k(k+1)+7(k+1)
= (k+1)(3k+7)
= (k+1)(3k+3+4)
= (k+1)(3(k+1)+4)
Hence by principle of mathematical induction is true.

16. Prove
Step-1: Basic
We must show that p(0) is
true. P(0)= (0+1)! =(1)! = 1 And, this
is obviously true. Step-2: Induction
Hypothesis
k >= 0 and p(k) =
1+(1+4+18+…..+(k*k!)) = (k+1)! Step-3: Proof
of Induction
P(k+1) = 1+(1+4+18+…..+(k*k!) + (k+1)*(k+1)!)
= (k+1)! + (k+1)(k+1)!)
= (k+1)! (1+(k+1))
= (k+1)! ((k+1)+1) = ((k+1) + 1)!
Hence by principle of mathematical induction is true.

17. Prove
Step-1: Basic
We must show that P(1) is true.
P(1) = (1)2 = 1
And, this is obviously true. Step-2:
Induction Hypothesis
k >= 0 and
p(k) = 1+3+5+…..+(2k-1)=k2

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

Step-3: Proof of Induction

P(k+1) = 1+3+5+….+(2k-1)+(2(k+1)-1)
= k2 + (2(k+1)-1)
= k2 + (2k+2-1)
= k2 + 2k+1
=(k+1)2
Hence by principle of mathematical induction is
true.

18. Prove that 2n>n3 where n>=10, Using Principle of Mathematical

Induction.
Step-1: Basic step
We must show that p(10) is true.
210=1024 and 103=1000
So,1024>1000
And, this is obviously true.
Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
For k>=10
P(k)= 2k>k3
Statement to be shown in Induction step is,
P(k+1)=2 >(k+1)
Step- Proof of Induction
2 >(k+1)
k+1 k k

for k>=10

) ,because 2k>k3

(2k )(2)>(k+1)3
2k+1>(k+1)3 ;k>=10
Hence by principle of mathematical induction 2n>n3 is true.

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

19. Prove n(n2+5) is divisible by 6 for n>=0, Using Principle of

Mathematical Induction.
Step-1: Basic step
We must show that p(0) is true.
P(0)=0(02+5)=0*6/6=0
And, this is obviously true.
Step-2: Induction Hypothesis
For k>=0 and
P(k)=k(k2+5) is divisible by 6.
Statement to be shown in Induction step is,
P(k+1)=(k+1)[(k+1)2+5] is divisible by 6.
Step-3: Proof of Induction
(k+1)[(k+1)2+5]
=k[(k+1)2+5]+1[(k+1)2+5]
=k(k2+2k+1+5)+(k2+2k+1+5)
=k3+2k2+k+5k+(k2+2k+6)
=k(k2+5)+k(2k+1)+(k2+2k+6)
= k(k2+5)+2k2+k+k2+2k+6
= k(k2+5)+3k2+3k+6
= k(k2+5)+3k(k+1)+6
• Here, k(k2+5) is divisible by 6 ,given in induction hypothesis.
• In Second term k and k+1 are consecutive. So, one number is even and one is odd. So, even
number is always multiple of 2 and here 3 is also present .So, second term having (2*3) is also
divisible by 6.
• Last term 6 is obviously divisible by 6.Hence proved.

20. Strong Principle of Mathematical Induction

Suppose p(n) is a statement involving on integer n then to prove that p(n) is true for every n>= n 0. It is
sufficient to show these two condition
1) P(n0) is true
2) For any k >=n0 , if p(n) is true for every n satisfying n0<=n<=k then p(k+1) is true.
21. Prove that Integer Bigger than 2 have prime factorization using
strong PMI
Basic step:
• P(2) is the statement that 2 is either a prime or a product of two or more primes. This is true
because 2 is prime.
Induction hypothesis:

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Unit 1 – Review of Mathematical Theory

• K ≥ 2, and for every n with 2≤n≤k,n is either prime or a product of two or more primes.
Statement to be shown in induction step:
• K+1 is either prime or a product of two or more primes.
Proof of induction step:
• We consider two cases. If k+1 is prime, the statement p(k+1) is true. Otherwise, by definition of
a prime, k+1 = r*s, for some positive integer r and s, neither of which is 1 or k+1. It follows that
2 ≤ r ≤ k and 2 ≤ s ≤ k. therefore, by the induction hypothesis; both r and s are either prime or
the product of two or more primes.
• Therefore, their product k+1 is the product of two or more primes, and p(k+1) is true. Hence,
integer bigger than 2 have prime factorization.

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

1. Regular language & Regular Expression.

Regular Language :-
A Regular Language over an alphabet ∑ is one that can be obtained from this basic language using
the operation of Union, Concatenation and Kleene (*).
Regular Expression :-
• Regular Language can be described by an explicit formula.
• It is common to simplify the formula slightly by leaving out the set brackets {} or replacing them
with parenthesis () and replace U by +. The result is called Regular Expression.
Language Regular Expression
1. {^} ^
2. {0} 0
3. {001} 001
4. {0,1} 0+1
5. {0,10} 0+10
6. {1,0}110 (1+0)110
7. {110}*{0,1} (110)*(0+1)
8. {1}*{10} (1)*(10)
9. {10,111,11010}* (10+111+11010)*
10. {0,10}*({11}*U{001,^}) (0+10)*((11)*+(001+^))
Table 2.1. Regular Expression More
Examples of regular Expression
1. 0 or 1
0+1
2. 0 or 11 or 111
0+11+111
3. Regular expression over ∑={a,b,c} that represent all string of length 3. (a+b+c)(a+b+c)(a+b+c)
4. String having zero or more a.
a*
5. String having one or more a.
a+
6. All binary string.
(0+1)*
7. 0 or more occurrence of either a or b or both
(a+b)*
8. 1 or more occurrence of either a or b or both
(a+b)+

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

9. Binary no. ends with 0

(0+1)*0
10. Binary no. ends with 1
(0+1)*1
11. Binary no. starts and ends with 1.
1(0+1)*1
12. String starts and ends with same character.
0(0+1)*0 or a(a+b)*a
1(0+1)*1 b(a+b)*b 13.
All string of a and b starting with a
a(a/b)*
14. String of 0 and 1 ends with 00.
(0+1)*00
15. String ends with abb.
(a+b)*abb
16. String starts with 1 and ends with 0.
1(0+1)*0
17. All binary string with at least 3 characters and 3rd character should be zero.
(0+1)(0+1)0(0+1)*
18. Language which consist of exactly two b’s over the set ∑={a,b}
a*ba*ba*
19. ∑={a,b} such that 3rd character from right end of the string is always a.
(a+b)*a(a+b)(a+b)
20. Any no. of a followed by any no. of b followed by any no. of c.
a*b*c*
21. String should contain at least 3 one.
(0+1)*1(0+1)*1(0+1)*1(0+1)*
22. String should contain exactly two 1’s
0*10*10*
23. Length of string should be at least 1 and at most 3.
(0+1) + (0+1) (0+1) + (0+1) (0+1) (0+1)
24. No.of zero should be multiple of 3
(1*01*01*01*)*
25. ∑={a,b,c} where a should be multiple of 3. ((b+c)*a (b+c)*a (b+c)*a (b+c)*)* 26. Even no.
of 0.
(1*01*01*)*
27. Odd no. of 1.
0*(10*10*)*10*
28. String should have odd length.
(0+1)((0+1)(0+1))*

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

29. String should have even length.

((0+1)(0+1))*
30. String start with 0 and has odd length.
0((0+1)(0+1))*
31. String start with 1 and has even length.
1(0+1)((0+1)(0+1))*
32. Even no of 1
(0*10*10*)*
33. String of length 6 or less
(0+1+^)6
34. String ending with 1 and not contain 00.
(1+01)+
35. All string begins or ends with 00 or 11.
(00+11)(0+1)*+(0+1)*(00+11)
36. Language of all string containing both 11 and 00 as substring.
((0+1)*00(0+1)*11(0+1)*)+ ((0+1)*11(0+1)*00(0+1)*) 37. Language of C identifier.
(_+L)(_+L+D)*

2. Definition of Finite Automata.

A finite Automata or finite state machine is a 5-tuple(Q,∑,q0,A,δ) where,
Q is finite set of states;
∑ is finite alphabet of input symbols;
q0 Q (Initial state); A (set
of accepting states);
δ is a function from Q×∑→Q(Transition function);
For any element q of Q and any symbol a ∑, we interpret δ (q, a) as the state to which the Finite
Automata moves, if it is in state q and receives the input a.
Application of finite automata
A finite automaton is used to solve several common types of computer algorithm. Some of them are:
1. Design of digital circuit.
2. String matching.
3. Communication protocols for information exchange.
4. Lexical analysis phase of a compiler.

3. The Extended transition function δ* for FA.

Let M= (Q,∑,q0,A,δ) be an Finite Automata. We define the function δ*: Q×∑*→Q as follow:
1) For any q Q, δ*(q,^)=q

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

2) For any q Q, y ∑*, and a ∑

δ*(q, ya)= δ(δ*(q, y),a) Example:

a b c
q q1 q2 q3

Fig 2.1 Finite Automata

δ*(q,abc)
δ(δ*(q,ab),c) δ(δ*(
δ*(q,a),b),c) δ(δ(δ*
(q,^a),b),c)
δ(δ(δ(δ*(q,^),a),b),c)
δ(δ(δ(q,a),b),c)
δ(δ(q1,b),c) δ(q2,c)
q3

4. Acceptance by an Finite Automata.

Let M= (Q1, ∑, q0, A, δ) be an FA. A string x ∑* is accepted by M if δ*(q0, x) A. If string is not accepted,
we can say it is rejected by M. The language accepted by M, or the language recognized by M, is
the set L(M) = {x ∑*/x is accepted by M} If L is any Language over ∑, L is accepted or recognized
by M if and only if L=L(M).

5. Draw Finite Automata for following:

1. The string with next to last symbol as 0.
0

1 C
0

A 0 B 1
1
D
1 0

Fig 2.2 Finite Automata for next to last symbol as 0

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

2. The string with number of 0s and number of 1s are odd

1
Odd 0 Odd 0
Odd 1 Even 1
1
0 0 0 0
1
Odd 1 Even 1
Even 0 Even 0
1
Fig 2.3 Finite Automata for number of 0s and number of 1s are odd

3. The string ending in 10 or 11.

1
0 C
1
1
0
A B 0

0 1 D

Fig 2.4 Finite Automata for string ending in 10 or 11

4. The string corresponding to Regular expression {00}*{11}*

0,1
1
0 D
0
0 0 1 0
1
A 1 B

Fig 2.5 Finite Automata for {00}*{11}*

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

5. (a+b)*baaa
b
a B a
b
b
A C
b
b
a
a
a
E D

Fig 2.6 Finite Automata for (a+b)*baaa

6. Find a string of minimum length in {0,1}* not in the language

corresponding to the regular expression: 1*(0+10)*1*
The smallest string = 0110

7. Define Dead end state.

Dead state are those non accepting states whose transitions for every input symbols terminate on
themselves.
0, 1 0, 1 0, 1 0, 1
q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

Fig 2.7 Dead end state

Ex: all strings of length at most 3. The string of length >3 should be rejected through a dead state or
a failure state. In above example dead state is q4.

8. Union, Intersection & Compliment operation on Finite Automata

Suppose M1=(Q1,∑,q1,A1,δ1)
M2=(Q2,∑,q2,A2,δ2)
Accept languages L1 and L2 respectively. Let M be an Finite Automata defined by
M=(Q,∑,q0,A,δ) where,
Q=Q1×Q2
q0=( q1, q2) and transition function δ is defined by the formula
δ((p,q),a)=(δ1(p,a), δ2(q,a)) for any p Q1 and q Q2 and a ∑ then
1) if A={(p,q) / p A1 or q A2}, M accept the language L1 U L2;

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2) if A={(p,q) / p A1 and q A2}, M accept the language L1 ∩ L2; 3) if A={(p,q) / p

A1 and q A2}, M accept the language L1 - L2.
9. Draw Finite Automata for following languages:
L1={x/x 00 is not substring of x, x {0,1}*}
L2={x/x ends with 01, x {0,1}*}
Draw finite Automata for L1 U L2, L1∩ L2 and L1-L2.
M1 1 0,1
0

A B 0
C

Fig 2.8 Finite Automata for 00 is not substring

1 0

0 1
P Q R
0

1
M2
Fig 2.9 Finite Automata for string ending in 01
Here Q1={A,B,C} and Q2={P,Q,R} So,Q =
Q1×Q2 ={AP,AQ,AR,BP,BQ,BR,CP,CQ,CR}
q0=(q1,q2)=(A,P)
δ((A,P),0) = (δ(A,0), δ(P,0))
= BQ
δ((A,P),1) = (δ(A,1), δ(P,1))
= AP
δ((B,Q),0) = (δ(B,0), δ(Q,0))
= CQ
δ((B,Q),1) = (δ(B,1), δ(Q,1))
= AR
δ((C,Q),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(Q,0))
= CQ
δ((C,Q),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(Q,1))
= CR

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δ((A,R),0) = (δ(A,0), δ(R,0))

= BQ
δ((A,R),1) = (δ(A,1), δ(R,1))
= AP
δ((C,R),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(R,0))
= CQ
δ((C,R),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(R,1))
= CP
δ((C,P),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(P,0))
= CQ
δ((C,P),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(P,1))
= CP
L1-L2
0
0
1 BQ CQ
0 0 1

0 0
AP 1 1 CP

1 1
AR CR
Fig 2.10 Finite Automata for L1-L2

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10. Draw Finite Automata for following languages:

L1={x/x 11 is not substring of x, x {0,1}*}
L2={x/x ends with 10, x {0,1}*}
Draw finite Automata for L1∩ L2 and L1-L2.
(Most IMP)
Fig. 2.13 Finite Automata for 11 is not substring

0 1

1 0
P Q R

1
M1 M2 0
0 1
0, 1 1
A B C
0

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Fig. 2.14 Finite Automata for string ending in 10

Here Q1={A,B,C}, Q2={P,Q,R}
So, Q = Q1×Q2 ={AP,AQ,AR,BP,BQ,BR,CP,CQ,CR}
q0=(q1,q2)
q0=(A,P)
δ((A,P),0) = (δ(A,0), δ(P,0))
= AP
δ((A,P),1) = (δ(A,1), δ(P,1))
= BQ
δ((B,Q),0) = (δ(B,0), δ(Q,0))
= AR
δ((B,Q),1) = (δ(B,1), δ(Q,1))
= CQ
δ((A,R),0) = (δ(A,0), δ(R,0))
= AP
δ((A,R),1) = (δ(A,1), δ(R,1))
= BQ
δ((C,Q),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(Q,0))
= CR
δ((C,Q),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(Q,1))
= CQ
δ((C,R),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(R,0))
= CP
δ((C,R),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(R,1))
= CQ
δ((C,P),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(P,0))
= CP

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δ((C,P),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(P,1))

= CQ
L1 - L2
0 0

AP BP CP
1 0
1
1 1
AQ 1 BQ CQ
0
0
1
AR 0 BR CR

Fig. 2.15 Finite Automata for L1-L2

L1 ∩ L2
0 0

AP BP CP
1 0
1
1
1
AQ BQ CQ
0 1
0
1

AR 0 BR CR

Fig. 2.16 Finite Automata for L1∩L2

11. Draw the Finite Automata recognizing the following

language
• L1 ∩ L2
• L1 - L2
L1
1

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0 0
A B C
0,1
1

Fig. 2.17 Finite Automata

L2
1

0 0
A B C
0,1
1

Fig. 2.18 Finite Automata

Q1={A,B,C},Q2={A,B,C}
Q=Q1×Q2= {AA,AB,AC,BA,BB,BC,CA,CB,CC}
q0=(q1,q2) q0=(A,A)
δ((A,A),0) = (δ(A,0), δ(A,0))= BB
δ((A,A),1) = (δ(A,1), δ(A,1))= AA
δ((B,B),0) = (δ(B,0), δ(B,0))= CC
δ((B,B),1) = (δ(B,1), δ(B,1))= AA
δ((C,C),0) = (δ(C,0), δ(C,0))= CC
δ((C,C),1) = (δ(C,1), δ(C,1))= CC
L1 - L2
1

AA BA CA
0

AB BB CB
1

0
0,1
AC BC CC

Fig. 2.19 Finite Automata for L1-L2

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L1 ∩ L2

1
0,1

AA 0 BB 0 CC

1
Fig. 2.20 Finite Automata for L1∩L2

12. Definition: Nondeterministic Finite Automata.

A nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA) is a 5-tuple (Q,Ʃ,q0,A,δ) Where Q and Ʃ are nonempty finite
sets, q0 ∈Q, A ⊆Q, and δ : Q × Ʃ→2Q Q is a finite set of states; Ʃ is a finite set of input alphabets;
q0 ∈Q is the initial state;
A ⊆ Q is the set of accepting states; δ :Q ×
(Ʃ∪ {Λ}) →2Q is the transition function.
13. Definition: Non recursive Definition of δ* for an NFA.
For an NFA M=(Q,Ʃ, q0,A, δ), and any p ∈ Q, δ*(p, Λ)= {p}. For any p ∈ Q and x= a1a2….an ∈ Ʃ* (with n≥1),
δ*(p ,x) is the set of all states q for which there is a sequence of states p=p 0,p1,….pn-
1,pn = q satisfying
Pi ∈δ (pi-1 , ai) for each i with1 ≤ i ≤ n

14. Definition: Recursive Definition of δ* for an NFA

Let M=(Q,Ʃ, q0,A, δ), be an NFA. The function δ*: Q × Ʃ* →2Q is defined as follows.
1) For any q ∈ Q, δ*(q, Λ) = {q}.
2) For any q ∈ Q, y ∈Ʃ*, and a ∈Ʃ, δ*(q, ya)= U δ(r,
a)
r ∈δ*(q, y)

15. Definition: Acceptance by an NFA

Let M= (Q,Ʃ,q0,A,δ) be an NFA. The string x ∈Ʃ* is accepted by M if δ*(q0, x) ∩ A≠Ø. The language
recognized, or accepted, by M is the set L(M) of all string accepted by M. For any language L ⊆ Ʃ*,
L is recognized by M if L= L(M).

16. Using the Recursive Definition of δ* in an NFA.

Let M=(Q,Ʃ, q0,A, δ), where Q= {q0, q1, q2, q3}, Ʃ={0,1}, A= {q3}, and δ is given by the following table:

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q δ(q,0) δ(q,1)
q0 { q 0} { q0, q1}
q1 { q 2} { q 2}
q2 { q 3} { q 3}
q3 Ø Ø
Table 2.2 Transition Table

0,1
1 0 ,1 0,1
q0 q1 q2 q3

Fig. 2.21 NFA

Let us try to determine L(M) by calculating δ*( q0,x) for a few string x of increasing length. First
observe that form the non recursive definition of δ* it is almost obvious that δ and δ* agree for
string of length 1. We see from the table that δ*( q0,0)={ q0} and δ*( q0,1)={ q0, q1};

δ*( q0,11) = U δ( r,1)

r∈δ*{ q0,1}

= U δ( r,1)
r∈{ q0, q1}
= δ{ q0,1}U δ( q1,1)
= { q0, q1}U{q2}
= { q 0, q 1, q 2}

δ*( q0,01) = U δ( r,1)

r∈δ*( q0,0)

= U δ( r,1)
r∈( q0)
= δ( q0,1)
= {q0, q1}

δ*( q0,111) = U δ( r,1)

r∈δ*( q0,11)
= U δ( r,1)

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r∈ (q0, q1, q2)

= δ(q0,1)U δ(q1,1)U δ(q2,1)

= {q0, q1, q2, q3}

δ*( q0,011) = U δ( r,1)

r∈δ*( q0,01)
= U δ( r,1)
r∈ (q0, q1)

= δ(q0,1)U δ(q1,1)
= {q0, q1, q2}

17. Definition: A Nondeterministic Finite Automaton with Λ -

Transition.
A nondeterministic finite automata with Λ - Transition is a 5-tuple (Q,Ʃ, q0,A, δ), where Q and Ʃ are finite
sets, q0∈ Q, A ⊆Q, and δ : Q × (Ʃ∪ { Λ }) →2Q

18. Definition: Nondeterministic Definition of δ* for an NFA- Λ.

For an NFA- Λ M= (Q,Ʃ,q0,A, δ), states p,q∈ Q, and a string x = a1a2….an ∈Ʃ*, we will say M moves from p
to q by a sequence of transition corresponding to x if there exist an integer m ≥ n, a sequence
b1b2….bm ∈ Ʃ ∪ { Λ} satisfying b1b2….bm=x, and a sequence of states p= p0, p1… pm=q so that for each
i with 1 ≤ i ≤ m, pi ∈( pi-1 , bi ).
For x ∈ Ʃ* and p ∈δ*( p, x) is the set of all states q ∈ Q such that there is a sequence of transition
corresponding to x by which M moves from p to q.

19. Definition: Λ- Closure of a Set of States.

Let M=(Q,Ʃ, q0,A, δ), be an NFA – Λ, and let S ne any subset of Q. The Λ- closure of S is the set Λ(s)
defined as follows.
1) Every element of S is an element of Λ(s);
2) For any q ∈ Λ(s), every element of δ(q, Λ) is in Λ(s); 3) No other elements
of Q are in Λ(s);

20. Definition: Recursive Definition of δ* for an NFA- Λ.

Let M= (Q, Ʃ, q0, A, δ) be an NFA – Λ, The extended transition function δ*: Q × Ʃ*→2Q is defined as follows.
1) For any q ∈ Q, δ*(q, Λ) = Λ({q}).
2) For any q ∈ Q, y ∈Ʃ*, and a∈ Λ,

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δ*(q,ya)= Λ( U δ(r,a))
r∈ δ*(q,y)
A string x is accepted by M if δ*(q0, x) ∩ A ≠ Ø. The language recognized by M is the set L(M) of all strings
accepted by M.

21. Compare FA, NFA and NFA-^.

Parameter NFA FA NFA-^
Transition Non deterministic Deterministic Non deterministic
Power NFA is as powerful as FA is powerful as an It’s powerful as FA
DFA NFA
Design Easy to design due to More difficult Allow flexibility in
non-determinism to design handling NFA
problem.
Acceptance It is difficult to find It is easy to find ^-transition is useful
whether w ∈ L as whether w ∈ L as in constructing a
there are several transition are composite FA with
paths. deterministic. respect to union,
Backtracking is concatenation, and
required to explore star.
several parallel
paths.
Table. 2.3 Difference between FA, NFA, NFA-^

22. Applying Definitions of ^(S) and δ*

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0 1
0 1
P r S
^
^

^ W
q0

^ ^
0 0
t u v
1
0

Fig. 2.22 NFA-^

δ*(q0,^) = ^({q0})
= { q0,p,t}

δ*(q0,0) =^( U δ(r,0))

r δ*( q0,^)
= ^ (δ(q0,0) U δ(p,0) U δ(t,0))
= ^ (Ø U {p} U {u})
= ^ ({p,u})
= {p,u}

δ*(q0,01) =^( U δ(p,1))

r δ*( q0,0)
= ^ (δ(p,1)U δ(u,1))
= ^ ({r})
= {r}

δ*(q0,010) =^( U δ(p,0))

r δ*( q0,01) = ^ (δ(r,0)
= ^({s})
= {s,w,q0,p,t}

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23. Conversion from NFA to FA.

2
a b

1 b 4

a a
3

Fig. 2.23 NFA

δ*( 1,a) = {2,3}

δ*( 1,b) = {4}
q δ(q,a) δ(q,b)
δ*({2,3},a) = δ(2,a) U δ(3,a)
= {4} 1 {2,3} {4}
δ*({2,3},b) = δ(2,b) U δ(3,b) 2 {Ø} {4}
= {3,4} 3 {4} {3}
δ*(4,a) = {Ø}, 4 {Ø} {Ø}
δ*(4,b) = {Ø}
δ*({3,4},a) = δ(3,a) U δ(4,a) Table. 2.4 Transition Table
= {4}
δ*({3,4},b) = δ(3,b) U δ(4,b)
= {3}
δ*(3,a) = {4}
δ*(3,b) = {3}

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a b 3,4
1 2, 3

b a a
b

4 3
a

Fig. 2.24 Finite Automata

24. Convert NFA - ^ to FA

q δ (q,^) δ (q,0) δ(q,1)
A {B} {A} Ø
B {D} {C} Ø
C Ø Ø {B}
D Ø {D} Ø
Table. 2.5 Transition Table

C
0 0
1
0
^ ^
A B D

Fig. 2.25 NFA-^

δ*(A, ^) = {A,B,D}
δ*(A,0) = ^(U δ(r,0))
r∈ δ*( A,^)
= ^( U δ(r,0))
r∈(A,B,D)
= ^(δ(A,0)U δ(B,0)U δ(D,0))
= ^{A,C,D}
={A,B,C,D}
δ*(A,1) =^( U δ(r,1))

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r∈ δ*( A,^)
=^( U δ(r,1))
r∈(A,B,D)
= ^ (δ(A,1) U δ(B,1) U δ(D,1))
=Ø

δ*(B,^) = {B,D}
δ*(B,0) = ^ ( U δ(r,0))
r∈δ*( B,^)
=^( U δ(r,0))
r∈δ(B,D)
= ^(δ(B,0)U δ(D,0))
= ^{ C,D}
= {C,D}
δ*(B,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r∈δ*( B,˄)

=^( U δ(r,1))
r (B,D)
= ^(δ(B,1)U δ(D,1))
=Ø

δ*(C,˄) = {C}
δ*(C,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( C,˄)
=^( U δ(r,0))
r (C)
= ^(δ(C,0))
=Ø
δ*(C,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r δ*( C,˄)
=^( U δ(r,1))
r (C)
= ^(δ(C,1))
= ^{B}
= {B,D}

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δ*(D,˄) = {D}
δ*(D,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( D,^)
=^( U δ(r,0))
r (D)
= ^(δ(D,0))
= {D}
δ*(D,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r δ*( D,^)
=^( U δ(r,1))
r (D)
= ^(δ(D,1))
=Ø

C
0 1
0
1 0
0
0 0
A B D

0
Fig. 2.26 NFA
δ({A},0) = {A,B,C,D}
δ({A},1) =Ø
δ({A,B,C,D},0) = (δ(A,0) U δ(B,0) U δ(C,0) U δ(D,0))
= {A,B,C,D}
δ({A,B,C,D},1) = (δ(A,1)U δ(B,1)U δ(C,1)U δ(D,1))
= {B,D}
δ({B,D},0) = (δ(B,0)U δ(D,0))
= {C,D}
δ({B,D},1) = (δ(B,1)U δ(D,1))
=Ø
δ({C,D},0) = (δ(C,0)U δ(D,0))
= {D}
δ({C,D},1) = (δ(C,1)U δ(D,1))
= {B,D}
δ({D},0) = {D}

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δ({D},1) =Ø

0
1
ABCD BD
0
0
1
1 CD
A

1 0
Ø D
1
0,1 0
Fig. 1.27 Finite Automata

25. Convert NFA - ^ to FA

q δ (q,^) δ (q,0) δ(q,1)
A {B,D} {A} Ø
B Ø {C} {E}
C Ø Ø {B}
D Ø {E} {D}
E Ø Ø Ø
Table 2.6. Transition Table

1
0
0
^ B 1

A E

^
0
D
1

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Fig. 2.28 NFA -^

δ*(A,^) = {A,B,D}
δ*(A,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( A,^)
= ^ ( U δ(r,0)) r δ(A,B,D)
= ^(δ(A,0)U δ(B,0)U δ(D,0))
= ^{A,C,E}
= {A,B,C,D,E}

δ*(A,1) =^( U δ(r,1))

r δ*( A,^)
= ^ ( U δ(r,1)) r (A,B,D)
= ^(δ(A,1)U δ(B,1)U δ(D,1))
= ^(E,D)
= { ED}

δ*(B,^) = {B}
δ*(B,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( B,^)
=^( U δ(r,0))
r δ (B)
= ^(δ(B,0))
= ^{ C}
= { C}
δ*(B,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r δ*( B,^)
= ^( U δ(r,1))
r (B)
= ^(δ(B,1))
= {E}

δ*(C,^) = {C}
δ*(C,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( C,^) = ^ ( U δ(r,0))
r (C)
= ^(δ(C,0))

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=Ø
δ*(C,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r δ*( C,^) = ^ ( U δ(r,1))
r (C)
= ^(δ(C,1))
= ^{B}
={B}
δ*(D,^) = {D}
δ*(D,0) =^( U δ(r,0))
r δ*( D,^)
=^( U δ(r,0))
r (D)
= ^(δ(D,0))
= ^ {E}
= {E}
δ*(D,1) =^( U δ(r,1))
r δ*( D,^)
=^( U δ(r,1))
r (D)
= ^(δ(D,1))
= {D}
δ*(E,^) ={E}
δ*(E,0) =Ø
δ*(E,1) =Ø

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0 1
0

0 0 B 1

0,1
A E

0, 1
0
D

Fig. 2.29 NFA

δ({A},0) = {A,B,C,D,E}
δ({A},1) = {ED}
δ({A,B,C,D,E},0) = (δ(A,0)U δ(B,0)U δ(C,0)U δ(D,0)U δ(E,0))
= {A,B,C,D,E}
δ({A,B,C,D,E},1) = (δ(A,1)U δ(B,1)U δ(C,1)U δ(D,1) U δ(E,0))
= {E,B,D}
δ({E,D},0) = (δ(E,0)U δ(D,0))
= {Ø}U{E}
= {E}
δ({E,D},1) = (δ(E,1)U δ(D,1))
= {Ø}U{D}
= {D}
δ({B,E,D},0) = (δ(B,0)Uδ(E,0)U δ(D,0))
= {C,E}
δ({B,E,D},1) = (δ(E,1)U δ(D,1))
= {D,E}
δ({C,E},0) = (δ(C,0)U δ(E,0))
=Ø
δ({C,E},1) = (δ(C,1)U δ(E,1))
= {B}
δ({D},0) = {E}
δ({D},1) = {D}
δ({B},0) = {C}

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δ({B},1) = {E}
δ({E},0) =Ø
δ({E},1) =Ø

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

δ({C},0) = Ø δ({C},1)
= {B}

1 0
ABCDE BDE CE
0
0
1 0,1
Ø 0 1
A C 1

1
0 0,1 0
DE B
E
1

1 0
D
1

Fig.2.30 Finite Automata

Kleene’s Theorem Part-1 or

26. Prove: Any Regular Language can be accepted by finite automata.
Proof:
• On the basis of statement L can be recognized by FA, NFA and NFA-^. It is sufficient to so that
every regular language can be accepted by NFA- ^.
• Set of regular language over alphabet Ʃ contains the basic languages. Ø, {^} and {a} (a Ʃ) to be
closed under operation of union, concatenation, and Kleene*.
• This allows us to prove using structural induction that every regular language over Ʃ can be
accepted by an NFA-^.
• The basis step of the proof is to show that the three basic languages can be accepted by NFA^s.
• The induction hypothesis is that L1 and L2 are languages that can be accepted by NFA-^s, and
the induction step is to show that L1 U L2, L1L2, and L1* can also be accepted by NFA-^s. NFA-
^ for the three basic languages is shown below.

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

W a W

Ø {^} {a}
Fig. 2.31 Basic Languages for NFA-^
• Now, suppose that L1 and L2 are recognized by the NFA-^s M1 and M2, respectively, where for
both i=1 and i=2,
Mi=(Qi,ε,qi,Ai,δi)
• By renaming state if necessary, we may assume that Q1 ∩ Q2 = Ø. We will construct NFA-^s
Mu, Mc, and Mk recognizing the language L1 U L2, L1L2, and L1*, respectively.
Construction Of Mu

f1
q1
’
f1
^

qu
f2
^
q2
’
f2

Fig. 2.32 Construction Of Mu

• Construction of Mu = (Qu, ε,qu,Au,δu). Let qu be a new state, not in either Q1 or Q2 and let
Qu = Q1 U Q2 U { qu }
Au = A1 U A2
• Now, we define δu so that Mu can move from its initial state to either q1 or q2 by a ^ transition,
and then make exactly the same moves that the respective Mi would. Normally we define:
δu(qu,^) = {q1,q2} δu(qu,a) = Ø
for every a ∈ ε
And for each q∈ Q1 U Q2 and a ∈ ε U {^}, δu(qu,a)={
δ1(q,a) if q ∈ Q1} and { δ2(q,a) if q ∈ Q2}
• For either value of i, if x∈ Li, then Mu can process x by moving to qi on a ^-transition and then
executing the moves that cause Mi to accept x, on the other hand, if x is accepted by Mu, there
is a sequence of transition corresponding to x, starting at q u and ending at an element of A1 or
A2. The first of these transition must be a ^-transition from qu to either q1 or q2, since there
are no other transition from qu. therefore, since Q1 ∩ Q2 = Ø, either all the transition are
between of Q1 or all are between elements of Q2. It follow that x must be accepted by either
M1 or M2.

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Construction Of Mc
• Construction of Mc = (Qc, ε, qc, Ac, δc). In this case we do not need any new states, Let Qc = Q1
U Q2, qc=q1, and Ac = A2. The transition will include all those of M1 and M2 as well as a
εtransition from each state in A1 to q2.
• In other words, for any q not in A1, and α ∈ ε U {^}, δc(q,a) is defined to be either δ1(q,a) or
δ2(q,a), depending on whether q is in Q1 and Q2, for q ∈ A1.
δc(q,a)= δ1(q,a) for every a ε,
And δc(q,˄)= δ1(q,˄) U {q2}

f1 f2
^
qc=q1 q2
’ ’
f1 ^ f2

Fig. 2.33 Construction Of Mc

• On an input string x1x2, where xi Li for both value of i, Mc can process x1, arriving at a state
A1; jump from this state to q2 by a ˄-transition; and then process x2 the way M2 would, So that
x1x2 is accepted. Conversely, if x is accepted by Mc, there is a sequence of transition
corresponding to x that begins at q1 and ends at an element of A2. One of them must therefore
be from an element of Q1 to an element Q2, and according to the definition of δc, this can only
be a ˄- transition from an element of A1 to q2. Because Q1 ∩ Q2= Ø, all the previous transition
are between elements of Q1 and all the subsequent ones are between elements of Q2. It
follows that x=x1˄x2=x1x2, where x1 is accepted by M1 and x2 is accepted by M2; in other
words, x L1L2.
Construction Of Mk

q1
^ 1

qk

^ f1 f1’

Fig. 2.34 Construction Of Mk

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• Construction of Mk = (Qk, Ʃ, qk, Ak,δk). Let qk be a new state not in Q1 and let Qk=Q1U{qk}. Once
again all the transitions of M1 will be allowed in Mk, but in addition there is a ˄transition from
qk to q1 and there is a ˄-transition from each elements of A1 to qk. More precisely, δk(qk,˄)={q1}
and δk(qk,a)= Ø for a ε. for q A1, δk(qk,˄)= δk(qk,˄) U {qk}.
• Suppose x L1*. if x=˄ then clearly x is accepted by Mk. Otherwise, for some m≥1,x=x1x2….xm,
where xi L1 for each i, Mk can move from qk to q1 by a ˄-transition; for each i, Mk moves from
q1 to an element fi of A1 by a sequence of transition corresponding to xi; and for each i, Mk then
moves from fi back to qk by a ˄-transition.
• It follows that (˄x1˄) (˄x2˄)…… (˄xm˄)=x is accepted by Mk. On the other hand, if x is accepted
by Mk, there is a sequence of transition corresponding to x that begins and ends at q k. Since the
only transition from qk is a ˄-transition to q1, and the only transition to qk are ˄transition from
elements of A1, x can be decomposed in the form
x= (^x1˄) (˄x2˄)…… (˄xm˄)
• Where, for each i, there is a sequence of transition corresponding to xi from q1 to an element
of A1. Therefore, x L1*.
• Since we have constructed an NFA-˄ recognizing L in each of the three cases, the proof is
complete.

27. Draw NFA-^ for following regular expression.

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

1. (00+1)*(10)*

0 ^ 0

^
^

1
^

^ ^ 1 ^ 0

Fig. 2.35 NFA-^ for (00+1)*(10)*

2. (0 + 1)* (10+01)* 11

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Fig. 2.36 NFA-^ for(0+1)*(10+01)*11

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

3. (0 + 1)* (10+110)* 1

^
0

^
^

1
^

^ 1 ^ 0
^
^
^

1 ^ 1 ^
^
0

Fig. 2.37 NFA-^ for(0+1)*(10+110)*1

28. Finite Automata with Output.

• Finite automata has limited capability of either accepting a string or rejecting a string.
• Accepance of string was based on the reachability of a machine from starting state to final state.
Finite automata can also be used as an output device.
• Such machines do not have a final state.
• Machine generates output on every input.
• There are two types of automata with outputs:

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

1. Moore machine
2. Mealy machine
29. Moore Machine
• Mathematiically moore machine is a six tuple machine and define as Mo=( Q,Ʃ, ∆, δ , /\’,q0)
where
Q: A Nonempty finite set of state in Mo
Ʃ: A Nonempty finite set of input symbols ∆: A Nonempty finite set of outputs δ: It is transition
function which takes two arguments as in finite automata, one is input state and other is input
symbol. The output of this function is a single state, so clearly δ is the function which is
responsible for the transition of Mo.
/\’: it is a mapping function which maps Q to ∆, giving the output associated with each state.

q0 : Is the initial state of Mo and q0 ∈ Q.

Examples of Moore Machine
1. Design a moore machine for the 1’s compliment of binary number.

1 0

0
A,0 B,1

Fig. 2.38 Moore M/c for 1’s compliment

2. Design a moore machine to count occurance of “ab” as substring.
b a

a b
A,0 B,0 C,1

a
b

Fig. 2.39 Moore M/c to count occurances of ab

3. Construct a moore machine that takes set of all strings over {0, 1} and produces ‘A’ if i/p
ends witg ‘10’ or produces ‘B’ if i/p ends with ’11’ otherwise produces ‘C’.
1

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1 1
X,C Y,C Z,B

0 1
0 0

W,A

Fig. 2.40 Moore M/c for string ending in 10 or 11

4. Construct a moore machine that takes binary number as an i/p and produces residue
modulo ‘3’ as an output.
0 1 ∆
q0 q0 q1 0
q1 q2 q0 1
q2 q1 q2 2
Table 2.7transition Table

0 1

1 0
q0,0 q1,1 q2,2

1 0
Fig. 2.41 Moore M/c to produces residue modulo ‘3’

30. Mealy Machine

• It is a finite automata in which output is associated with each transition.
• Mathematiically mealy machine is a six tuple machine and define as Me=( Q,Ʃ, ∆, δ , /\’,q0) where
Q: A Nonempty finite set of state in Me
Ʃ: A Nonempty finite set of input symbols ∆: A Nonempty finite set of outputs δ: It is transition
function which takes two arguments as in moore machine, one is input state and other is input
symbol. The output of this function is a single state, so clearly δ is the function which is
responsible for the transition of Me.
/\’: it is a mapping function which maps Q x Ʃ to ∆, giving the output associated with each

transition.
q0 : Is the initial state of Me and q0 ∈ Q.

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Examples of Mealy Machine

1. Design a mealy machine for the 1’s compliment of binary number.

0/1
1/0

Fig. 2.42 Mealy M/c for 1’s compliment of binary

2. Design a mealy machine for regular expression (0+1)*(00+11).

0/x

B
0/n

A 1/n
0/n

1/n
C

1/y
Fig. 2.43 Mealy M/c for (0+1)*(00+11)
3. Design a mealy machine where Ʃ={0, 1, 2} print residue modulo 5 of input treated as
ternary (base 3).
1/4

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0/0 0/3
2/0 1/2

1/1 0/1 2/3 0/4

q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

2/2 1/3
2/1
2/4
0/2

1/0

Fig. 2.44 Mealy M/c to produces residue modulo ‘5’

31. Explain procedure to minimize Finite Automata

S-1: Make final state and non-final state as distinguish.
S-2: Recursively interacting over the pairs of state for any transition for
δ(p,x) = r δ(q,x) = s and for x ε. If r and s
are distinguishable make p and q as distinguish.
S-3: If any iteration over all possible state pairs one fails to find a new pair of states that are
distinguishable terminate.
S-4: All the states that are not distinguished are equivalence.

32. For following FA find minimized FA accepting same language.

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a 4

2 b
a a
b 5
1
a
b
b a
6 b
3

b a

7
b

3 5

Final state is {6}

And, Non-Final state is {1,2,3,4,5,7}
(6, 1), (6,2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 7) are distinguish pairs.
Consider pair (1,2)
δ(1,a)=2 δ(1,b)=3
δ(2,a)=4 δ(2,b)=5
Consider pair (1,3)
δ(1,a)=2 δ(1,b)=3
δ(3,a)=6 δ(3,b)=7
pair (2,6) is distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (1,4)
δ(1,a)=2 δ(1,b)=3

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

δ(4,a)=4 δ(4,b)=5
Consider pair (1,5)
δ(1,a)=2 δ(1,b)=3
δ(5,a)=6 δ(5,b)=7
pair (2,6) is distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (1,7)
δ(1,a)=2 δ(1,b)=3
δ(7,a)=6 δ(7,b)=7 pair (2,6) is
distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (2,3)
δ(2,a)=4 δ(2,b)=5
δ3(,a)=6 δ(3,b)=7 pair (4,6) is
distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (2,4)
δ(2,a)=4 δ(2,b)=5
δ(4,a)=4 δ(4,b)=5
Consider pair (2,5)
δ(2,a)=4 δ(2,b)=5
δ(5,a)=6 δ(5,b)=7
pair (4,6) is distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (2,7)
δ(2,a)=4 δ(2,b)=5
δ(7,a)=6 δ(7,b)=7 pair (4,6) is
distinguish, so It’s a distinguished pair. Consider pair (3,4)
δ(3,a)=6 δ(3,b)=7
δ(4,a)=4 δ(4,b)=5 pair
(6,4) is distinguish, so (3,4) is distinguish.
Consider pair (3,5)
δ(3,a)=6 δ(3,b)=7
δ(5,a)=6 δ(5,b)=7
Consider pair (3,7)
δ(3,a)=6 δ(3,b)=7
δ(7,a)=6 δ(7,b)=7
Consider pair (4,5)
δ(4,a)=4 δ(4,b)=5
δ(5,a)=6 δ(5,b)=7
pair (6,4) is distinguish, so (4,5) is distinguish.
Consider pair (4,7)
δ(4,a)=4 δ(4,b)=5
δ(7,a)=6 δ(7,b)=7 pair
(6,4) is distinguish, so (4,7) is distinguish. Consider pair
(5,7)
δ(5,a)=6 δ(5,b)=7
δ(7,a)=6 δ(7,b)=7

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

a b

b a 6
124 357

b
a
Fig. 2.46 Minimized Finite Automata

33. Define pumping lemma and its application.

Suppose L is a regular language. Then there is an integer n so that for any x L with |x|>=n, there
are strings u, v, and w so that
1. x=uvw
2. |uv|<=n
3. |v|>0
4. For any m>=0, uvmw L

Application: (Explain the application of the Pumping Lemma to show a Language is Regular or Not ) The
pumping lemma is extremely useful in proving that certain sets are non-regular. The general
methodology followed during its applications is :
• Select a string z in the language L.
• Break the string z into x, y and z in accordance with the above conditions imposed by the
pumping lemma.
• Now check if there is any contradiction to the pumping lemma for any value of i.
34. Use the pumping lemma to show that following language is not
regular: L = {ww|w ϵ {0,1}*}
Step 1: Let us assume that L is regular and L is accepted by an FA with n states.
Step 2: Let us chose the string
ῳ=anb anb
ῳ ῳ

| ῳ|=2n+2>=n
Let us write w as xyz with
|y|>0
And |xy|<=n
Since |xy|<=n, x must be of the form as.
Since |xy|<=n, y must be of the form ar | r>0
Now ῳ=anbanb= as ar an-s-rbanb

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Unit 2 – Regular Languages & Finite Automata

x y z
Step 3: Let us check whether x yi z
for i=2 belongs to L.
Xy2z= as a2r an-s-rbanb= an+rbanb
Since, r>0, an+rbanb is not of the form ῳῳ as the number of a’s in the first half is n+r and
second half is n. Therefore, xy2z L. Hence by contrdiction we can say language is not
regular.
35. Prove that the language L = {0n: n is a prime number} is not
regular.
Step 1: Let us assume that L is regular and L is accepted by an FA with n states.
Step 2: Let us chose the string
ῳ=ap ,where p is prime and p>n
| ῳ|= | ap| = p>=n
Let us write w as xyz with
|y|>0
And |xy|<=n
Since |xy|<=n, x must be of the form as.
We assume that y= am for m>0.
Step 3: Length of x yi z can be written as given below.
Xyiz= |xyz|+|yi-1|=p+(i-1)m
As |y|=| am |=m
Let us check whether P(i-1) m is prime for every i.
For i=p+1, p+(i-1)m= P+ Pm =P(1+m)
So xyp+1z L. Hence by contrdiction we can say language is not regular.
36. Use Pumping Lemma to show that following language is not
regular. L = { wwR / w ε {0,1}* }
Step 1: Let us assume that L is regular and L is accepted by an FA with n states.
Step 2: Let us chose the string
ῳ=anb ban
ῳ ῳR

| ῳ|=2n+2>=n
Let us write w as xyz with
|y|>0
And |xy|<=n
Since |xy|<=n, x must be of the form as.

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Since |xy|<=n, y must be of the form ar | r>0

Now ῳ=anbban= as ar an-s-rbban
x y z
Step 3: Let us check whether x yi z for i=2 belongs to L.
Xy2z= as a2r an-s-rbban= an+rbban
Since, r>0, an+rbban is not of the form ῳῳR as the string starts with (n+r) a’s but ends in (n)
a’s. Therefore, Xy2z L. Hence by contrdiction we can say language is not regular.

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

1. Define: Context Free Grammar & Context Free Language.

Context Free Grammar:
A context free grammar is a 4-tuple G=(V,Ʃ,S,P) where,
V is finite set of non terminals,
Ʃ is disjoint finite set of terminals,
S is an element of V and it’s a start symbol,
P is a finite set formulas of the form A→α where A ∈ V and α∈ (V U Ʃ)*.
Application of Context Free Grammar(CFG):
1) CFG are extensively used to specify the syntax of programming language. 2)
CFG is used to develop a parser.
Context Free Language:
Language generated by CFG is called context free language.
Let G= (V, Ʃ, S, P) be a CFG. The Language generated by G is
L(G) : {x ∈Ʃ*/S⟹G* x}
A language L is a context free Language(CFL) if, there is a CFG G so that L=L(G)

2. Define: Regular Grammar.

A grammar G=(V,Ʃ,S,P) is regular if every production takes one of the two forms,
B→aC
B→a
Where B and C are Nonterminals and a is terminal.

3. Give Recursive Definitions for following.

I. Recursive Definition of
{a,b}* 1. ˄∈L.
2. For any S∈L, Sa∈L.
3. For any S∈L, Sb∈L.
4. No other strings are in L.
II. Recursive Definition of Palindrome (pal)
1. ˄, a, b ∈ pal
2. For any S ∈ pal , aSa ∈ pal and bSb ∈ pal
3. No other string are in pal
III. The language {anbn / n≥0}
1. ˄∈ L
2. For every x ∈ L, axb ∈L
3. No other strings are in L

4. Write CFG for following.

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

1) Write CFG for ab*

S→aX
X→˄| bX
2) Write CFG for a*b*
S→XY
X→aX|˄
Y→bY|˄
3) Write CFG for (011+1)*(01)*
S→AB
A→011A | 1A | ^
B→01B | ^
4) Write CFG which contains at least three times 1.
S→A1A1A1A
A→0A | 1A | ^
5) Write CFG that must start and end with same symbol. S→0A0 | 1A1
A→0A | 1A | ^
6) The language of even & odd length palindrome string over {a,b} S→aSa|bSb|a|b|˄
7) No. of a and no. of b are same S→aSb|bSa|˄ 8) Write CFG for regular
expression (a+b)*a(a+b)*a(a+b)*
S→XaXaX
X→aX|bX|˄
9) Write CFG for L={aibjck | i=j or j=k}
For i=j for j=k
S->AB S->CD
A->aAb | ab C->aC | a
B->cB | c D->bDc | bc
i j k
10) Write CFG for L={ a b c | j>i+k}
S→ABC
A→aAb |˄
B→bB | b
C→bCc |˄
11) Write CFG for L={ 0i1j0k | j>i+k}
S→ABC
A→0A1 |˄
B→1B | 1
C→1C0 |˄

5. Define: Types of Derivation & Ambiguity.

There are mainly two types of derivations.

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

1. Left most derivation

2. Right most derivation
Let Consider the CFG with the Production S→S+S | S-S | S*S | S/S |(S)| a

Left Most Derivation Right Most Derivation

A derivation of a string W in a grammar G is A derivation of a string W in a grammar G is
a Left most derivation if at every step the left a Right most derivation if at every step the
most nonterminal is replaced right most nonterminal is replaced
Consider string a*a-a Consider string: a-a/a
S→S-S S→S-S
S*S-S S-S/S
a*S-S a*a-S S-S/a S-a/a
a*a-a a-a/a

Equivalent left most derivation tree Equivalent Right most derivation tree
S S

S - S S - S

S * S a a S
S /

a a a a

Table 3.1 Difference between left most & right most derivation An
Ambiguous CFG :
A context free grammar G is ambiguous if there is at least one string in L(G) having two or more
distinct derivation tree. (or, equivalently two or more distinct leftmost derivation or rightmost
derivation)
1) Prove that given grammar is ambiguous. S→S+S | S-S | S*S | S/S | (S) |a String
: a+a+a
S→S+S S→S+S a+S S+S+S a+S+S a+S+S a+a+S a+a+S
a+a+a a+a+a

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

S S SS

a + S S S + a

S + S + S
a a a a

Fig. 3.1 Two left most derivation tree for string a+a+a
Here, we have two left most derivation for string a+a+a hence, above grammar is ambiguous.

2) Prove that S->a | Sa | bSS | SSb | SbS is ambiguous String:

baaab
S→bSS S→SSb baS bSSSb baSSb baSSb baaSb baaSb
baaab baaab
We have two left most derivation for string baaab hence, above grammar is ambiguous.

6. Conversion from Finite Automata to Grammar.

1
0

1 0
A B C

0
Fig. 3.2 Finite Automata
Equivalent CFG
A→0A
A→1B
B→1B
B→0C
B→0
C→0A
C→1B

7. Backus-Naur Form (BNF)

• BNF is one of the notation techniques for context free grammar.
• It is often used to describe syntax of the language used in computing.

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

• BNF is shorthand notation for CFG.

• Following grammar uses the notation known as Backus Naur Form. Here, variables written
between <..> are non terminals and vertical bar ‘|’ indicating a alternate choice. Apart from the
familiar notation =, | and <..>, a new element here is […], which is used to enclosed an optional
specification.
Example:
<exp>=<exp> + <term> | <term>
<term>=<term> * <factor> | <factor>
<factor>=<factor> ^ <primary> | <primary>
<primary>=<id> | <const>
<id>=<letter>
<const>=[+/-]<digit>
<letter>=a | b | c |……| z
<digit>=0 | 1 |………….| 9

8. Simplified forms & Normal forms.

Definition: Nullable Variable
A Nullable variable in a CFG G=(V,Ʃ,S,P) is defined as follows:
1) Any variable A for which P contains A→˄ is nullable.
2) if P contains production
A→B1B2…..Bn where B1B2…Bn are nullable variable, then A is nullable. 3)
No other variables in V are nullable.
Eliminate ˄ production :
1) S→aX/Yb X→S/˄
Y→bY/b
Grammar after elimination of ^ production: S→aX/Yb/a
X→S
Y→bY/b
2) S→XaX/bX/Y X→XaX/XbX/˄ Y→ab
Grammar after elimination of ^ production:
S→XaX/bX/Y/aX/Xa/a/b
X→XaX/aX/Xa/a/XbX/Xb/bX/b
Y→ab
Definition: Unit Production
Unit productions are always in the form of A→B. Where A & B are single non terminals.
Eliminate Unit Production:
1) S→ABA/BA/AA/AB/A/B A→aA/a B→bB/b
Grammar after elimination of unit production:
Unit production are S→A and S→B

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

S→ABA/BA/AA/AB/aA/a/bB/b
S→aA/a
S→bB/b
2) S→Aa/B A→a/bc/B B→A/bb
Grammar after elimination of unit production:
Unit production are S→B,A→B and B→A.
A→a/bc/B
A→a/bc/A/bb
A→a/bc/bb

B→A/bb
B→a/bc/bb

S→Aa/B
S→Aa/a/bc/bb

So CFG after removing unit production is:

S→Aa/a/bc/bb
A→a/bc/bb
B→a/bc/bb
Definition: Chomsky Normal Form
A context free grammar is in Chomsky normal form (CNF) is every production is one of these two
forms:
A→BC
A→a
Where A, B, C are nonterminals and a is terminal.
Step to convert CFG into CNF:
1) Eliminate ˄-Productions.
2) Eliminate Unit Productions.
3) Restricting the right side of productions to single terminal or string of two or more
nonterminals.
(Replace all mixed string with solid NTs)
4) Final step of CNF. (shorten the string of NT to length 2)

9. Convert following CFG to CNF:

S→aX/Yb
X→S/˄
Y→bY/b

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

Step-1: Eliminate ˄-Production:

Nullable production is X→˄, new CFG without ˄-production is:
S→aX/a/Yb
X→S
Y→bY/b
Step-2: Eliminate Unit Production:
Unit Production is X→S, new CFG without Unit Production is:
S→aX/a/Yb
X→aX/a/Yb
Y→bY/b
Step-3: Replace all mixed string with solid NT:
S→AX/YB/a
X→AX/YB/a
Y→BY/b
A→a B→b
Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
All NT strings on the RHS in the above CFG are already the required length. So,
CFG is in CNF.

10. Convert following CFG to CNF

S→AACD
A→aAb/˄
C→aC/a
D→aDa/bDb/˄
Step-1: Eliminate ˄-Production:
Nullable production is A→˄ and D→˄, new CFG without ˄-production
is: apply for A→˄ S→AACD/ACD/CD
A→ab/aAb
C→aC/a
D→aDa/bDb/˄ apply
for D→˄
S→AACD/ACD/CD/AAC/AC/C
A→ab/aAb
C→aC/a
D→aDa/bDb/aa/bb
Step-2: Eliminate Unit Production:
Unit Production is S→C, new CFG without Unit Production is:
S→AACD/ACD/CD/AAC/AC/aC/a

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

A→ab/aAb
C→aC/a
D→aDa/bDb/aa/bb
Step-3:Replace all mixed string with solid NT:
S→AACD/ACD/CD/AAC/AC/PC/a
A→PQ/PAQ
C→PC/a
D→PDP/QDQ/PP/QQ
P→a
Q→b
Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
S→AT1, T1→AT2 ,T2→CD
S→AU1,U1→CD
S→AV1,V1→AC
S→CD/AC/PC/a
A→PQ
A→PW1, W1→AQ
C→PC/a
D→PP/QQ D→PY1, Y1→DP
D→QZ1, Z1→DQ
P→a
Q→b

11. Convert following CFG to CNF S→S(S)/˄

Step-1: Eliminate ˄-Production:
Nullable production is S→^, new CFG without ˄-production is:
S→S(S)/(S)/S()/()
Step-2: Eliminate Unit Production:
Here, there is no unit production,
S→S(S)/(S)/S()/()
Step-3:Replace all mixed string with solid NT:
S→SXSY/XSY/SXY/XY
X→(
Y→)
Step-4 : Shorten the string of NT to length 2
S→ST1, T1→XT2, T2→SY
S→XV1 V1→SY
S→SU1 U1→XY
S→XY

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

X→(
Y→)

12. Unions, Concatenations and Kleen’s of Context free language.

Theorem:- If L1 and L2 are context - free languages, then the languages L1 U L2, L1L2 , and L1* are also
CFLs.
The proof is constructive: Starting with CFGs
G1 = (V1, Ʃ, S1,P1) and G2 = (V2, Ʃ, S2,P2) ,
Generating L1 and L2, respectively, we show how to construct a new CFG for each of the three cases.
A grammar Gu = (Vu, Ʃ, Su, Pu) generating L1 U L2. First we rename the element of V2 if necessary
so that V1 ∩ V2= Ø and we define
Vu= V1 U V2 U {Su}
Where Su is a new symbol not in V1 or V2. Then we let
Pu= P1 U P2 U { Su→ S1 | S2 }
On the one hand, if x is in either L1 or L2, then Su =>*x in the grammar Gu , because we can
start a derivation with either Su → S1 or Su → S2 and continue with the derivation of x in G1
or G2 . Therefore,
L1 U L2 L(Gu)
On the other hand, if x is derivable from Su in Gu, the first step in any derivation must be
Su=>S1 or Su=>S2
In the first case, all subsequent productions used must be productions in G 1 , because no
variables in V2 are involved, and thus x L1; in the second case, x L2. Therefore,
L(Gu) L1 U L2
A grammar Gc= (Vc, Ʃ, Sc, Pc) generating L1L2 . Again we relabel variables if necessary so that V1 ∩
V2 = Ø and define
Vc = V1 U V2 U {Sc}
This time we let
Pc= P1 U P2 U { Sc→S1S2 }
If x L1L2 then x = x1x2 , where xi Li for each i. we may then derive x in Gc as follows:
Sc =>S1 S2 => *x1 S2 => * x1x2 = x
Where the second step is the derivation of x1 in G1 and the third step is the derivation of x2
in G2. Conversely, if x can be derived from Sc, then since the first step in the derivation must
be Sc=>S1 S2 , x must be derivable from S1 S2. Therefore, x=x1x2, where for each i, xi can be
derived from Si in Gc. Since V1 n V2 = Ø, being derivable from Si in Gc means being derivable
from Si in Gi, and so x L1L2.
A grammar G* = (V, Ʃ, S, P) generating L1 *.Let
V = V1 U {S}

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Unit 3 – Context Free Grammar

Where S V1.The language L1 *contains strings of the form x = x1x2 …xk , where each xi L1.
Since each xi can be derived from S1, then to derive x from S it is enough to be able to derive
a string of k S1‘S. We can accomplish this by including the productions
S→S1S |
In P. Therefore, let
P = P1U { S→S1S | }
The proof that L1 * L(G*) is straightforward. If x L(G*) , on the other hand, then either x
= or x can be derived from some string of the form S1k in G* . In the second case, since
the only production in G* beginning with S1 are those in G1, we may conclude that x L(G1)k
L(G1)* .

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

1. What is Pushdown Automata?

• Pushdown automata is a computational model equivalent to context free grammar.
• A pushdown Automata is essentially a finite Automata with a stack data structure as shown
below.

i/p Finite Accept/Reject

Stack
Control

Stack

Fig. 4.1 Computational model of PDA

• A PDA can write an unbounded no. of stack symbols on the stack and read these symbols
later.
• Writing a symbol on to the stack is called “PUSH” operation.
• Removing a symbol off the stack is called “POP” operation.
• PDA can accept only the stacks top most symbol.
Definition of Pushdown Automata :-
A pushdown Automata(PDA) is a 7-tuple M= (Q,Ʃ,┌,q0,Z0,A, δ) where
Q is finite set of states.
Ʃ and┌ are finite sets, the i/p and stack alphabet respectively.
q0 is initial state.
Z0 is initial stack symbol, is an element of ┌.
A is a set of accepting states.
δ :Q × (ƩU{˄})×┌ →the set of finite subset of Q×┌*.
The function δ is called transition function of M.
Acceptance by a PDA:- if M= (Q,Ʃ,┌,q0,Z0,A, δ) is a PDA and x ∈ Ʃ* , x is accepted by M, If(q0,x,z0)
⊢m*(q,˄,α) for some α∈┌* and some q∈A. A language L⊆Ʃ* is said to be accepted by M if L is
precisely the set of strings accepted by M, in this case, we write L=L(M)

2. Deterministic Pushdown Automata.

• M= (Q,Ʃ,┌,q0,Z0,A, δ) be a pushdown Automata.
• M is deterministic if there is no configuration for which M has a choice of more than one
move.
• In other words M is deterministic if it satisfies both of the following condition:
1) For any q ∈ Q, q ∈ Ʃ U {˄} and X∈┌, the set δ(q,a,x) has at most one element.
2) for any q ∈ Q and X∈┌, if δ(q,˄,x) ≠ Ø then δ(q,a,x)= Ø for every a∈Ʃ.

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

• A language L is a deterministic context free language (DCFL) if there is deterministic PDA

accepting L.

3. Design a PDA for following CFG.

S→aSa/bSb/c OR
Design PDA for L={x xr/x {a,b}*}. The string in L are odd length
palindromes over {a,b} OR

Move State i/p Stack Symbol Move

No.
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b a (q0,ba)
5 q0 a b (q0,ab)
6 q0 b b (q0,bb)
7 q0 c Z0 (q1, Z0)
8 q0 c a (q1, a)
9 q0 c b (q1, b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ˄)
11 q1 b b (q1, ˄)
12 q1 ˄ Z0 (q2, Z0)
r
Table 4.1 Transition table for xcx

b,z0/bz0 a,a/ ^
a,a/aa
a,z0/az0
c,a/a ^,z0/z0
c,b/b q2
q0 q1
c,z0/z0

a,b/ab b,b/bb
b,b/ ^
b,a/ba

r
Fig. 4.2 PDA for xcx
Design PDA for palindrome with middle symbol c.
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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

String:abcba
Move No. Resulting State unread i/p Stack
Initial q0 abcba Z0
1 q0 bcba aZ0
4 q0 cba baZ0
9 q1 ba baZ0
11 q1 a aZ0
10 q1 ^ Z0
12 q2 ^ Z0

4. Design PDA for even-odd length palindrome.

Move No. State i/p Stack Symbol Move
1 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0) (q1,Z0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0) (q1,Z0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa) (q1,a)
4 q0 b a (q0,ba) (q1,a)
5 q0 a b (q0,ab) (q1,b)
6 q0 b b (q0,bb) (q1,b)
7 q0 ˄ Z0 (q1, Z0)
8 q0 ˄ a (q1, a)
9 q0 ˄ b (q1, b)
10 q1 a a (q1, ˄)
11 q1 b b (q1, ˄)
12 q1 ˄ Z0 (q2, Z0)
Table 4.2 Transition table for even-odd length palindrome
b,a/ba
^,b/b
a,a/aa
^,a/a

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

a,z0/az0 a,a/a b,b/ ^

b,z0/bz0 b,a/a a,a/^

b,b/b
^,z0/z0
q q1 q2
0
b,z0/z0
b,b/bb
a,z0/z0
a,b/ab
^,z0/z0
a,b/b
Fig. 4.3 PDA for even-odd length palindrome

String:aba
Move No. Resulting State unread i/p Stack
Initial q0 aba Z0
4 q0 ba aZ0
10 q1 a aZ0
12 q1 ˄ Z0
q2 ˄ Z0

5. Design PDA for L={anbn/a,b Ʃ,n≥0} or PDA for Number of a’s

and b’s are same.

Move State i/p Stack Symbol Move

No.
1 q0 ˄ Z0 (q2, z0)
2 q0 a Z0 (q0,aZ0)
3 q0 a a (q0,aa)
4 q0 b a (q1, ˄)
5 q1 b a (q1, ˄)
6 q1 ˄ Z0 (q2, z0)
Table 4.3 Transition table for Number of a’s and b’s are same.

String:aaabbb
Resulting State unread i/p Stack
q0 aaabbb Z0
q0 aabbb aZ0

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

q0 abbb aaZ0
q0 bbb aaaZ0
q1 bb aaZ0
q1 b aZ0
q1 ˄ Z0
q2 ˄ Z0
accepted
a,z0/ az0
a,a/ aa
b,a/ ^

b,a/ ^ ^,z0/z0
q q q2
0 1

^,z0/ z0
Fig. 4.4 PDA accepting Number of a’s and b’s are same.

6. Design and Draw a deterministic PDA Accepting “Balance string

of brackets”. OR
Design and Draw a deterministic PDA for following grammar
S→SS/[S]/{S}/˄
Move No. State i/p Stack Symbol Move
1 q0 [ Z0 (q1,[Z0)
2 q0 { Z0 (q1,{Z0)
3 q1 { { (q1,{{)
4 q1 [ { (q1,[{)
5 q1 { [ (q1,{[)
6 q1 [ [ (q1,[[)
7 q1 ] [ (q1,˄)
8 q1 } { (q1,˄)
9 q1 ˄ Z0 (q0,z0)

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

Table 4.4 Transition table for balanced string of parenthesis

{,[/{[
{,{/{{
[,z0/[z0 [,[/[[
{,z0/{z0
q0 q1
[,{/[{

^,z0/z0 ],[/˄
},{/ ^

Fig. 4.5 PDA for balanced string of parenthesis String:

[]{}
Resulting State unread i/p Stack
q0 []{} Z0
q1 ]{} [Z0
q1 ^{} Z0
q0 {} Z0
q1 } {Z0
q1 ˄ Z0
q0 ˄ Z0

Design PDA to accept string with more a’s than b’s.

7. OR
Design PDA for given Language L={x∈{a,b}*/na(x)>nb(x)}
Move State i/p Stack Symbol Move
No.
1 q0 a Z0 (q1,aZ0)
2 q0 b Z0 (q0,bZ0)
3 q0 a b (q0,˄)
4 q0 b b (q0,bb)
5 q1 a a (q1,aa)
6 q1 b a (q0,˄)
7 q0 ˄ a (q1,a)
Table 4.5 Transition table for more a’s than b’s

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

a,a/ aa
a,b/^
b,z0/ bz0
^,a/a
a,z0/ az0
q0 q1

b,b/bb
b,a/ ^
Fig. 4.6 PDA for more a’s than b’s
8. Design PDA for {anbn+m cm | n,m>=1}
Move No. State i/p Stack Symbol Move
1 q0 a Z0 (q1, aZ0)
3 q1 a a (q1, aa)
4 q1 b a (q2, ^)
5 q2 b a (q2, ^)
6 q2 b Z0 (q3,bZ0)
7 q3 b b (q3, bb)
8 q3 c b (q4, ^)
9 q4 c b (q4, ^)
11 q4 ^ Z0 (q5, Z0)
All other combination (none)
n n+m m
Table 4.6 Transition table for a b c

a,a/aa b,a/^ b,b/bb c,b/^

a,z0|az0 b,a|^ b,z0|bz0 c,b|^

q0 q1 q2 q3 q4

^,z0|z0

q5

Fig. 4.7 PDA for anbn+m cm

9. Design PDA for {aibjck | i,j,k>=1 & j=i or j=k}

Move No. State i/p Stack Symbol Move

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

1 q0 a Z0 (q1, aZ0)(q4,z0)
2 q1 a a (q1, aa)
3 q1 b a (q2, ^)
4 q2 b a (q2, ^)
5 q2 c Z0 (q3, Z0)
6 q3 c Z0 (q3, Z0)
7 q3 ^ Z0 (q7, Z0)
8 q4 a Z0 (q4, Z0)
9 q4 b Z0 (q5,bZ0)
10 q5 b b (q5, bb)
11 q5 c b (q6, ^)
12 q6 c b (q6, ^)
13 q6 ^ Z0 (q7, Z0)
All other combination (none)
i j k
Table 4.7 Transition table for a b c ,j=i or j=k

a,a/aa b,a/^ c,z0|z0

a,z0|az0 b,a|^ c,z0|z0 ^,z0|z0

q0 q1 q2 q3 q7

a,z0|z0
b,b/bb ^,z0|z0
a,z0|z0 c,b|^

b,z0|bz0 c,b|^
q4 q5 q6

i j k
Fig. 4.8 PDA for a b c ,j=i or j=k

10. Top-Down PDA corresponding to a CFG

• Let G=(V,Ʃ,S,P) be a CFG, we define M=(Q,Ʃ,┌,q0,Z0,A, δ) as follow: Q={ q0,q1,q2,} A={q2}
┌=VUƩU{Z0}
• The initial move of M is to place S on the stack and move to q1:

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

δ(q0,˄, Z0)={(q1, SZ0)}

• The only move to the accepting state q2 is fromq1, when stack is empty except for Z0:
δ(q1,˄, Z0)={ q2, Z0}
• Otherwise, the only moves of M are as follows
1) for every A V, δ(q1,˄,A )={ (q1, α)/A→α is a production
in G}
2) foe every a Ʃ, δ(q1,a,a)= (q1,˄) Example:
S→a/aS/bSS/SSb/SbS
Move No. State i/p Stack Symbol Move

1 q0 ˄ Z0 (q1,SZ0)

2 q1 ˄ S (q1,a) (q1,aS) (q1,bSS)

(q1,SSb) (q1,SbS)
3 q1 a a (q1,˄)

4 q1 b b (q1,˄)

5 q1 ˄ Z0 (q2, Z0)
Table 4.8 Top down PDA equivalent to CFG
(q0,abbaaa, Z0)
(q1,abbaaa, SZ0)
(q1,abbaaa, SbSZ0)
(q1,abbaaa, abSZ0)
(q1,bbaaa, bSZ0)
(q1,baaa, SZ0)
(q1,baaa, bSSZ0)
(q1,aaa, SSZ0)
(q1,aaa, aSZ0)
(q1, aa,SZ0)
(q1,aa, aSZ0)
(q1, a, SZ0)
(q1, a, aZ0)
(q1,˄, Z0)
(q2,˄, Z0)

11. Bottom-Up PDA for simple Algebraic Expressions.

S→S+T S→T
T→T*a
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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

T→a
Move Production Stack Unread i/p
Z0 a+a*a
shift - aZ0 +a*a
reduce T→a TZ0 +a*a
reduce S→T SZ0 +a*a
shift - +SZ0 a*a
shift - a+SZ0 *a
reduce T→a T+SZ0 *a
shift - *T+SZ0 a
shift - a*T+SZ0 -
reduce T→a*T T+SZ0 -
reduce S→S+T SZ0 -
(POP(S)) Z0 -
accept
Table 4.9 Processing a+a*a by Bottom up PDA

12. PDA to CFG

Set of production for equivalent CFG.
1. Add the following production for
the start symbol S.
S→[q0 z qi]
q0 initial state z
initial stake symbol
qi ∈ Q
2. For each transition of the form δ(
qi, a, B) →(qj, C)
where qi, qj ∈ Q
a ∈ (Ʃ U ^) B,
C ∈ (┌ U ^)
Then for each q∈ Q, add the production
[qi, B, q]→a[qj, C, q]
3. For transition of the form δ( qi, a,
B) →(qj,C1C2)

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

where qi, qj ∈ Q
a ∈ (Ʃ U ^) B,
C1, C2 ∈ (┌ U ^)
Then for each p1, p2 ∈ Q, add the production
[qi, B, p1]→a[qj C1 p2][p2 C2 p1]

13. Convert following PDA to CFG

state input stack New state stack
q 1 z q xz
q 1 x q xx
q ^ x q ^
q 0 x p x
p 1 x p ^
p 0 z q z

Solution:
Step 1: Add the production for the start symbol
S→[q z q]
S→[q z p]
Step 2: Add production for the δ( q, 1, z) →(q ,xz)
[q z q]→1[q x q][q z q]
[q z q]→1[q x p][p z q]
[q z p]→1[q x q][q z p]
[q z p]→1[q x p][p z p]
Step 3: Add production for the δ( q, 1, x) →(q ,xx)
[q x q]→1[q x q][q x q]
[q x q]→1[q x p][p x q]
[q x p]→1[q x q][q x p]
[q x p]→1[q x p][p x p]
Step 4: Add the production for δ( q, ^, x) →(q ,^)
[q x q]→^
Step 5: Add the production for δ( q, 0, x) →(p ,x)
[q x q]→0 [p x q]
[q x p]→0 [p x p]
Step 6: Add the production for δ( p, 1, x) →(p ,^)
[p x p]→1
Step 7: Add the production for δ( p, 0, z) →(q ,z)
[p z q]→0 [q z q]

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

[p z p]→0 [q z p]
Step 8: Renaming variable name
Original name New name
[q z q] A
[q z p] B
[p z q] C
[p z p] D
[q x q] E
[q x p] F
[p x q] G
[p x p] H
The set of production can be written as:
S→A|B
A→1EA|1FC
B→1EB|1FD
E→1EE|1FG
F→1EF|1FH
E→^
E→0G
F→0H
H→1
C→0A
D→0B
Step 9: simplification of grammar
Symbol G is not available on left side of grammar so, it can be eliminated.
S→A|B
A→1EA|1FC
B→1EB|1FD
E→1EE|^
F→1EF|1FH|0H
H→1
C→0A
D→0B

14. Intersection and complement of CFL (Non CFL)

Theorem:-There are CFLs L1 and L2 so that L1∩ L2 is not a CFL, and there is a CFL L so that L’ is
not a CFL.

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

we observed that
L= { aibjck| i < j and i < k } is not context-free. However, although no PDA can test both conditions
i < j and i< k simultaneously, it is easy enough to build two PDAs that test the conditions
separately. In other words, although the intersection L of the two languages
L1 = {a i bjck | i < j} and
L2 = {aibjck | i < k}
is not a CFL, both languages themselves are. Another way to verify that L1 is a CFL is to check it is
generated by the grammar with productions
S→ABC A→aAb|˄ B→bB|b C→cC|˄
Similarly, L2is generated by the CFG with productions
S→AC A→aAc|B B→bB|˄ C→cC|c
The second statement in the theorem follows from the first and the formula
L1∩ L2 =( L1’U L2’)’
If complements of CFLs were always CFLs, then for any CFLs L1 and L2, the language L1’and L2’
would be CFLs, so would their union, and so would its complement. We know now that this is not
the case.

15. Give the difference between Top Down & Bottom Up parsing.
Top Down Parsing Bottom Up Parsing

A parser is top-down if it discovers a A parser is bottom up if it discovers a

parse tree top to bottom parse tree bottom to top
A top down parser for a given In bottom up parsing, the source
grammar G tries to derive a string string is reduced to the start symbol
through a sequence of derivation of the grammar. Bottom up parsing
starting with a start symbol. method is also called shift reduce
Top down parsing methods are: parsing.
✓ Top down parsing(with Bottom up parsing methods are:
backtracking/without ✓ Naïve bottom up parsing
backtracking) ✓ Operator precedence parsing
✓ Recursive decent parser
✓ LL(1) parser ✓ LR parsing
Table 4.10 Difference between top down and bottom up parsing

16. Pumping lemma for CFG

Suppose L is a context-free language. Then there is an integer n so that for every u L with |u| ≥
n, thereare strings v, w, x, y, and z satisfying
1. u = vwxyz
2. |wy| > 0

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Unit 4 – Pushdown Automata, CFL & NCFL

3. |wxy| ≤ n for every m ≥ 0, vwmxymz L

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

1. What is Turing machine? Explain its capabilities.

A Turing machine is a 5-tuple T=(Q,∑, Γ,q0, δ) where,
• Q is a finite set of states not to contain ha and hr.
• ∑ and Γ are finite sets, the input and tape alphabets respectively.
• q0 is initial state.
• δ is a partial function. Capabilities
• Turing machine is capable of performing computations on inputs and producing a new
result. An abstract model of a Turing machine is shown below.
B B a b # c a B

Finite
control

Fig. 5.1 Abstract model of Turing machine

• Input to Turing machine is provided through a long tape. Turing machine provided with
read/write head.
• The tape is divided into square; each square holds a single symbol.
• The head is capable of performing 3 operations:
1. Reading a symbol being scanned.
2. Modifying a symbol being scanned.
3. Shifting either to previous square or next square.

2. Define Universal Turing Machine

• A general purpose computer can be programmed to solve different types of problem.
• A TM can also behave like a general purpose computer.
• A universal Turing machine is a Turing machine Tu that works as follows.
• It is assumed to receive an input string of the form e(T)e(z), where T is an arbitrary TM, z is a
string over the input alphabet of T , and e is an encoding function whose values are strings in
{0,1}*. The computation performed by Tu on this input string satisfies following two
properties:
1. Tu accepts the string e(T)e(z) if and only if T accepts z.
2. If T accepts z and produces output y, then Tu produces output e(y).
• UTM should be able to simulate every Turing machine. Simulation of a Turing will involve:
1. Encoding behavior of a particular TM as a program.
2. Execution of the above program by UTM.

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

• We can assume the UTM as a 3-tape Turing machine.

1. Input is written on the first tape.
2. Moves of the TM is encoded is written on the second tape.
3. The current state of TM is written on third tape.
3. Explain Church Turing Thesis.
• Turing machine is a general model of computation means that any algorithmic procedure that
can be carried out at all, by a human computer or a team of humans or an electronic
computer, can be carried out by a TM. This statement usually referred to as Church’s thesis,
or the Church-Turing thesis.
• It is not a mathematically precise statement that can be proved, because we do not have a
precise definition of the term algorithmic procedure. By now, however, there is enough
evidence for the thesis to have been generally accepted. Here is an informal summary of some
of the evidence.
1. The nature of the model makes it seem likely that all the steps crucial to human
computation can be carried out by a TM. Humans normally work with a two-dimensional
sheet of paper. A TM tape could be organized so as to simulate two dimensions; one likely
consequence would be that the TM would require more moves to do what a human could
do in one.
2. Various enhancements of the TM model have been suggested in order to make the
operation more like that of a human computer, or more convenient, or more efficient.
The multitape TM is an example.
3. Other theoretical models includes abstract machines with two stacks or with a queue, as
well as machines that are more like modern computers.
4. Since the introduction of the Turing machine, no one has suggested any type of
computation that ought to be included in the category of “algorithmic procedure” and
cannot be implemented on a TM.

4. Design a TM Accepting {a,b}*{aba}

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

hr
∆/∆,R ∆/∆,R
∆/∆,R

b/b,R
a/a,R

∆/∆,R a/a,R
a/a,R
b/b,R
q0 q1 q2 q3 ha

b/b,R

Fig. 5.2 TM accepting {a+b}*aba

5. Design a TM for accepting Palindromes for odd and even

length.

Fig. 5.3 TM accepting palindrome string

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

6. Design a Turing machine for accepting {anbncn/ n>=0}

7. Design a TM for Accepting {SS | S {a,b}*}

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

Fig. 5.5 TM accepting {ss | s ฀ {a,b}*}

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

8. Design a Turing machine to copy a string.

9. Design Turing Machine for Accepting {x {a,b,c}* / n a(x)=n

b(x)=nc(x)}

x/x,L x/x,R x/x,L x/x,R x/x,L

b/b,R b/b,L a/a,R a/a,L b/b,R a/a,L

c/c,R c/c,L c/c,R c/c,L a/a,R b/b,L

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

x/x,R

Fig.5.7 TM to accept na(x)=n b(x)=nc(x)

10. Design a Turing machine to delete a symbol

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Unit 5 – Turing Machine

11. Define: TM Enumerating a Language

Let T be a k-tape Turing machine for some k ≥ 1, and let L ⊆ ∑. We say T enumerates L if it operates
such that the following conditions are satisfied.
1. The tape head on the first tape never moves to the left, and no nonblank symbol printed
on tape 1 is subsequently modified or erased.
2. For every x ∈ L, there is some point during the operation of T when tape 1 has contents
x1#x2# . . . #xn#x#
for some n ≥ 0, where the strings x1, x2, . . . , xn are also elements of L and x1, x2, . . . , xn, x are
all distinct. If L is finite, then nothing is printed after the # following the last element of L.

12. Define: Context Sensitive Grammars

A context sensitive grammar is an unrestricted grammar in which every production has the form
α→β with |β|>=α
A context sensitive language (CSL) is a language that can be generated by such a grammar.

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Unit 6 – Computable Functions

1. Define the following terms:

Initial Function
The initial function are the following:
1. Constant functions: For each k ≥ 0 and each a ≥ 0, the constant function : Nk→ N is defined
by the formula
(X) = a for every X Nk
In the case k = 0 we may identify the function with the number a. 2.
The successor function s : N → N is defined by the formula s(x) = x + 1
3. Projection functions: For each k ≥ 1 and each i with 1 ≤ i ≤ k, the projection function :Nk→
N is defined by the formula
, … , xi, …., xk) = xi
Composition
Suppose f is a partial function from Nk to N, and for each i with 1 ≤ i ≤ k, gi is a partial function from
Nm to N. The partial function obtained from f and g1, g2, ... , gk by composition is the partial function
h from Nm to N defined by the formula h(X) = f(g1(X), g2(X), .. , gk(X)) (X ε Nm)
Primitive Recursion Operation
Suppose n ≥ 0, and g and h are functions of n and n + 2 variables, respectively. The function obtained
from g and h by the operation of primitive recursion is the function f : N n+1→ N defined by the
formulas f(X,0) = g(X)
f(X, k + 1) = h(X, k, f(x, k)) for every X Nn and every k ≥ 0.
Primitive Recursive Functions
The set PR of primitive recursive functions is defined as follows.
1. All initial functions are elements of PR.
2. For any k ≥ 0 and m ≥ 0, if f : Nk→ N and g1, g2, ... , gk : Nm→ N are elements of PR, then the
function f(g1, g2, ... , gk) obtained from f and g1, g2, ... , gk by composition is an element of
PR.
3. For any n ≥ 0, any function g : Nn+1→ N in PR, and any function h : Nn+2→ N in PR, the function
f : Nn + 1→ N obtained from g and h by primitive recursion is in PR.
4. No other functions are in the set PR.
Bounded Quantifications
Let P be an (n + 1)-place predicate. The bounded existential quantification of P is the (n + 1)-place
predicate Ep defined by
Ep(X, k) = (there exists y with 0 ≤ y ≤ k such that P(X, y) is true)
The bounded universal quantification of P is the (n + 1)-place predicate AP defined by
AP(X, k) = (for every y satisfying 0 ≤ y ≤ k, P(X, y) is true)
Unbounded Minimalization
If P is an (n + 1)-place predicate, the unbounded minimalization of P is the partial function MP : Nn→
N defined by

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Unit 6 – Computable Functions

Mp(X) = min {y | P(X, y) is true}

Mp(X) is undefined at any X ε for which there is no y satisfying P(X, y).
Nn
The notation μy[P(X, y)] is also used for Mp(X). In the special case in which P(X, y) = (f(X, y) = 0), we
write Mp = Mf and refer to this function as the unbounded minimalization of f.
Bounded Minimalization
For an (n + 1)-place predicate P, the bounded minimalization of P is the function mp : Nn+1→ N
defined by
min {y | 0 ≤ y ≤ k and P(X, y)} if this set is not empty mp(X, k) =
k + 1 otherwise
The symbol μ is often used for the minimalization
operator, and we sometimes write mP(X, k) =
y[P(X, y)]
An important special case is that in which P(X, y) is (f(X, y) = 0), for some f :Nn+ 1→ N. In this case mp
is written mf and referred to as the bounded minimalization of f. μ – Recursive Functions
The set M of μ - recursive, or simply recursive, partial functions is defined as follows.
1. Every initial function is an element of M.
2. Every function obtained from elements of M by composition or primitive recursion is an
element of M.
3. For every n ≥ 0 and every total function f : Nn+1→ N in M, the function Mf : Nn→ N defined
by
Mf(X) = μy[f(X, y) = 0] is an element of M.
4. No other functions are in the set M.
Gödel Number of a sequence of Natural Numbers
For any finite sequence x0, x1, … , xn of natural numbers, the Gödel Number of the sequence is the
number
gn(x0, x1, … , xn) = 2x03x15x2 … (PrNo(n))xn Where
PrNo(n) is the nth prime.
2. Theorem: Let f: Ʃ1*→Ʃ2*. Then f is computable if and only if f is
μrecursive.
Proof:
• As above, we denote by g1 and g2 the Godel-numbering function for the two alphabets, and by
g1’ and g2’ their respective left inverse.
• Suppose on the hand that f is computable, and let T f be a TM (whose tape alphabet contains
the symbols of Ʃ1 and Ʃ2) computing f.
• We want to show that pf :N→N is μ-recursive, it is sufficient to show that pf that a composite
Turing machine can be constructed form three simpler ones: one that takes the initial tape ∆1n
and halts with tape ∆ g1’; the TM Tf, which then halts with tape ∆f(g1’(n)); and a third that
calculates the Godel number of this string to yield the result, g2 (f(g1’(n)))= ρf(n).

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• On the other hand, suppose that f is μ-recursive. Then by definition, pf is μ-recursive. Let T be a
TM computing it. From the formula for pf we have
g2’(ρf(n))= g2’(g2(f(g1’(n))))
= f(g1’(n))
• for any n. applying this formula when n= g1(x), we obtain
f(x)=f(g1’(g1(x)))= g2’(ρf(g1(x)))
• Just as before, we can now construct a composite TM T f to perform this computation, and it
follows that f is computable.

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