Module

Statics
Unit 1: Composition and resolution of forces
Unit 2: Concurrent and parallel forces
Unit 3: Conditions for Equilibrium
Unit 4: Centre of Gravity for Component Bodies and bodies
from which part is removed
 Unit
Composition and
Resolution of Forces
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Finding the components of a force
3.2 Addition of Several Forces
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
A forced can be referred to as a vector quantity due to the fact that it consists of a
defined magnitude, direction and sense, it also adds according to the parallelogram
law. In statics, the basic problems involve finding the resultant force or resolving the
force into two components.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
1. Identify the components of a force
1.Add forces and resolve them into components using the Parallelogram Law.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Finding the component of a force
To study the pulling and pushing effect of a force in two specified directions, it is
sometimes necessary to resolve the force into two components.
Taking figure 5.1a as an example, F is resolved into two components along the two axes
defined by the u and v. A parallelogram is constructed in order to determine the
magnitude of each component. This is achieved by drawing two lines one parallel to u
and the other to v, originating from F. the lines are projected to intersect with u and v
forming a parallelogram as shwn in Figure 5.1b. Fu and Fv which are force components
are then established by simply joining the tail of F to the intersection points on the u
and v axes.
This parallelogram can then be reduced to a triangle, which represents the triangle
rule, Fig. 5.1c. From this, the law of sines can then be applied to determine the
unknown magnitudes of the components.

Figure 5.1
3.2 Addition of Several Forces
If more than two forces are to be added, successive applications of the parallelogram
law can be carried out in order to obtain the resultant force. For example, if three forces
F1, F2, F3 act at a point O, Fig.5.2, the resultant of any two of the forces is found, say,
F1 + F2—and then this resultant is added to the third force, yielding the resultant of
all three forces; i.e., FR
E = (F1 + F2) + F3. Using the parallelogram law to add more than two forces, as shown
here, often requires extensive geometric and trigonometric calculation to determine
the numerical values for the magnitude and direction of the resultant. Instead,
problems of this type are easily solved by using the “rectangular component method”.

Figure 5.2
Example 1
Resolve the horizontal 600 N force in Figure 5.3 below into components acting along
the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of these components

600 kg

Figure 5.3
Solution
The parallelogram is constructed by extending a line from the head of the 600-kg force
parallel to the v axis until it intersects the u axis at point B, Fig. 5.4a. The arrow from
A to B represents Fu. Similarly, the line extended from the head of the 600-kg force
drawn parallel to the u axis intersects the v axis at point C, which gives F v. The vector
addition using the triangle rule is shown in Fig. 5.4b. The two unknowns are the
magnitudes of Fu and Fv.

600 kg
600 kg
Figure 5.4a Figure 5.4b
Applying the law of sines,
𝐹 600 𝑘𝑔
=
sin 120 sin 30
𝐹 = 1039 𝑘𝑔
𝐹 600 𝑘𝑔
=
sin 30 sin 30
𝐹 = 600 𝑘𝑔
The result for Fu shows that sometimes a component can have a greater magnitude
than the resultant.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. How can the parallelogram law be applied to resolve more than two forces.

4.0 Conclusion
The parallelogram law is applied in order to resolve forces into components.

5.0 Summary
Two forces add according to the parallelogram law. The components form the sides of
the parallelogram and the resultant is the diagonal.
To find the components of a force along any two axes, extend lines from the head of
the force, parallel to the axes, to form the components.
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
Determine the magnitude of the component force F in Fig. 5.5 and the magnitude of
the resultant force FR if FR is directed along the positive y axis.

600

Figure 5.5

7.0 References/Further Reading

R.C. Hibbeler Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics Stefan Lindstrom
Lectures on Engineering Mechanics
Robert G. Brown (2013) Introductory Physics I Elementary Mechanics
Hugh D. Young Roger A. Freedman 2012 Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics
with Modern Physics Hugh D. Young
 Unit
Concurrent and Parallel
forces
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Definitions
3.2 System of Forces
3.3 Concurrent forces
3.4 Resultant of two concurrent forces
3.5 Parallel Forces
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In this unit we shall take a look at some characteristics of forces, and see how these
characteristics are used in solving force problems.

2.0 Learning Outcome

At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
1. explain the basic characteristics of forces
2. describe the classification of force systems
3. describe some force principles

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Definitions
Force is an external effort that in the form of push or pull that aims to produce motion
in a body at rest, change the velocity or direction of movement of a body in motion. A
force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑚 × 𝑎
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑘 × 𝑚 × 𝑎 …………………………………………………………………………………….(1)
Where, F is the force, m is the mass and a is the acceleration and k is the constant of
proportionality. The S.I. unit of force is Newton, which is defined as the force that is
required to move one-kilogram (kg) mass at an acceleration of 1 m/sec2.
A simple analogy of the definition above is when a ball lying on the ground is pushed.
It starts rolling as a result of the force exerted. However, if a large stone is pushed, it
may not move. This is due to the fact that the effort made has only tried to produce
motion but has not succeeded.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. What is the S.I. unit of force?

3.2 System of Forces

A system of forces results from two or more forces acting on body. Figure 5.6 a. A force
acting on a body can have either an external or internal effect on it.
When it affects the body externally, the forces either causes a change in motion or
induces reactions in the form of resisting forces as shown in Figure 5.6b. When the
effect is internal, the body tends to deform as a result of strain and/stresses. Figure
5.6c.

a b

c
Figure 5.6

3.3 Concurrent forces

A concurrent coplanar force system is a system of two or more forces whose lines of
action ALL intersect at a common point. Figure 5.7. However, all of the individual
vectors might not actually be in contact with the common point. These are the simplest
force systems to resolve with any one of many graphical or algebraic options.
The resultant of a concurrent forces system can be defined as the simplest single force
which can replace the original system without changing its external effect on a rigid
body

Figure 5.7

3.4 Resultant of two concurrent forces

For two concurrent forces F1 and F2 shown in figure 5.8 below, the magnitude of the
resultant (R) is given by;
𝑅2 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹22 − 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos 𝛾…………………………………………………………………………(2)
𝑅2 = 𝐹21 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos Ф………………………………………………………………………..(3)
The direction relative to F1 can be given by;
Ф
sin 𝛽 = …………………………………………………………………………………….(4)

Figure 5.8
Example
Determine the resultant force R and the angle ϴ between the resultant force and the
x-axis. Figure 5.10a

600kg

900kg

Figure 5.10a
Solution
The magnitude is given as

𝑅2 = 9002 + 6002 − 2(900)(600) cos 40

R= 1413.3
 900kg
600kg

Figure 5.10b
The angle α between R and the 900kg force is given as;
sin α sin(180 − 40)
=
600 1413.3
α = 15.8360
ϴ therefore is
ϴ = 15.8360 + 350 = 50.80

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. What is a coplanar force system?

3.5 Parallel Forces

A parallel coplanar force system consists of two or more forces whose lines of action
are ALL parallel. Figure 5.11. This is commonly the situation when simple beams are
analysed under gravity loads. These can be solved graphically, but are combined most
easily using algebraic methods

Figure 5.11
4.0 Conclusion
Any concurrent set of forces, not in equilibrium, can be put into a state of equilibrium
by a single force. This force is called the Equilibrant. It is equal in magnitude, opposite
in sense and co-linear with the resultant. When this force is added to the force system,
the sum of all of the forces is equal to zero.

5.0 Summary
You have learnt the following in this unit
A resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as two or move concurrent
forces.
A concurrent coplanar force system is a system of two or more forces whose lines of
action ALL intersect at a common point.
A parallel coplanar force system consists of two or more forces whose lines of action
are ALL parallel.

6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments

Determine the magnitude of the resultant force R if Fu=30N and Fv = 60N

7.0 References/Further Reading

Roger Muncaster, A Level Physics, 4th ed. (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1993)
R.C. Hibbeler Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics Stefan Lindstrom
Lectures on Engineering Mechanics
Robert G. Brown (2013) Introductory Physics I Elementary Mechanics
Hugh D. Young Roger A. Freedman 2012 Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics
with Modern Physics Hugh D. Young
 Unit
Conditions for
Equilibrium
Content
1.0 Learning content
2.0 Learning Outcome
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Conditions for Rigid-Body Equilibrium
3.2 Free-Body Diagrams
3.3 Equations of Equilibrium
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 Introduction
From Newton’s Laws of Motion, it can be deduced that an object will remain at rest
unless affect by an external force. Under this section, the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the equilibrium of a rigid body will be explored.
Learning Outcome
At the end of this unit, you should be able to;
1. Understand the conditions for equilibrium
2. Draw the free body diagram of a force system.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Conditions for Rigid-Body Equilibrium
Figure xx shows a body under the influence of an external force and a couple moment
system. Figure 5.12. This influence is as a result of forces from adjacent bodies such a
gravitational, electrical, magnetic or contact force.
a.
b.
c.

Figure 5.12
For the body to be said to be in equilibrium, the force and couple moment system
acting on the body can be reduced to an equivalent resultant force and resultant couple
moment at any arbitrary point O on or off the body.
If the resultant force and couple moment are both equal to zero, then the body is said
to be in equilibrium
𝐹 = ∑ 𝐹 = 0 ……………………………………………………………………………………………. (1)
(𝑀 ) = ∑ 𝑀 = 0 ……………………………………………………………………………………… (2)

The first equation states that the sum of the forces acting on the body is equal to zero,
the second equation states that the sum of all the forces in the system about point O
added to all the couple moments is equal to zero. These two equations are necessary
and satisfactory for the equilibrium of a rigid body.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1
 1. For the body to be said to be in equilibrium, the force and couple moment system
acting on the body can be reduced to an……………………………………………………………..

In the application of the equilibrium equations, it is assumed that the body doesn’t
deform under load but remains rigid. In reality all bodies deform when subjected to
loads, however, the deformation of some engineering materials such as concrete and
steel is minimal.

3.2 Free-Body Diagrams

Free body diagrams are drawn in order to in order to identify all the known and
unknown external forces acting on the body. It is a sketch of the body depicting it as
‘free’ of its environment. It is important to show all the forces and couple moments
that the surroundings exert on the body so that these effects can be considered when
the equations of equilibrium are applied.

3.2.1 Support Reactions

In order to draw free body diagrams, we must first consider the kinds of reactions that
occur at supports and points of contact between bodies subjected to coplanar force
systems. Generally,
1. A support prevents the rotation of a body in a given direction by exerting a
couple moment on the body in the opposite direction.
2. A support prevents the translation of a body in a given direction by exerting a
force on the body in the opposite direction.
For example, let us consider three ways in which a horizontal member, such as a beam,
is supported at its end. One method consists of a roller or cylinder, Fig. 5.13a. Since
this support only prevents the beam from translating in the vertical direction, the
roller will only exert a force on the beam in this direction, Fig. 5.13b.

Figure 5.13
The beam can be supported in a more restrictive manner by using a pin, Fig. 5.13c. The
pin passes through a hole in the beam and two leaves which are fixed to the ground.
Here the pin can prevent translation of the beam in any direction f, Fig. 5.13d, and so
the pin must exert a force F on the beam in the opposite direction. For purposes of
analysis, it is generally easier to represent this resultant force F by its two rectangular
components Fx and Fy, Fig. 5.13e. If Fx and Fy are known, then F and f can be
calculated.
The most restrictive way to support the beam would be to use a fixed support as shown
in Fig. 5.13f. This support will prevent both translation and rotation of the beam. To
do this a force and couple moment must be developed on the beam at its point of
connection, Fig. 5.13g. As in the case of the pin, the force is usually represented by its
rectangular components Fx and Fy.

Figure 5.13
Table 5.1 lists other common types of supports for bodies subjected to coplanar force
systems. (In all cases the angle u is assumed to be known.) Carefully study each of the
symbols used to represent these supports and the types of reactions they exert on their
contacting members.
Example
Two smooth pipes, each having a mass of 300 kg, are supported by the forked tines of
the tractor in Fig. 5.14. Draw the free-body diagrams for each pipe and both pipes
together.
 Figure 5.14
Solution
Removing the surfaces of contact, the free-body diagram for pipe A is shown in Fig. 5–
9c. Its weight is W = 300(9.81) N = 2943 N. Assuming all contacting surfaces are
smooth, the reactive forces T, F, R act in a direction normal to the tangent at their
surfaces of contact.

Figure 5.15
The free-body diagram of the isolated pipe B is shown in Figure 5.15. Can you identify
each of the three forces acting on this pipe? In particular, note that R, representing the
force of A on B, Figure 5.15, is equal and opposite to R representing the force of B on
A, Figure 5.15. This is a consequence of Newton’s third law of motion.
The free-body diagram of both pipes combined (“system”) is shown in Figure 5.15.
Here the contact force R, which acts between A and B, is considered as an internal
force and hence is not shown on the free-body diagram. That is, it represents a pair of
equal but opposite collinear forces which cancel each other.
Example
Draw the free-body diagram of the uniform beam shown in Fig. 5.16. The beam has a
mass of 100 kg.

Figure 5.16
Solution
The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig. 5.17. Since the support at A is fixed,
the wall exerts three reactions on the beam, denoted as Ax, Ay, and MA. The
magnitudes of these reactions are unknown, and their sense has been assumed. The
weight of the beam, W = 100(9.81) N = 981 N, acts through the beam’s center of gravity
G, which is 3 m from A since the beam is uniform.

Figure 5.17
4.0 Conclusion
Before analysing the equilibrium of a body, it is first necessary to draw its free-body
diagram. This is an outlined shape of the body, which shows all the forces and couple
moments that act on it.

5.0 Summary
For the body to be said to be in equilibrium, the force and couple moment system
acting on the body can be reduced to an equivalent resultant force and resultant couple
moment at any arbitrary point on or off the body.
Free body diagrams are drawn in order to in order to identify all the known and
unknown external forces acting on the body. It is a sketch of the body depicting it as
‘free’ of its environment.

6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments

Draw the free body diagram of the figure 5.18 below

Figure 5.18

7.0 References/Further Reading

Roger Muncaster, A Level Physics, 4th ed. (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1993)
R.C. Hibbeler Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics Stefan Lindstrom
Lectures on Engineering Mechanics
Robert G. Brown (2013) Introductory Physics I Elementary Mechanics
Hugh D. Young Roger A. Freedman 2012 Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics
with Modern Physics Hugh D. Young
 Unit
Centre of Gravity for
Component Bodies and
bodies from which part
is removed
Content
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcome
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Centre of Gravity
3.2 Centre of Mass of a Body
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
The knowledge of the resultant or total weight of a body and its location is important
when considering the effect this force produces on the body. The point of location is
called the center of gravity, and in this section, we will show how to find it for an
irregularly shaped body. We will then extend this method to show how to find the
body’s center of mass, and its geometric center or centroid.

2.0 Learning Outcome

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. discuss the concept of the center of gravity, center of mass, and the centroid.
2. explain how to determine the location of the center of gravity and centroid for a body
of arbitrary shape and one composed of composite parts.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Centre of Gravity
A body is composed of an infinite number of particles of differential size, and so if the
body is located within a gravitational field, then each of these particles will have a
weight dW. These weights will form a parallel force system, and the resultant of this
system is the total weight of the body, which passes through a single point called the
center of gravity, G*.
To show how to determine the location of the center of gravity, consider the rod in Fig.
5.19,

Figure 5.19
where the segment having the weight dW is located at the arbitrary position x .The
total weight of the rod is the sum of the weights of all of its particles, that is;
+↓ 𝐹 = ∑ 𝐹 ………………………………………………………………………………………………(1)
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊…………………………………………………………………………………………………(2)
The location of the center of gravity, measured from the y axis, is determined by
equating the moment of W about the y axis, Fig. 5.20,

Figure 5.20
to the sum of the moments of the weights of all its particles about this same axis.
Therefore,
(𝑀 ) = ∑ 𝑀 …………………………………………………………………………………………(3)

𝑥̅ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑊………………………………………………………………………………………….(4)
∫
𝑥̅ = ………………………………………………………………………………………………..(5)
∫

In a similar manner, if the body represents a plate, Figure 5.21, then a moment balance
about the x and y axes would be required to determine the location (x, y) of point G.
Finally, we can generalize this idea to a three-dimensional body, Fig. 9–1c, and
perform a moment balance about all three axes to locate G for any rotated position of
the axes. This results in the following equations.

Figure 5.21
∫ ∫ ∫
𝑥̅ = 𝑦= 𝑧̅ = ……………………………………………………………..(6)
∫ ∫ ∫

3.2 Centre of Mass of a Body

The dynamic response of a body can be determined by locating and studying the
body’s center of mass Cm. as shown in Figure 5.22.
 Figure 5.23
This is calculated by substituting dW = g dm into equation above. Provided g is
constant, it cancels out, resulting in;
∫ ∫ ∫
𝑥̅ = 𝑦= 𝑧̅ = ……………………………………………………………(7)
∫ ∫ ∫

Example
Locate the centroid of the rod bent into the shape of a parabolic arc as shown in
Figure 5.24

Figure 5.24
Solution
The differential element is shown in Fig. 9–8. It is located on the curve at the
arbitrary point (x, y)
The differential element of length dL can be expressed in terms of the differentials
dx and dy using the Pythagorean theorem.

𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐿 = (𝑑𝑥) + (𝑑𝑦) = + 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦
 Since x = y2, then dx/dy = 2y. Therefore, expression dL in terms of y and dy, we have

𝑑𝐿 = (2𝑦) + 1 𝑑𝑦
As shown Figure xx, the centroid of the element is located at 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑦.
Applying equations xx and using the integration formula to evaluate the integrals, we
get
1𝑚 1𝑚 2
∫𝐿 𝑥 𝑑𝐿 ∫0 𝑥 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦 ∫0 𝑦 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑥= = 1𝑚 = 1𝑚
∫𝐿 𝑑𝐿 ∫0 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦 ∫0 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦
0.6063
= 0.410𝑚
1.479
1𝑚
∫𝐿 𝑦 𝑑𝐿 ∫0 𝑦 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦 0.8484
𝑦= = 1𝑚 = = 0.574𝑚
∫𝐿 𝑑𝐿 ∫0 4𝑦2 + 1 𝑑𝑦 1.479

4.0 Conclusion
The centre of gravity G represents a point where the weight of the body can be
considered concentrated. The distance from an axis to this point can be determined
from a balance of moments, which requires that the moment of the weight of all the
particles of the body about this axis must equal the moment of the entire weight of the
body about the axis.

5.0 Summary
The centroid represents the geometric centre of a body. This point coincides with the
centre of mass or the centre of gravity only if the material composing the body is
uniform or homogeneous.
Formulas used to locate the centre of gravity or the centroid simply represent a balance
between the sum of moments of all the parts of the system and the moment of the
“resultant” for the system.

6.0 Tutor – Marked Assignments

Determine the distance y measured from the x axis to the centroid of the area of the
triangle shown in Figure 5.25
 Figure 5.25

7.0 References/Further Reading

Roger Muncaster, A Level Physics, 4th ed. (Nelson Thornes Ltd., 1993)
Robert G. Brown (2013) Introductory Physics I Elementary Mechanics
Hugh D. Young Roger A. Freedman 2012 Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics
with Modern Physics Hugh D. Young