Cutting Tools: IME 211 Workshop Technology

Subject: Facutly of Engineering Sem ester: Spring 2023
Mechatronics Departm ent Lecture: 6

Lecturer: Dr. Saleh Elfallah
IME 211
Cutting Tools Workshop technology
IME 211
 Machining
• Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from workpiece in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).
 Properties of cutting materials
• To be effective, the material from which a cutting tool is made must possess certain properties, the
most important of which are red hardness, abrasion resistance and toughness.
• Red hardness. The ability of a cutting tool to retain its hardness at high cutting temperatures is
known as red hardness. It is obvious that a cutting tool must be harder than the material being cut,
otherwise it will not cut. It is equally important that the cutting tool remains hard even when cutting at
high temperatures.
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• Abrasion resistance. When cutting, the edge of a cutting tool operates under intense pressure and
will wear due to abrasion by the material being cut. Basically, the harder the cutting-tool material the
better its resistance to abrasion.
• Toughness. A cutting-tool material which is extremely hard is unfortunately also brittle. This means
that a cutting edge will chip on impact if, e.g. the component being machined has a series of slots and
the cut is therefore intermittent. To prevent the cutting edge from chipping under such conditions, it is
necessary that the material has a certain amount of toughness. This can be achieved only at the
expense of hardness; i.e. as the toughness is increased so the hardness decreases. The choice of
cutting-tool material is governed by the type of material to be cut and the conditions under which
cutting is to take place, as well as the cost of the tool.
IME 211
• High-speed steels (HSS). HSS consist of iron and carbon with differing amounts of alloying elements
such as tungsten, chromium, vanadium and cobalt. They have a high resistance to abrasion but are
not tough enough to withstand high shock loads. These steels will cut at high speeds and will retain
their hardness even when the cutting edge is operating at temperatures around 600 °C. High-speed
steels are alloys that gain their properties from either tungsten or molybdenum or with a combination
of both. The tungsten-based grades are classified as T1, T2,… T15 and so on.
• Cemented carbides are produced by a powder metallurgy technique, i.e. by using metals in their
powder form. The final mixture of powders consists of various amounts of hard particles and a binding
metal. The hard particles give the material its hardness and abrasion resistance while the binding
metal provides the toughness. They are produced as tips and inserts of various sizes, shapes and
geometry. The most common hard particle used is tungsten carbide, but titanium, tantalum and
niobium carbides are often added in varying amounts. The binding metal used is cobalt.
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• Because each workpiece material has its own unique characteristics, influenced by its alloying
elements, heat treatment etc., this strongly influences the choice of cutting-tool material, grade and
geometry. As a result, workpiece materials have been grouped into six major groups, in accordance
with ISO standards, relative to their machineability. Each group is designated by a letter and colour.
 P (blue) – steel;
 M (yellow) – stainless steel;
 K (red) – cast iron;
 N (green) – non-ferrous, e.g. aluminium, copper, brass;
 S (orange) – heat-resisting super alloys;
 H (grey) – hard steels and chilled cast iron.
IME 211
• Cemented carbides are used in cutting tools for turning, boring, milling and drilling. Cemented carbides are also
available in the form of tips brazed to a suitable tool shank, or as an insert clamped in an appropriate holder.
The inserts are produced by mixing the metal powders in the correct proportions, pressing them to the required
shape under high pressure and finally heating at a temperature in the region of 1400°C, a process known as
sintering. The sintering stage results in the cobalt binding metal melting and fusing with the hard particles, or
cementing to form a solid mass - hence the term ‘cemented carbides’. During the sintering process, the insert will
shrink around 18% in all directions which represents around 50% of its original volume.
Cutting tool inserts
Tipped lathe tools 6

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IME 211
• The range of cutting tool materials from the toughest to the hardest is:
 Uncoated tungsten carbide; without any additional coating are used in moderate to difficult applications,
cutting steel, heat-resistant super alloys, titanium, cast iron and aluminium in turning, milling and drilling at
low speeds. The inserts produce sharp cutting edges and give a good combination of abrasive wear
resistance and toughness.
 Coated tungsten carbide; With the introduction of CNC drilling machines, lathes and machining centers
capable of high speeds and high metal-removal rates has led to the development of coated cemented
carbides which currently represents 80–90% of cutting tool inserts. Coated cemented carbide combines
cemented carbide with a surface coating which offers improved wear resistance and toughness, giving
longer tool life with the use of higher cutting speeds and feed rates and are the first choice for a wide
variety of tools and applications. Modern grades are coated with different carbide, nitride and oxide layers
often in combination. The most common coatings are titanium nitride, aluminium oxide, titanium
carbonitride and titanium aluminium nitride. 7
IME 211
 Cermet; A cermet is a cemented carbide with titanium based hard particles. The name cermet is a combination of
ceramic and metal. In comparison to cemented carbide, cermet has improved wear resistance and reduced
smearing tendencies (tendency of the workpiece material to smear or cling to the surface of the tool). These
properties are offset through having a lower compressive strength as well as inferior thermal shock which can be
avoided by machining without the use of coolant. Cermets can also be coated for improved wear resistance.
Typical applications are in finishing operations using low feeds and depth of cut where close tolerances and good
surface finish is required in workpiece material such as stainless steels, nodular cast iron and low-carbon steels.
 Ceramic; All ceramic cutting tools have excellent wear resistance at high cutting speeds. There are a range of
ceramic grades available for a range of applications. Oxide ceramics are aluminium oxide based with added
zirconia for crack inhibition. This produces a material that is chemically stable but lacks resistance to thermal
shock. Mixed ceramics are available where the addition of cubic carbides or carbonitrides improves toughness
and thermal conductivity. Whisker-reinforced ceramics use silicon carbide whiskers to dramatically increase
toughness and enable the use of a cutting fluid.
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IME 211
 Cubic boron nitride; Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (CBN) is a material with excellent hot hardness
and can be used at very high cutting speeds. It also has good toughness and resistance to thermal shock.
CBN consists of boron nitride with ceramic or titanium nitride binder and is brazed onto a cemented
carbide carrier to form an insert. CBN grades are largely used for finish turning hardened steel and high-
speed rough machining cast iron by turning and milling operations. CBN is used in applications that
require extreme wear resistance and toughness. CBN is referred to as a super hard cutting material.
 Diamond. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) is a composite of diamond particles sintered together with a
metallic binder. Diamond is the hardest and therefore the most abrasion resistant of all materials. As a
cutting-tool material, it has good wear resistance but lacks chemical stability at high temperatures. Usually
in the form of a brazed-in corner tip on an insert or as a thin diamond-coated film on a carbide substrate,
they are limited to non-ferrous materials, such as high silicon aluminium and non-metals such as carbon
reinforced plastics in turning and milling operations.
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Carbide High-speed steels (HSS)
Cubic Boron Nitride Diamond
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Tungsten carbide + cobalt
The hardness is next to diamond and same weight as gold
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• Clearance. All cutting tools, whether held by hand or in a machine, must possess certain angles in order to
cut efficiently. The first essential is a clearance angle, which is the angle between the cutting edge and the
surface of the material being cut. This prevents any part of the cutting tool other than the cutting edge from
coming in contact with the work, and so eliminates rubbing.
• The clearance angle should be kept at an absolute minimum, 8° being quite adequate for most purposes.
Clearance angles
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• It is customary to provide the usual clearance angle for a short distance behind the cutting edge,
known as primary clearance, followed by a second angle known as a secondary clearance angle
Primary and secondary clearance
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• Rake. For effective cutting, a second angle known as the rake angle is required. This is the angle
between the tool face and a line at right angles to the surface of the material being cut.
• The face upon which this angle is ground is the face along which the chip slides as it is being
removed from the work. This angle therefore varies with the material being cut, since some materials
slide more easily than others, while some break up into small pieces. Brass, for instance, breaks up
into small pieces, and a rake angle of 0° is used. Aluminium, on the other hand, has a tendency to
stick to the face of the tool and requires a steep rake angle, usually in the region of 30°.
• For the majority of purposes, the rake angle used is positive. When machining tough materials using
the cemented carbide cutting tools, it is necessary, due to the brittle nature of the carbide, to give
maximum support to the tip, therefore, a negative rake is used so that the tip is supported under the
cutting edge.
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Positive and negative rake
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• These figures identifies the rake and

clearance angles on various cutting
tools. The cutting angles of many cutting
tools are established during their
manufacture and cannot be changed by
the user.
• Such tools include reamers, milling
cutters, taps and dies. These cutting
tools can of course be resharpened, but
a specialised tool-and-cutter grinding
machine is required.
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IME 211
• Turning tools. Cutting tools for use in turning may be required to cut in two directions. Such tools must
therefore be provided with a rake and clearance angle for each direction of feed movement.
Turning tool for facing and turning

(clearance and rake angles)
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• Facing will require the back rake and front clearance, since cutting takes place when the tool is feeding in the
direction shown in (a). Turning will require side rake and side clearance, since cutting takes place when the tool is
feeding in the direction shown in (b).
• A tool used to part-off or form undercuts requires rake and clearance in the direction of feed but also requires
side clearance to prevent rubbing in the groove produced. A lathe tool is considered to be right hand when it cuts
from the right and left hand when it cuts from the left.
• It is difficult to give precise values of rake angles, due to the number of variables encountered during machining.
The values in the Table are offered as a guide for high-speed-steel cutting tools.
Right-hand Direction of feed

and left-hand
lathe tools
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IME 211
• Typical rake angles for high-speed-steel

cutting tools.
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IME 211
Types of different tools
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Subject: Facutly of Engineering Sem ester: Spring 2023

Mechatronics Departm ent Lecture: 6

Cutting tool inserts

Tipped lathe tools 6

Carbide High-speed steels (HSS)

Cubic Boron Nitride Diamond

Tungsten carbide + cobalt

The hardness is next to diamond and same weight as gold

Primary and secondary clearance

Positive and negative rake

• These figures identifies the rake and

Turning tool for facing and turning

Right-hand Direction of feed

• Typical rake angles for high-speed-steel

Types of different tools

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