ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND

CIRCUITS - II
Subject Code: DEE405

Unit: 2
Operational Amplifiers And
Applications
 Unit 2: Introduction to Op-Amp
What is an Op-Amp?
An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit that can amplify weak electric signals.

• Basic role is to amplify and output the voltage difference between the two input pins.
• An op-amp is a multi-terminal device whose internal circuitry is quite complex and it’s
versatility is one of the reason of the popularity.
• It is a special type of amplifier that, by proper selection of its external components, could be
configured for a variety of operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
differential and integration.
• These integrated circuits are built using VLSI techniques.
• Operational Amplifier generally consist of Transistor, Resistor and Capacitor
Operational Amplifier Introduction
Background
Operational Amplifier Introduction

Op Amps Applications
• Audio amplifiers: Speakers and microphone circuits in cell phones, computers,
mpg players, boom boxes etc.
• Instrumentation amplifiers: Biomedical systems including heart monitors and
oxygen sensors.
• Power amplifiers
• Analog computers: Combination of integrators, differentiators, summing amplifiers
and multipliers.
 Operational Amplifier Introduction

Why are Op Amps Useful

• Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today.
• One of the basic building blocks of Analogue Electronic Circuits.
• A DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier.
• Op-amps are widely used in vast array of consumers, industrial and scientific
devices.
• They are used in measurements and control applications.
• Sensor signals are often too weak or too noisy. Op Amps ideally increase the signal
amplitude without affecting its other properties.
 Operational Amplifier Introduction

Circuit Symbol
• Op-amps (amplifiers/buffers in general) are drawn as a triangle in a circuit
schematic
• There are two inputs
inverting and non-inverting
And one output
• Also power connections (note no explicit ground)

Fig.1 Operational Amplifier Fig. 2. Circuit Symbol of Op-Amp

 Operational Amplifier Equivalent
Circuit
The equivalent circuit model of an op-amp is shown in the figure below

Differential input voltage Vd is given by

𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
where V1 = Voltage between inverting terminal and
ground
V2 = Voltage between the non inverting
terminal and ground

Op-amp is capable of sensing the difference

between the two input voltage multiplies it by gain
A, and finally resulting voltage 𝑉𝑜 appears at the
output.
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
Fig. 3. Equivalent Circuit of op-amp
where 𝐴 / 𝐴𝑜𝑙 = Open- loop voltage gain

Here, 𝑅𝑖 = Input resistance

𝑅𝑜 = Output Resistance
 Ideal Op-Amp Model
Characteristics Ideal Op-amp
• Open Loop Gain Infinite
• Input resistance Infinite
• Output resistance Zero
• Input voltage Zero
• Input current Zero
• Open Loop bandwidth Infinite
• Input Impedance Infinite
• Output Impedance Zero
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio Infinite
• Input offset Voltage Zero
• Input offset Current Zero
 Characteristics of an Op-Amp

Important characteristics of an op-amp are

1. Current into both input terminals are zero i.e.
𝑖1 = 0 and 𝑖2 = 0
Due to infinite input resistance which implies that an
open circuit exits there and no current enters op-amp.
2. Difference of voltage across the input terminals is
negligibly small i.e.
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 0
Therefore, 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
Thus, an ideal op-amp has zero current, infinite
resistance and negligibly small voltage between two
Fig 4. Ideal op-amp model
input terminals
 Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve

A voltage transfer curve may be defined as a curve which is drawn between input
and output voltages.
Practical limitation of an op-amp is that the
𝑉𝑜 magnitude of its output voltage cannot exceed
Positive 𝑉𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝑉
saturation
+𝑉𝑐𝑐 or + 𝑉 OR
The output voltage is dependent and is limited by
the power supply voltage.

𝑉𝑑 The Op-Amp can operate in three modes

Positive saturation 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑐𝑐
Negative saturation −𝑉𝐸𝐸 ≤ 𝑉𝑜 ≤ 𝑉𝑐𝑐
Linear region 𝑉𝑂 = −𝑉𝐸𝐸

−𝑉𝐸𝐸 or − 𝑉
Negative
saturation
Fig 5. Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve
 Open-loop and Closed-loop Gain
• Feedback path: It is a connection used to feed a portion of the output signal back to the input.
• Open-loop: A circuit condition where there is no feedback path from the output to the op-amp
input.
• Closed-loop: A circuit condition where there is a feedback path to feed the portion of output
signal to the input. Op-amp circuit usually contain one or more feedback path
• Open-loop gain(𝐴𝑂𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐴): The maximum possible gain provided by a given Op-amp is
referred as its open-loop gain.
• Closed-loop gain(𝐴𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐴): The maximum gain in the feedback circuit is called closed loop
gain.

Fig 6. Open-loop configuration Fig 7. Closed-loop configuration

 Input and Output Polarity
1. Relationship between the an op-amp’s input
voltages determine the polarity of its output
voltage.
2. Output voltage can be stated as follows:
• When non-inverting (+) input is more positive
of the two inputs, output 𝑉𝑜 swings to + 𝑉.
• When inverting(-) input is more positive of
the two inputs, the output 𝑉𝑜 swings to −𝑉.

3. Open-loop configuration: Output 𝑉𝑜 is equal to

+𝑉 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑉 based on their input conditions.
4. Closed-loop configuration: the gain 𝑉𝑜 swings
towards +𝑉 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑉 based on the input.

Fig 8. Input/Output Polarity Relationship

 Inverting configuration
In inverting op-amp circuit shown below
• Non-inverting terminal is grounded
• Input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is applied to inverting terminal
through resistor 𝑅1
• Feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 is connected between
inverting input and output terminal.
This arrangement forms a Negative feedback,
because the output is 1800 out of phase with the
Fig. 9 Inverting Amplifier input.

Note: A point in any circuit is said to be grounded if the potential at that point is equal to the
ground potential. This is done by connected that point to the ground with the help of conducting
wire, then all the current from that point will flow towards ground. The point is said to be
physically or mechanically grounded.
 Expression for Output Voltage 𝑉𝑜
By applying KCL at node a
𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑓 …..(1)
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑎
Here input current 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅1
𝑉 −𝑉
Output current 𝑖𝑓 = 𝑎𝑅 𝑜
2
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 −𝑉𝑜
Therefore, = …..(2)
𝑅1 𝑅2
Since 𝑉1 = 𝑉2
Therefore, voltage in the inverting terminal is given by
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑎 = 0 …….(3)
Substituting the values of 𝑉𝑎 in equation (2), we have
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉
= 𝑜 ……...(4)
𝑅1 𝑅2
By cross multiplication we get
−𝑅
Output Voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 2 𝑉𝑖 ……..(5)
𝑅1

𝑉𝑜 −𝑅2
The Closed-loop gain ( 𝐴𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐺) = = …….(6)
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1
 Concept of Virtual ground

In case of virtual ground, only the

condition for potential is satisfied i.e.,
▪ Potential at the become same as
ground potential
▪ No physical path exist for current to
flow from that point to ground

Fig. 10 The inverting amplifier with virtual

ground
 Concept of Virtual ground
For the Op-amp we know that
𝑉
Open-loop gain 𝐴 = 𝑉𝑜 ……..(1)
𝑑
But 𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 … … … . 2
𝑉
Therefore, 𝐴 = 𝑉 −𝑜 𝑉
2 1
𝑉𝑂
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 =
𝐴
𝑉
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝑂 = 0 (For ideal op-amp 𝐴 = ∞)
∞
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 0 ………(3)
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 …………..(4)
Hence, the potential difference between two terminals is zero.
In inverting amplifier, non-inverting terminal is grounded,
So voltage at 𝑉2 = 0
Or 𝑉1 = 0 (𝑉2 = 𝑉1)
 Summary of inverting Amplifier

𝑨= ∞ 𝑨 ≠∞
Closed loop gain 𝑅
− 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝐺=−
𝐺= 1 𝑅1
1 𝑅
1+ 1+ 2
𝐴 𝑅2
Input resistance (for ideal case) 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅1
Output resistance (for ideal case) 𝑅𝑜 ≅ 0Ω
 Questions for practice

1. Given the op-amp configuration shown in figure below and determine

the value of 𝑅𝑓 required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of – 100.
 Questions for practice

1. Given the op-amp configuration shown in figure below and determine the
value of 𝑅𝑓 required to produce a closed-loop voltage gain of – 100.

Solution:
𝑅𝑓
Gain for inverting amplifier 𝐺 = −
𝑅1
𝑅𝑓 = −𝐺𝑅1
𝑅𝑓 = 100 × 2.2 × 103
𝑅𝑓 = 220𝑘Ω
2. Determine the input impedance and output voltage for the circuit shown in
figure

Note: Resistance is a measure of voltage divided by resistance in a resistor. Impedance is

the generalized notion of voltage divided by current for any component.
So when using resistors in AC circuits the term Impedance, symbol Z is the generally used
to mean its resistance. Therefore, we can correctly say that for a resistor, DC resistance =
AC impedance , or R = Z.
2. Determine the input impedance and output voltage for the circuit
shown in figure

Solution: The input impedance is set by 𝑅𝑖

where 𝑅𝑖 = 5𝑘Ω
Zin=5kΩ.
Vout=VinAv
𝑅
Av = - 𝑓
𝑅𝑖
20𝑘
Av = -
5𝑘
Av = −4
Vout=100mV×(−4)
Vout=−400mV, (i.e., inverted)
 Non-inverting configuration
A non-inverting amplifier is an op amp circuit designed to provide positive voltage
gain. The input is applied directly to non-inverting terminal.

Basic circuit of the op-amp is the non-inverting

configuration as shown in Fig. 11.
In this case, the input voltage v is applied directly at
the non-inverting input terminal and resistor R, is
connected between the ground and the inverting
terminal.

Fig. 11 Non-inverting amplifier

 Expression for Output Voltage and
Closed-Loop Gain
As the differential voltage v, at input terminals of op-amp is zero (which means both
input terminals have same potential), the voltage at node 'a', is same as the input voltage
applied to the non-inverting input terminal.
Now R, and R, form a potential divider circuit as shown in
Voltage at node a
𝑅1
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑜 … … … . (1)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Node voltage a is same as input voltage. Therefore
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 … … … … . (2)
Substituting equation (2) into equation (1)
Fig. 12 𝑅1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
The output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + ………(3)
𝑅1 𝑅1

The closed-loop gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by

𝑉 𝑅
𝐴𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 = 𝑜 = 1 + 2 … … … … (4)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅1
 Characteristics of the Non-
inverting Configuration
• The gain of the non-inverting configuration is positive hence the name non-
inverting.
• A non-inverting op-amp circuit produces an output with no phase shift
between input and output signal.
• Input signal is applied to non-inverting terminal.
• The input impedance of this closed-loop amplifier is ideally infinite, since no
current flows into the positive terminal of the op-amp.
• The output of the non-inverting amplifier is taken at the terminals of the ideal
voltage source 𝐴 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 , thus the output resistance of the non-inverting
configuration is zero.
Summary of Non- inverting
Amplifier

𝑨= ∞ AAA𝑨 ≠ ∞
Closed-loop gain 𝑅2 𝐺
𝐺 = 1+
(G) 𝑅1 1+
𝑅2
𝑅1
=
1 𝑅
1+ 1+ 2
𝐴 𝑅1
 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER (0R) UNITY GAIN
CONFIGURATION
A voltage follower is an op-amp circuit in which output follows the input. It is also
called unity gain buffer amplifier.
• The voltage follower is a special case of non-inverting amplifier where all of the output
voltage is feedback to the inverting input.
• Resistance 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 is removed from the non-inverting amplifier and output of the
amplifier is sorted to the inverting input.

Fig. 12 Voltage follower

 Expression for Gain

The voltage gain of the voltage follower is calculated as follows:

𝑅
Gain of non-inverting amplifier 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅2
1
If 𝑅2 = 0
𝑜
Then the gain of voltage follower 𝐴𝑣 = 1 + 𝑅
1
𝐴𝑣 = 1
 Inverting Summing Amplifier
Figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs 𝑉𝑎, 𝑉𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐 .
Depending on the relationship between the feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 and the input resistance 𝑅𝑎 , 𝑅𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑐 , the
circuit can be used as a summing amplifier, a scaling amplifier or an averaging amplifier.

Fig. 13. The Summing Amplifier circuit diagram

 EXPRESSION OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Figure 13. shows inverting configuration with three inputs 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐.

Depending upon the relationship between 𝑅𝐹 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 and 𝑅𝑎 , 𝑅𝑏 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑐 , (input resistor) circuit can
be used as summing amplifier.

Therefore expression for output voltage 𝑉𝑜 , which is obtained from Kirchhoff’s current equation written at node 𝑉2 .
𝑰𝒂 + 𝑰𝒃 + 𝑰𝒄 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑭
For Op-amp 𝑅𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 are infinity i.e. 𝐼𝐵 = 0𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ≅ 0𝑉
Therefore,
𝑽𝒂 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
+ 𝒃+ 𝒄 =− 𝒐
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄 𝑹𝑭
or
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭
𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑽 + 𝑽 + 𝑽 ………………..(1)
𝑹𝒂 𝒂 𝑹𝒃 𝒃 𝑹𝒄 𝒄
If each input is amplified by a different factor i.e. weighted differently at the output, circuit is then a scaling or
weighted amplifier.
This condition can be accomplished if R a ≠ R b ≠ R c and are having different values.
Thus the output voltage of the scaling amplifier is
𝑹 𝑹 𝑹
𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑭 𝑽𝒂 + 𝑭 𝑽𝒃 + 𝑭 𝑽𝒄
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄
Where
𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭 𝑹𝑭
≠ ≠
𝑹𝒂 𝑹𝒃 𝑹𝒄
 Summing amplifier
IF 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅 then equation (1) can be written as
𝑅
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝐹 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 ……………………(2)
𝑅
This means output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times the
𝑅
gain of the circuit 𝐹 , hence this circuit is known as summing amplifier.
𝑅
If the gain of the circuit is 1, i.e. 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝐹 , then
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 …………………(3)
3. Calculate the output voltage for the circuit for the figure below. The
inputs are 𝑉1 = 50𝑚𝑉 sin 1000𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 10𝑚𝑉 sin(3000𝑡)

Hint:
3. Calculate the output voltage for the circuit for the figure below. The inputs are 𝑉1 =
50𝑚𝑉 sin 1000𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 10𝑚𝑉 sin(3000𝑡)

Solution:
 Inverting Summing Amplifier
An adder is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is equal to the sum of
the applied inputs.
An op-amp based adder produces an output equal to the sum of the input voltages
applied at its inverting terminal. It is also called as a summing amplifier, since the
output is an amplified one.
The circuit diagram of an op-amp based adder is shown in the following figure −
In the above circuit, non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground.
That means zero volts is applied at its non-inverting input terminal.

Note: According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp is
same as that of the voltage at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input terminal
of the op-amp will be zero volts.

The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is

Therefore, Op-amp based adder circuit discussed above will produce the sum of the two input
voltages 𝑉1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 , and output, when all the resistors present in the circuit are of same value.

Note that the output voltage 𝑽𝒐 of an adder circuit is having a negative sign, which indicates that there
exists a 1800 phase difference between the input and the output.
 Subtractor
A subtractor is an electronic circuit that produces an output, which is equal to the difference of the
applied inputs.
An op-amp based subtractor produces an output equal to the difference of the input voltages
applied at its inverting and non-inverting terminals.
It is also called as a difference amplifier, since the output is an amplified one.

The circuit diagram of an op-amp based subtractor is shown in the following figure −
 Subtractor
Two signals can be subtracted from each other in number of ways. Figure below shows two op-
amp stages used to provide subtraction of input signals.

Resulting output is given by

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = − − 𝑉1 + 𝑉
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 2

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉2 − 𝑉
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅1 1
 741 Operational Amplifier Circuit
• Op-Amp IC 741 or LM741 is one of the most used operational amplifier integrated circuits
that perform both mathematical operations and amplification functions.
• This small chip mainly performs mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, differentiation, integration, etc. in various circuits.
• It is a high gain amplifier made up of BJT or FETS, which is often powered by both positive
and negative supply voltage.
• It was first designed by Fairchild Semiconductor in the year 1963.

Characteristics

Followings are the main characteristics of Op-Amp IC 741:

• Input impedance is more than 100KΩ.
• Output impedance is less than 100Ω.
• The frequency range is between 0HZ to 1MZ.
• Low offset voltage and current.
• Voltage gain is about 2,00,000.
Specifications
The followings are the main specifications of op-amp IC 741:

• Power Supply: For proper functionality, it requires a minimum supply of 5V and can handle up
to 18V.
• Input Impedance: About 2 MΩ.
• Output Impedance: About 75 Ω.
• Voltage Gain: 2,00,000 for a minimal range of frequency.
• Slew Rate (Rate at which op-amp can detect voltage change) : 0.5V/µs.
• Input offset: In a range of 2mV-6mV.
• Output Load: Recommended greater than 2KΩ.
• Maximum Output Current: 20 mA.

Note: For the operational amplifier to function as a voltage amplifier, high input impedance and
low output impedance values are recommended. This impedance makes op-amp IC 741 a near-
ideal voltage amplifier. The above-mentioned specifications are generic and may vary as per the
manufacturer.
 Op Amp IC 741 Pin Configuration
The symbol and pin configuration of op-amp 741 is shown below. The diagram comprises eight
pins. Among these, pins 2,3, and 6 are the most significant pins, where pins 2 and 3 represent
inverting and non-inverting terminals respectively, and pin 6 represents output voltage. Pin 8 is
inactive in the circuit.

The number 741 in the name indicates that there are 7 active pins, 4 pins (pin 2,3,4,7) are
capable of taking input and 1 pin (pin 6) is an output pin. The triangular form in the IC
represents an op-amp integrated circuit.
The functionality of each pin is as follows:

Power Supply Pins (Pin 4 and Pin 7):

Pin 4 and Pin 7 are negative and positive voltage supply terminals respectively. The power
required for IC to operate is received from both these pins. The voltage level between these pins
can be in the range of 5V to 18V.

Input Pins (Pin 2 and Pin 3):

Pin 2 and pin 3 are input pins for the op-amp IC. Pin 2 is considered as inverting input and pin 3 is
considered as non-inverting input.

Note: When the voltage at pin 2 is greater than the voltage at pin 3, i.e. the voltage at
inverting input is higher, then the output signal is low. Similarly, when the voltage at pin 3 is
greater than the voltage at pin 2, i.e. the voltage at the non-inverting input is higher, then the
output signal is high.
Output Pin (Pin 6):

Pin 6 is the output pin of op-amp IC 741. The output voltage at this pin depends on the voltage
level on input pins and the feedback approach used.

Note: When the voltage at this pin is high, this means that the output voltage is similar to
the positive supply voltage. Similarly, when the voltage at this pin is low, this means that
the output voltage is similar to the negative supply voltage.

Offset Null Pin (Pin 1 and Pin 5):

Pin 1 and pin 5 are used for offset voltage in op-amp IC 741.

Because of the higher voltage gain of op-amp IC 741, even minimal variation of voltage at
inverting and non-inverting inputs caused due to abnormalities in construction procedure or
other external disturbances can influence the output voltage. To overcome this effect, an offset
value of voltage can be applied at pin 1 and pin 5, and this is generally done by using a
potentiometer.

Not Connected Pin (Pin 8):

Pin 8 is not connected to any circuit inside op-amp IC 741. It is just a pin used to fill the void
space in 8-pin standard packages.
 Applications of IC 741

The followings are the applications of IC 741 Op Amp.

• Amplifiers: 741 IC is widely used as an amplifier for DC to higher radio frequencies. It is also
used for filtering the unwanted signals. Examples- tone control system in stereo and High
Fidelity Systems.

• Computational: 741 IC is used for performing mathematical operations like integration,

differentiation, summers etc.

• Rectifiers: IC 741 can function as an ideal diode and it does not cause voltage drop. An ordinary
diodes used in rectifiers have voltage drop across them. Therefore, diodes are not suitable for
high accuracy signal rectifiers.

• Oscillators: Op-Amp IC 741 is used to generate different output waveforms like sinusoidal,
square, triangular etc. It is also used for PMW generator.

• Comparators: The 741 IC has functionality to work as a comparator. It compares voltage

signals and outputs voltage according to magnitude of the incoming voltage. We can use IC 741
as a voltage regulators and signal comparators.

• ADCs / DACs: 741 Op-Amp is used for converting the digital signal into an analog signal.
 Working of IC 741
• 741 operational amplifier is made up of a circuit containing 20 transistors and 11
resistors.

• All of them are integrated into a monolithic chip.

• Inverting and non-inverting inputs are connected to two NPN transistors, Q1 & Q2
respectively.

• Both the transistors behave as NPN emitter followers, with their outputs fed to a pair
of PNP transistors Q3 & Q4, which are configured to function as common-base
amplifiers.

• This configuration isolates both the inputs and prevents possible signal feedback that
might occur. Transistor pairs Q8, Q9 and Q12, Q13 are arranged to form the two
current mirror circuits.

• Transistors Q8 and Q12 are the controlling transistors, which sets the emitter base
voltage of the other transistor in the corresponding pair.
• The first current mirror formed by Q8 & Q9 are coupled to the input circuit and the second
current mirror formed by Q12 & Q13 are coupled to the output circuit.

• Third current mirror formed by the transistors Q10 & Q11 acts as a high-impedance connection
between the input circuit and negative of the power supply.

• Provides a reference voltage without loading the input circuit and sets the slight base bias current
required by the PNP transistors at the input common-base amplifier circuit.

• Transistor Q6 along with resistors 4.5 KΩ and 7.5 KΩ form a voltage level shifter circuit, which
drops the voltage from input amplifier circuit by 1V before it is sent to the succeeding circuit.
This is done to prevent signal distortions at the output amplifier stage.

• Transistors Q15, Q19 & Q22 are configured to work as a class A amplifier and the transistors
Q14, Q17 & Q20 form the output stage of the 741 Operational Amplifier.

• To balance any irregularities at input differential circuit, transistors Q5, Q6 and Q7 are used to
form an arrangement that takes in two inputs (Offset null(+), Offset null(-)) and balances both the
inverting and non-inverting inputs accordingly.
 Operational Amplifier as Comparator
Op-amp comparator is an open loop with two inputs applied to op-amp then
compares two inputs.
Depending on comparison, output is produces which is either positive
saturation voltage or negative saturation voltage.
Or
Comparator circuit compares signal voltage applied at one input with
reference voltage at other input and produce either high or low output voltage
depending on which input is higher.

Two types of comparator circuits are

Non-inverting comparator
Inverting comparator
 Non-inverting Comparator

Figure given below shows the non-inverting comparator.

At inverting input (-ve) fixed reference voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is applied

Non-inverting input time varying signal 𝑉𝑖 is applied
Then comparator compares 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
• If 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 + V (because voltage at +ve input is more than voltage
at –ve input)
• If 𝑉𝑖 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 -V (because voltage at +ve input is less than voltage at
–ve input)
 Output waveform

Output wave form for a sinusoidal input signal applied to the (+) input is
shown in Fig (a) and (b) for positive and negative 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 respectively.
 Inverting Comparator

Figure given below shows the non-inverting comparator

At inverting input (-ve) fixed reference voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 is applied

Non-inverting input (+) time varying signal 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is applied
Then comparator compares 𝑉𝑖 and 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
• If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 + V (because voltage at -ve input is
less than voltage at +ve input)
• If 𝑉𝑖𝑛 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑟 -V (because voltage at -ve input is
more than voltage at +ve input)
 Output waveform

Output wave form for a sinusoidal input signal applied to the (+) input is shown in Fig (a) and (b)
for positive and negative 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 respectively.
 Transfer Characteristics

Transfer characteristics for positive and negative reference voltage is shown in Fig (a) and (b) below.
It detects particular value of input and output either + 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 and − 𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 based on reference voltage.
 Differentiator
Differentiator is an electronic circuit that produces an output equal to the first derivative of its input.
Op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the differential of input voltage that is applied to
its inverting terminal.

Non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That means zero volts is applied to its non-
inverting input terminal.

Note: According to the virtual short concept, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of op-amp will be
equal to the voltage present at its non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input
terminal of op-amp will be zero volts.
 Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its
inverting input terminal is zero, the current, i flowing through
the capacitor will be given as:

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the capacitor

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

Now we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is given as:

Therefore, Output voltage 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is a constant −𝑅𝑓 ∗ 𝐶 times the derivative of the input voltage Vin with respect
to time.
Minus sign (–) indicates a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the inverting input
terminal of the operational amplifier.
 Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms

If we apply a constantly changing signal such as a Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave type signal to the input of
a differentiator amplifier circuit the resultant output signal will be changed and whose final shape is dependent upon
the RC time constant of the Resistor/Capacitor combination.
Frequency Response of Ideal Differentiator

• Gain of the Op-Amp differentiator depends on the frequency of the input signal.
• When f = 0, in DC inputs, Output will become zero.
• When input signal frequency increases, output also increases.
• At frequency f, the differentiator gain becomes unity.
• Gain becomes less than unity when the frequency is less than ‘f’
• Gain increases at 20dB per decade when the frequency is beyond ‘f’

Applications of Op-amp Differentiator

• Differentiating amplifiers are most commonly designed to operate on triangular and rectangular signals.
• Differentiators also find application as wave shaping circuits, to detect high frequency components in the
input signal.
Important: Improved Op-amp Differentiator Amplifier

Basic single resistor and single capacitor op-amp differentiator circuit is not widely used to reform the
mathematical function of Differentiation because of the two inherent faults mentioned above, “Instability” and
“Noise”.
So in order to reduce the overall closed-loop gain of the circuit at high frequencies, an extra resistor, 𝑅𝑖𝑛 is added to
the input as shown below.
𝑅𝑓
Adding input resistor Rin limits the differentiators increase in gain at a ratio of
𝑅𝑖𝑛
Circuit now acts like a differentiator amplifier at low frequencies and an amplifier with resistive feedback at high
frequencies giving much better noise rejection.
Additional attenuation of higher frequencies is accomplished by connecting a capacitor 𝐶𝑓 in parallel with the
differentiator feedback resistor, 𝑅𝑓 . This then forms the basis of a Active High Pass Filter.
 Operational Amplifier as Integrator
An integrator is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is the integration of the applied input.
An op-amp based integrator produces an output, which is an integral of the input voltage applied to its inverting
terminal.

The circuit diagram of an op-amp based integrator is shown in the following figure −

In the circuit shown above, the non-inverting input terminal of the op-amp is connected to ground. That means zero
volts is applied to its non-inverting input terminal.
 Output Voltage Calculation
• From the circuit, it is seen that node Y is grounded through a compensating resistor R1.
• Node X will also be at ground potential, due to the virtual ground.
VX = VY = 0
• Since input current to an op-amp is ideally zero, current flowing through the input resistor, due to Vin, also
flows through the capacitor Cf.
From the input side, the current I is given as,
I = (VIN – VX) / R1 = VIN / R1 ……………..(1)
From the output side, the current I is given as,
I = Cf [d(VX – VOUT)/dt] = -Cf [d(VOUT)/dt] ……………….(2)
Equating the above two equations of I, we get,
[VIN / R1] = – Cf [d(VOUT)/dt]…………………(3)

Note: Capacitive current = C * dV/dt.

Integrating both the sides of the above equation,

Assignment question:
Solve the integration of the given equations

In the above equation, output is -{1/(R1 * Cf)} times the integral of the input voltage,
where the term (R1 * Cf) is known as the time constant of the integrator.

Negative sign indicates that there is a phase shift of 180o between input and output.

The main advantage of an active integrator is the large time constant, which results in the accurate integration of
the input signal.
 Integrator Amplifier as Ramp Generator
• If step input of integrating amplifier is replaced by a continuous time square wave, the change in input signal
amplitude charges and discharges the feedback capacitor.
• This results in a triangular wave output with a frequency that is dependent on the value of 𝑹𝟏 ∗ 𝑪𝒇 ,
which is referred to as the time constant of the circuit. Such a circuit is commonly called a Ramp
Generator.
• During the positive half-cycle of the square wave input,
Constant current I flows through the input resistor R1 (Since the current flowing into the op-amp
internal circuitry is zero), effectively all of the current flows through the feedback capacitor Cf. This
current charges the capacitor.
Since the capacitor connected to the virtual ground, the voltage across the capacitor is the output
voltage of the op-amp.
• During the negative half-cycle of the square wave input, the current I is reversed. The capacitor is now linearly
charged and produces a positive-going ramp output.
Advantages
The advantages of op amp integrator include the following.
• Op-amp circuits can be made to perform both integration and differentiation.
• The circuit can be modified to give various applications.
• Op-amp integrators produce an output voltage that is almost 100 times greater than the input
voltage.

Applications
The applications of op amp integrator include the following.
• Op-amp integrators can perform calculus operations like integration and differentiation.
• Op-amp integrators are used in analog-to-digital circuits.
• Integrators are also used in the industrial instrumentation trade. This application is called a
totalizer.
• Op-amp integrators are also used in wave shaping applications and ramp generators.
 What is an Instrumentation Amplifier ?(Main topic)

An instrumentation amplifier is used to amplify very low-level signals, rejecting noise and
interference signals.

Characteristics
• Inputs will have very low signal energy.
• It should have high gain and should be accurate.
• Gain should be easily adjustable using a single control.
• It must have High Input Impedance and Low Output Impedance to prevent loading.
• It should have High CMRR and High Slew Rate

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier

• Gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used.
• Input impedance is very high
• Output impedance is very low
• CMRR of the op-amp is very high
• Almost all of the common mode signal will be rejected.

What do you mean by CMRR and Slew rate?

Write the difference between Subtractor, Addition, Differentiator, and Integrator.
Explain the concept of virtual ground?
Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

• Data acquisition from small o/p transducers like thermocouples, strain gauges, measurements of Wheatstone
bridge, etc.

• These amplifiers are used in navigation, medical, radar, etc.

• Used to enhance the S/N ratio (signal to noise) in audio applications like audio signals with low amplitude.

• They are used in RF cable systems for amplification of the high-frequency signal.

• These amplifiers are used for imaging as well as video data acquisition
 Instrumentation Amplifier using Op Amp

As shown in figure below op-amps 1&2 are non-inverting amplifiers and op-amp 3 is a difference amplifier.

These three op-amps together, form an instrumentation amplifier. Instrumentation amplifier’s final output 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
is the amplified difference of the input signals applied to the input terminals of op-amp 3.

The instrumentation amplifier using op-amp circuit is shown below.

Working of the instrumentation amplifier

• Ideally the current to the input stage op-amps is zero.

• Therefore the current I through the resistors R1, Rgain, and R1 remain the same.
• Potential at node A V1 and at node B is also V1, from the virtual short concept. Thus, the potential at node
G is also V1.
• Potential at node D V2 and at node C is also V2, from the virtual short. Thus, the potential at node H is
also V2.
𝑽𝟎𝟏

𝑽𝑮

𝑽𝑯

𝑽𝟎𝟐
 Calculate resistors in Series and Parallel
When resistors are connected one after each other this is called connecting
in series.

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these three resistors in series.
 What is an Isolation Amplifier?
Isolation amplifier (also called a unity-gain amplifier) is an op-amp circuit which provides
isolation of one part of circuit from another, so that power is not used, drawn, or wasted in a part of
the circuit.
Purpose of an isolation amplifier isn't to amplify the signal.
Output voltage is same exact as input voltage (same signal that is input into
op amp gets passed out exactly same)
Purpose of an isolation amplifier is to isolate the circuit which appears
before the amplifier from the circuit that appears after it.
Ques: How does an isolation amplifier achieve this isolation from one part of the circuit to the other?

Ans: Op amp is a device with very high input impedance (very little current is drawn from the circuit), is how it
causes isolation.
Thus, greater the resistance, less current (I=V/R) is drawn from power source.
Hence, op amp draws very little current thus, practically no current is drawn and transferred from first part of circuit
to second.
High-impedance load of the op amp ensures isolation device from one part of a circuit to the next or of different
circuits.
In a circuit in which a power source feeds a low-impedance load.
In this circuit above, the load demands and draws a huge amount of current, because the load is low
impedance.
According to ohm's law, if a load has a very low resistance, it draws huge amounts of current.
Causes huge amounts of power to be drawn by the power source and, because of this, causes high
disturbances and use of the power source powering the load. This is the opposite of isolation.

Isolation Amplifier Design Methods

There are basically three types of amplifier design methods followed
• Transformer Isolation
• Optical Isolation
• Capacitive Isolation
 What is a Transconductance Amplifier?

Definition
Amplifier that converts a voltage to a current.
One synonym is OTA, or operational transconductance amplifier, a term that combines the terms
transconductance amplifier and operational amplifier.
The term derives from "transfer conductance" and is measured in siemens (S), where 1 siemens = 1 ampere per
volt.
It is represented with the symbol gm.
The basic gain of vacuum tubes and FETs is expressed as transconductance.

Transconductance amplifiers are classified into two types.

• Transconductance amplifiers with floating load and
• Transconductance amplifiers with grounded load.
Transconductance amplifier with floating load.
 Calculate resistors in Series and Parallel
When resistors are connected one after each other this is called connecting
in series.

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these three resistors in series.

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 = 100 + 82 + 1 Ohms = 183 Ohms

 Calculate resistors in Series and Parallel
When resistors are connected across each other (side by side) this is called
connecting in parallel.

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these two resistors in parallel.
 Calculate resistors in Series and Parallel
When resistors are connected across each other (side by side) this is called
connecting in parallel.

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these two resistors in parallel.
 Three or more resistors in parallel

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these three resistors in parallel.
 Three or more resistors in parallel

Example: To calculate the total resistance for these three resistors in parallel.

Solution:
 What is a Voltage Divider or Potential Divider

A potential divider or voltage divider is a circuit that takes a larger voltage and divides it down by
a fixed ratio according to the electronic components to give a smaller output voltage.

• The circuit essentially consists of two resistors in series,

normally connected between the input voltage and zero volts
/ ground.
• The junction between the two resistors then has a small
proportion of the input voltage appearing across it.
• The potential divider is a very useful method of reducing the
voltage within a circuit with a minimum of electronic
components.
• It can be seen that the full input voltage labeled Vin appears
across both of the resistors in series.
• As the same current passes through both resistors, assuming
there is no load on the output, the output voltage will be a
proportion of the input voltage.

The output voltage can be calculated from the formula given below.
 Difference between attenuation distortion and noise

This loss of energy is called attenuation.

When a signal travels through a medium from one point to another, it may change the
form or shape of the signal. This is known as distortion.
Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that degrades the quality of
signals and data.