HIGHER MATH

Vectors

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 Vectors

A vector is quantity having both magnitude and direction,

such as displacement, velocity, force and acceleration.
Any portion of a straight line, where the two end-points
are distinguished as initial and terminal, is called a
directed line segment. The directed line segment with
initial point A and terminal point B is denoted by the
symbol AB or ab. Graphically, a vector is represented by a
directed line segment. We denote it by letter with an
arrow over it, as in a, or in bold type, as in a. A scalar is a
quantity having magnitude only but no direction, such a
mass, length, time, temperature and any real number. A
vector whose initial and terminal points are the same is
called a zero vector, 0.
Two vectors a and b are said to be collinear if they are
supported on the same or parallel lines. For such vectors,
b = xa for some scalar x. A set of vectors is said to be
coplanar if they lie on the same plane, or the planes in
which the different vectors lie are all parallel to the same
plane. Three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if c = xa + yb
for some scalars x and y.

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Equal vectors
Two vectors (a and b) are said to be equal if they have
equal magnitude, a and b lie on the same line or on
parallel lines and, a and b have the same direction.
Unit vectors
A vector whose magnitude is of unit length.
 a
A unit vector in the direction of a is .
|a|
Position Vector
The position vector (P.V) of a point A with respect to a
fixed point, say O, is a vector OA . The fixed point is called
the origin
To express a vector in terms of position vectors of its
end points
Let AB be the given vector and the origin be O. Let the
position vectors (P.V.) of A and B be a and b respectively.
Then OA = a and OB = b A B

Now, by triangle law of addition

OB  AB  OB

O
Fig. 1

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Magnitude of a vector
The magnitude of a vector PQ where coordinates of P
and Q are (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) respectively is given
by | PQ | = (x 2  x 1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2  (z 2  z1 ) 2
In particular, for P (0, 0, 0) and Q (x, y, z), we have
r = PQ = x î  y ĵ  z k̂
and | PQ | = x 2  y 2  z 2 , where r is the position vector of
the point Q and x î  y ĵ  z k̂
are called the vector components of r .
Note for a vector in two dimensions, the magnitude of
vector PQ where coordinates of P and Q are (x1, y1) and
(x2, y2) respectively is given by |PQ|  (x 2  x1 ) 2  ( y 2  y1 ) 2

Cor 1. If a  a1 î  a 2 ĵ  a 3 k̂ and b̂  b1 î  b2 ĵ  b3 k̂, then
 
a  b  (a1  b1 )î  (a 2  b 2 ) ĵ  (a 3  b3 )k̂

Cor 2. If a  a1 î  a 2 ĵ  a 3 k̂ and m is any scalar, then

m a  (ma1 )î  (ma 2 ) ĵ  (ma3 )k̂

Cor 3. Two vectors a  a 1 î  a 2 ĵ  a 3 k̂ and

b  b1 î  b 2 ĵ  b 3 k̂, are equal if and only if their
components are equal i.e., iff a1 = b1 ; a2 = b2 and
a3 = b3

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 i.e., AB  OB  OA  b  a
∴ AB = Position vector of B – Position vector of A.
Thus, any vector can be expressed as: (Position vector of
terminal point) – (Position vector of initial point)
LINEAR COMBINATIONS
The vector r = α1 a1 + α2 a2 + ……. + αn an, where α1, α2
……………. , αn are scalars, is called the linear combination
of a1, a2, …., an. The following results are useful in
determining coplanar and collinear vectors:
1. Let a, b be two non-zero, non-collinear vectors and
 
r any vector coplanar with a and b. Then r can be
represented uniquely as a linear combination of a
and b.
2. If a and b are non-collinear vectors, then
xa + yb = x'a + y'b ⇒ x = x', y= y’
3. Fundamental theorem. If a and b are non-collinear
vectors, then any vector r, coplanar with a and b,
can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination
of a and b. That is, there exist unique x and y ∈ R

such that r = xa + yb.
4. If a, b and c are non-coplanar vectors, then

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 xa + yb + zc = x'a + y'b + z'c
⇒ x = x', y = y', z = z'
5. Fundamental theorem in space, if a, b and c are
non-coplanar vectors in space, then any vector r
can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination
of a, b and c. That is, there exist unique x, y, z ∈ R
   
such that r = xa + yb + zc. If i , j and k are three
unit vectors along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis

respectively, then any vector r can be represented
   
uniquely as r = a1 i +a2 j +a3 k where a1, a2 and a3

are the coordinates of r .
6. Section formula. The position vector of a point P
which divides the line joining the points A and B
with position vectors a and b respectively in the
 
 mb  na
ratio m : n, is r  (m   n )
mn
1
The position vector of mid-point M of AB, is
2
(a+b).
The point A with position vector a is written A(a). If
A(a), B(b) and C(c) are the vertices of a triangle

5
 1
ABC, then the centroid of this triangle is (a+ b +
3
c)
7. Test of collinearity. Three points A(a), B(b), and
C(c) are collinear if and only if there exist scalars x,
y and z, not all zero, such that xa + yb + zc = 0,
where x + y + z = 0.
8. Test of coplanarity. Four point A(a), B(b), C(c) and
D(d) are coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x,
y, z and w, not all zero, such that xa + yb + zc + wd
= 0, x + y + z + w = 0.
  
THE UNIT VECTORS i , j , k
Let OX, OY and OZ be three mutually perpendicular
straight line so that they form right handed system.
  
Let i , j , k denote unit vectors along OX, OY, OZ. Let OP

represent a vector r . With OP as diagonal, construct a
rectangular parallelepiped whose three coterminous
edges OA, OB and OC lie along OX, OY and OY
respectively. Let OA = x, OB = y and OC = z then
   
r = x i + y j + zk

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 Y

B

yj P

r
 X
 xi
zk 
i

If α, β,  are the angle which OP makes with the

coordinate axes then l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos  are
the direction cosines. In case x = rl= r cos α,  = rm = r cos
β, z = rn = r cos . A unit vector r̂ along r is
   
r
r̂ = = li + m j + nk
|r|

SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT

The scalar product of two vectors a and b is given by |a|
|b| cos ϴ, where ϴ (0 ≤ ϴ ≤ π) is the angle between the
vectors a and b. it is denoted by a•b.

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 B

O a A
|b| cos ϴ L

Properties of the scalar product

1. a • a = |a|2 = a2.
a•b=b•a
2. a • (b +c) = a • b + a • c.
3. Two non-zero vectors a and b make an acute angle
if a • b > 0, and obtuse angle if a • b < 0 and are
inclined at a right angle if a • b = 0.
4. a • b = (projection of a on b) |b|.
ab
OL = = projection of b on a
|a|

OM = = projection of a on b.

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      
5. (a  b)( a  b) | a |2  | b |2
    
| a  b |2 | a |2  | b |2 2 a.b
    
| a  b |2 | a |2  | b |2 2 a.b
  
6. If i , j and k are three unit vectors along three
mutually perpendicular lines, then
     
i • i = j • j = k • k = 1 and
     
i • j = j • k = k • i =0
     
7. If a = a1 i +a2 j +a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k then
a • b =a1b1 + a2b2 +a3b3,
| a | a 1  a 2  a 3
2 2 2

a 1b1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3
and cos  
a1  a 2  a 3 b1  b 2  b 3
2 2 2 2 2 2

VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT

The vector product of two vectors a and b, denoted a × b,
is the vector c with |c| = |a| |b| |sin ϴ|, where ϴ is the
angle between a and b, with 0 ≤ ϴ ≤ π. C is supported by
the line perpendicular to a and b, and the direction of c is
such that a, b and c form a right-handed system.

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Properties of the vector product
1. a×b=-b×a
2. a×a=0
3. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
4. (a × b)2 = a2b2 - (a • b)2
           
5. i × i = j × j = k × k = 0 and i × j = k, j × k = i,
  
k × i = j

6. Two non-zero vectors a and b are collinear if and

only if a × b = 0
     
7. If a = a1 i +a 2 j +a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then
  
i j k
 
a × b = a1 a 2 a 3 = (a2b3 -a3b2) i + (a3b1 - a1b3) j +(a1b2 -
b1 b 2 b3

a2b1) k
8. The area of the parallelogram whose adjacent
sides are represented by the vectors OA = a and OB
= b, is |a × b|, and the area of the triangle OAB is
1
|a× b|. The vector area of the above parallelogram
2
is a × b.

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9. A unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a and b
ab
is and a vector of magnitude λ
|ab|
a  b 
perpendicular to the alone of a and b is 
|ab|
10. Two non-zero vector a and b are parallel if and only
a1 a 3 a 3
if a × b = 0 or equivalently   .
b1 b 2 b 3

SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT

The scalar triple product of the three vectors a, b and c is
denoted by [a, b, c], and is defined as (a × b) • c.
Properties of the scalar triple product
1. (a × b) • c = a • (b × c)
2. [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b] = - [b a c] = - [c b a] = - [a c
b].
     
3. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k , then
a1 a 2 a 3
a × b • c = [a b c] = b1 b 2 b 3 [pa qp rc] = pqr [a b c],
c1 c 2 c 3
where p, q, r are scalars.

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4. The volume of the parallelepiped whose adjacent
sides are represented by the vectors a, b and c, is a
× b • c. in particulars.
If any two vectors among a, b, c are equal then [a b
c] = 0.
5. The volume of a tetrahedron ABCD is equal to
1
|AB × AC • AD|.
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6. Any three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if and
only if [a b c] = 0.
7. [a + b c d] = [a c d] + [b c d].
8. Three vectors a, b and c form a right handed or left
handed system, according as [a b c] > or < 0.
a  c bc
9. (a × b) • (c × d) =
a  d bd

a  u bu cu
10. [a b c] [u v w] = a  v b  v c  v
a  w bw cw

11. Four points with position vectors a, b, c and d will

be coplanar if [d b c] + [d c a] + [d a b] = [a b c] or
equivalently [b-a c-a d-a] = 0

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VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT
The vector triple product of three vectors a, b and c is the
vector a × (b × c), where
a × (b × c) = (a • c) b - (a• b) c and
(a × b) × c = (a • c) b- (b • c) a
Clearly, a × (b × c) ≠ (a × b) × c in general. In fact, (a × b) ×
c = a × b × c) if and only if the vectors a and c are
collinear.
Vector equation of line - Let ‘a’ be the position vector of
any point P on the line, and let b be a vector parallel to a
given line. Then an equation of this line is r = a + t b, t
being a parameter
Vector equation of a line passing through points with
position vectors a and b is r = a + t (b-a), t is a parameter.
Solved Examples:
1. Find a unit vector parallel to the vector  3î  4 ĵ
 
Sol. Let a  3î  4 ĵ. Then a  (3)2  (4)2  5
∴ Unit vector parallel to
 1  1 3 4
a  â   .a  (3î  4 ĵ)   î  ĵ.
a 5 5 5

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2. Find a vector of magnitude 5 units which is parallel
to the vector 2î  ĵ.
 
Sol: Let a  2î  ĵ. Then a  22  (1)2  5
∴ a unit vector parallel to
 1  1 2 1
a  â   .a  (2î  ĵ)  î  ĵ.
a 5 5 5

 2 1 
So, required vector = 5 â  5 î  ĵ   2 5î  5 ĵ \
 5 5 

3. Find λ such that the vectors a and b are
       
perpendicular where a  2 i   j  k and b  i  2 j  3k.

Sol: If the vectors a and b are perpendicular, then their
scalar product is zero.
      
i.e a.b  (2 i   j  k ).( i  2 j  3k )  0

=> 2(1) + λ(-2) + 1(3) = 0

=> 2(λ) = 5
5
=> λ=
2
4. Find the values of λ for which the angle between
       
the vectors a  22 i  4 j  k and b  7 i  2 j  k is
obtuse.
  
Sol: As we know, a.b  a . b Cos

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 
ab
Cos   
ab

For θ to be obtuse, Cos θ < 0


=> a.b  0
     
( 22 i  4 j  k ).( 7 i  2 j  k )  0

2(λ)2 . 7 + 4(λ) . (-2) + 1.(λ) < 0

14λ2 - 7λ < 0
 λ(2λ-1) < 0
 Either λ < 0 , 2λ – 1 > 0 or λ > 0 , 2λ – 1 < 0
1 1
 Either λ < 0 , λ > or λ > 0 , λ <
2 2
1
⸫λ > 0 , λ <
2
1
i.e 0 < λ <
2
   
5. Find the value of μ for which a  3 i  2 j  9k and
   
b  i   j  3k are parallel vectors.
 
Sol: For the vectors a and b to be parallel.
 
We have a b  0

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   
i j k
 3 2 9 0
1  3
     
 i (6  9)  (9  9) j  (3  2)k  0 i  0 j  0k
     
 i (6  9)  0 j  (3  2)k  0 i  0 j  0k
Equating the coefficients, we get
6  9  0 and 3  2  0
2
Hence,  
3
          
6. Find a .( b  c ) when a  2 i  j  3k , b   i  2 j  k and
   
c  3 i  j  2k

2 1 3
   
Sol: We have a .(b  c)  [a b c]   1 2 1
3 1 2

= 2(4-1) – 1(-2-3) + 3(-1 – 6 )

=2(3) -1(-5) + 3(-7)
= 6 + 5 – 21 = -10
     
7. Find the value of [a  b b  c c  a ] it is being given
  
that a , b and c are non  zero vectors.
           
Sol: [a  b bc c  a ]  (a  b).[( b  c)  (c  a )]

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            
= (a  b).[ b  c  b  a  c  c  c  a ] [ c  c  0]
                 
= a.( b  c)  a.( b  a )  a.( c  a )  b.( b  c)  b.( b  a )  b.( c  a )
     
= a.( b  c)  0  0  0  0  b.( c  a ) [⸪ Scalar triple product
when two of the vectors are equal is 0]
 
= [a b c ]  [b c a]  0
 
8. Find the angle between two vectors a and b with
magnitudes 3 and 2 respectively such that
 
a .b  6
 
Sol: As we know, angle between a and b is given by

ab
Cos   
ab

6 1
Cos  
32 2

θ=
4

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