Mekelle University Ethiopian Institute of Technology (EIT-M)

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Workshop Practice One

General Safety: Safe working habits in workshops are essential :

1. To develop and maintain safe working condition in all workshops
2. To prevent accidents which may result in personal injury or health hazards, damage of
tools, equipment and property.
Common causes of shop accidents are:
1. Improper use of tools and equipment, etc.
2. Failure to use protective equipment.
3. Protective and safety equipment that has been rendered inoperative.
4. Failure to follow correct procedures.
5. faulty equipment and tools
6. condition of walking and working surfaces
7. Unguarded or inadequately guarded machinery.

Safety rules that need to be observed in the Electric workshop

1. Each laboratory student will be made aware of the use and location of all safety
equipment (i.e. goggles, gloves, apron, fume hood (cover), eyewash, etc.)
2. Safety procedure and Safety signs, warnings stated in all laboratory activities must
be strictly observed.
3. Careless behavior in a laboratory can cause accidents. Horseplay, teasing, loud
talking or tossing objects are not allowed in a laboratory
4. Sharp-edge or pointed-tip tools should be handled with care
5. No eating, drinking or applications of cosmetics is allowed in the laboratory
6. Keep your work area hazard free
7. Never turn on power line without the permission of the instructor
8. All tools must be used for the purpose that they are designed for
9. If you are in doubt about the safe or proper way to perform a job, get instructions from
your supervisor.
10. At the completion of the laboratory period or when an experiment is complete, return
all equipment to proper storage and clean the work area.
11. Know the location of emergency exits and of safety equipment for your area(s). Know
the location and general operation of hand fire extinguishers and other emergency
equipment in your department. Keep exit paths clear. Report the use of any
emergency equipment to your supervisor immediately.
12. Fluids spilled on floor areas must be cleaned up immediately.
13. Keep tools and cords away from heat, oil and sharp edges that can damage electrical
insulation
 14. Disconnect tools and extension cords by holding the plug, not by pulling on the cord.
Be sure that the control switch on electrical equipment is in the "off" position before
putting in plug or pulling it out.
15. Do not use electrical equipment in damp or wet areas.
16. Do not use electrical equipment on or near metal ladders, which conduct electricity.
17. Report immediately any damaged tool or equipment. Do not attempt to make repairs
yourself.
18. Avoid using extension cords. When an extension cord must be used, choose one with
the same ampere rating as the tool .Make sure that the insulation is intact and that all
connections are tight.
19. Use a Ground Fault circuit Interrupter (GFCI) when using portable tools.
20. Do not overload circuits.

Safety precautions in handling of tools

1. You will become familiar with the instructions of laboratory procedure prior to the
initiation of any related activity. Read all directions for the experiment at least two times.
Ask questions if you don't understand any part of the directions. No changes from the
instructions will be allowed without permission from the teacher or instructor.
2. Handle sharp-edged tools with special care.
a) Never carry them unshielded in pockets.
b) Never hand such a tool to a friend with the cutting edge first.
c) Avoid placing your fingers or hands in the path of motion of the cutting tools.
3. Never leave tools on top of a step-ladder or any other place above your head.
4. Never abuse tools. Never use them for purposes other than those for which they are
designed.
5. If tools or cords run very hot, report the condition to the instructor. The insulation could
be deteriorating. Never wrap a cloth around a tool to hot to hold. Sparks can ignite the
cloth.

1.1 Proper Storage of tools: it is useful to increase the service year of the electrical
equipment.
1. Tools may be stored horizontally or vertically depending on the construction and
safety requirements.
2. Tools must not be exposed to an environment which shortens their service span
(E.g. damp areas).
3. Tools must be stored so that they may be easily accessible and easily noticed when
missing
4. Heavy objects should not be stored overheated where they can easily cause accidents
5. Chemicals and inflammables must be stored in restricted areas.

1.2 Proper usage: These also to prevent Human accident and equipment damage, Increase the
service time of the equipment.
1. All tools must be used for the purpose that that designed for.
2. Sharp-edge or pointed-tip tools should be handled with care. Wear safety glass or face
shield when working with hazardous equipment. e.g.) welding
 3. Wear gloves when using any toxic agents.
4. Protected shoes are required when working in the machine shops.

2. Electrical Hand tools

a. Screw drivers
Use: for driving screws
Types: Flat head, Philips head
b. Pliers
Use: to hold objects firmly
For cutting & bending materials like wire
For manipulating small objects

Pliers are made of steel alloys with additives such as Vanadium or Chromium, to improve
strength and prevent corrosion. They have insulation grids to ensure better handling and
prevent electrical conductivity.
Types:
i. Lineman’s (Combination) pliers: used for cutting, gripping and the like.
ii. Wire stripping pliers: used for cutting & removing insulation on electrical wire.
iii. Diagonal pliers: wire cutters, side cutting pliers, side cutters.
iv. Needle nose pliers: designed for gripping, but typically incorporate a cutter for
convenience.
v. Pincers: used to grip something like nail.
vi. Slip joint pliers: similar to combination pliers but whose pivot can be slipped
between two holes when the jaws are fully open to change their size called.

c. Drill or drill motor

A drill is a tool fitted with a rotating cutting tool, usually a drill bit, used for drilling
holes in various materials.
They are commonly used in wood working, metal working, and construction and most
do it yourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space
missions and other applications.
Types:
1. Manually powered or
2. Electric or compressed air (pneumatic) drill e.g. pistol grid (corded) drill, Hammer
drill, Rotary Hammer drill, cordless drills.
d. Utility knife
Used for removing wire insulation

e. Digital Multimeter
f. Jumper wires (connecting wires)
g. Soldering gun (pistol type) or Soldering iron (pencil type) is a tool for soldering metals
using tin-base solder to achieve a highly conductive contact. Soldering guns are used in
a place where more heat is needed.
 h. Solder: is a fusible metal alloy with a melting point or melting range of 90 to 450
degree centigrade. They are made from alloys of tin (Sb), lead (Pb) and contain flux.

3 Splicing and Joining

Connecting wires securely is referred to as splicing or joint, joining two or more conductors by
mechanical twisting. Good joints and splices are of vital importance in a wiring installation and
may result in a considerable trouble if not made mechanically and electrically secure. If they
are made as to permit the wires to be worked back and forth, or not soldered properly they will
due to the formation of a coating of film produced by oxidation, cause poor conductivity at the
point where the conductors join and prevent the current from flowing through readily, making
the circuits where these splices occur constantly inefficient and troublesome. On the other
hand, due to the high resistance at the point of loose fitting contact, these poorly constructed
joints will cause abnormal heating and arcing and, if near inflammable material, will result in a
fire hazard.
3.2 Advantages of proper splicing
-It makes the installation become mechanically and electrically secure
3.3 Types of splice
There are four basic types of splices
A. The pigtail splice
B. The T tap splicing
C. The western union splicing
D. Bunch splicing

1. Pig-tail splice. It is well suited for temporary and permanent connections. It is

particularly useful in close, confined spaces such as switch boxes, outlet box or when
fixture leads are connected to through conductor
Procedures:
a. Skin both wires about 8 cm from the end;
b. Clean bare ends well by gently scraping them with an electrician's knife.
c. Parallel them closely, insulation to insulation, then with a side cutting pliers
make a series of twists about 2.5 cm long.
d. Cut off the excess wires.

2. Western Union splice: This kind of splice is the most frequent one in interior wiring
for joining two lengths of solid wires and extending them from place to place. Although
its greatest use is with small wires where the fingers and pliers can be employed
conveniently, it may be used on large wires with the aid of both wire connectors and
pliers.
Procedure:-
 a) Remove about 8 cm of insulation from the ends of both wires.
b) Clean wires by scraping with a knife
c) Using pliers make a neck turn. Then using your thumb and forefinger or
pliers. Make five to eight shoulders on each side.

3. Center or T-tap Splice:(single branch or double branch)

Single branch splice: is used where it is necessary to attach (branch) an additional wire
to a continuous wire ( any where along the length of another wire)
Procedure:
a) Remove about 3cm of insulation from the main wire
b) Remove about 8 cm of insulation from the wire to be attached
c) Clean both wires by scraping with a knife.
d) Place the branch (connecting) wire across the main wire insulation to
insulation at an angle of 90 degrees and make a neck turn to ensure against a
loose or slipping splice.
The shoulders finger-tight and closer. Cut-off the excess wire. Do not allow the close-
cut wire to project from the splice. But wind it until it fits snugly. Now it is ready for
soldering and taping.
Double-brach splice: is used where two branch wires leading in opposite directions are
to be connected to a main wire at one point. It is particularly used in exposed open
wiring. The procedure is similar to that of the single branch splice.
4. Bunch splice: is joining more than two wires in a pig-tail fashion. It is used at ceiling
fixture outlets, switch boxes, etc., where a number of wires from different outlets in a
branch circuit are brought to one box and spliced together.
5. Splicing of flexible (stranded) wire to a solid wire-pig-tail fashion. Permanent wiring
is usually made with solid conductors. Fixture and appliances are generally wired with
flexible (stranded) conductors.
The bend-back along the splice will provide an excellent solder bed.
6. Flexible(stranded) cord splicing: (double Western Union Splice):
The splice must be staggered, i.e. One splice should not being before the other splice
ends. This method will help to avoid accidental contacts between the wires themselves
or any accidentally encountered metal surfaces. Further, this method makes less bulky
splice.
7. Britannia connection: is solid wire splicing by bending with wrapping wire.
Both wires must be of the same material, else:
a) at the joint as heat evolves emf is created
b) due to difference in coefficient of expansion the splices could be loose,
8. Wrap splicing: a multi-stranded wire
9. Wires spliced with an oval shaped connector tube
10 Wires spliced with a connector tube by means of screws
11. T-tap (Western Union Style)

WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIE

In order to assemble properly and intelligently the great number of available

electrical materials, devices, fittings, and equipment to form a complete wiring system, we
must understand the basic principles regarding them.

WIRING MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIE

In order to assemble properly and intelligently the great number of available

electrical materials, devices, fittings, and equipment to form a complete wiring system, we
must understand the basic principles regarding them.

1.1 W I R E AND CABLES

The term wire and cable are used more nor less synonymously in house wiring. Strictly
speaking, single wire, may be bare or covered with insulation is known as a wire and
several wires stranded together is known as a cable. But in practice bare conductors,
whether single or stranded together are termed as wire and conductors covered with
insulation are termed as cables.
The necessary requirements of a cable are that it should conduct electricity
efficiently, cheaply, and safely. This should neither be so small so as to have a large
internal voltage drop nor be too large so as to cost too much. Its insulation should be such
as to prevent leakage of current in unwanted direction and to minimize risk of fire and
shock.
A cable consists of three parts:
a. the conductor or core- the metal wire or strand of wires caring current.
b. the insulation or dielectric- a covering of insulation material to avoid leakage
current from the conductor.
c. the protective covering- for protection of insulation from mechanical damage.
 1.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIALS USED IN CABLES

Copper and aluminum are the materials used as conductors in power and lighting cables.
1. Copper: though silver is the best conductor, but due to it's higher cost it is hardly used
anywhere. The next best conductor is copper, which is comparatively cheap.
The electrical resistivity of pure copper at 200c is 1.786 x 10-8 ohm .m. It is
mechanically strong, hard, extremely tough, durable and ductile. It is highly
resistive to corrosion, oxidation, and pitting.

2. Aluminum: is frequently used in place of copper for bare electric cables used for long
distance power distribution. The electrical conductivity of aluminum is
about 60% of that of copper. The only application of aluminum cables for
wiring in buildings is for a continuous bus-bar system of distribution, used
sometimes in blocks of flat or office buildings for rising mains and sub-
mains of large sectional area.

1.3 INSULATING MATERIALS

The insulating material used in electric cable must possess the following properties.
• High resistivity
• High flexibility
• Non-in flammability
• High resistivity to moisture, acid or alkalis qualities. So the type of
insulating materials used depends up on the service for which the
cable is required.

Various types of insulating materials used in cables are:

Rubber: rubber may be natural or synthetic. Its dielectric strength is 30KV/mm. Though it
posses high insulating qualities, it absorbs moisture readily, softens when heated
to a temperature of 600c to 700c, swells under the action of mineral oils and ages
when exposed to light. Hence pure rubber cannot be used as insulating
materials.

PVC: polyvinyl chloride is a man-made thermo-plastic materials, which is tough,

 incombustible and chemically uncreative. Its chief drawback is that it softens at
a temperature above 800c. It does not deteriorate with age and does not need to
be renewed. PVC insulated cables are usually employed for low and medium
voltage domestic and industrial lights and power installation.
2. Vulcanized Indian Rubber: It is prepared by mixing Indian rubber with minerals such
as sulphur, zinc, red lead, etc. The copper conductors used in this cables are
tinned to protect them from corrosive action of rubber or copper. It absorbs
water, which reduces its insulation properties and becomes brittle with age. The
use of VIR cables is limited to low voltage distribution and internal wiring as
paper-insulated cables have largely superseded them.
3. Impregnated paper: it is quite cheap, has low capacitance, high dielectric strength
(30KV/mm), and high insulation resistivity (10Mohm-cm). The main advantage
of paper insulated cable is that a cable of given size can be worked out at a
higher current density than a VIR cable. Impregnated paper insulated cable on
its own would be too fragile to be used unprotected, and a lead sheath is applied
over the insulation. Paper insulated cables are used for conveying large power in
transmission and distribution and particularly for distribution at low voltage in
congested areas.

Mechanical protection
All the insulating materials used in the manufacturing of cables are mechanically
weak, so they require some form of protection for mechanical injury. Mechanical
protection is usually provided to power cables laid direct in the ground by providing two
layers of steel tape in such away that upper layer covers the lower joint in the lower layer.

TYPES OF CABLES USED IN INTERNAL WIRING

The wires used for internal wiring of buildings may be divided in to different groups
according to:
- The type of conductor
- The number of cores
- The voltage grading
- The type of insulation used.
According to the number of cores, the cables may be divided in to classes known as single
core, twin core, twin core with ECC (earth continuity conductor).
According to voltage grading the cables may be divided in to two classes:
250/440 volt and 650/1100-volt cable.

According to type of insulation cables can be classified in to:

1. Vulcanized Indian Rubber (VIR) cables:

-VIR cables are available in 250/440volt as well as 650/1100 volt grades and are
used for general conduit wiring.
2. Lead sheathed cables:
• available in 250/440 volt grade
• are used for internal wiring where climatic condition has moisture.
• Is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous
sheath of lead .The sheath provides very good protection against the
absorption of moisture and sufficient protection against mechanical injury and
can be used with out casing or conduit system.
• It is available as single core, flat twin core, flat three core and flat twin
core with ECC.

3. PVC cables:
• Are available in 250/440 volt and 650/1100 volt grades
• Used in concealed type of wiring system.
• Since PVC cables are harder than rubber, they do not require cotton taping
and braiding over it for mechanical and moisture protection.
4. Weather proof cables:
•Are used for out door wiring and for power supply
• are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
• Are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber-insulated conductors being
suitably taped (only incase of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and
then compounded with weather resisting material.
•Are available in 250/440 and 650/1100 volt grades.

5. Flexible cords and cables:

- It consists of wires either silk or cotton or plastic covered, plastic cover is more
popular as it is available various pleasing colors. Flexibility and strength is
 by using conductors having large number of strands.
- Most stranded conductors are built upon a single central conductor,
surrounding this conductor are layers of wires in a numerical progression of
6 in the first layer, 12 in the second layer, 18 in the third layer and so on.

Colors of conductors:
Color identification of bare conductors and cable cores are given by EELPA’S regulation
Earthing --------------------------------------------- white
Live of a.c single-phase circuit ------------------- Green
Neutral of ac single or three phase ac circuit ----black
Phase R of three-phase ac circuit ------------------Green
Phase S of three-phase ac circuit ------------------ Yellow
Phase T of three-phase ac circuit ------------------ Red

General specification of cables:

The complete specification of a cable will give the following information:

i. The size of the cable
ii. The type of conductor used in cables (copper or aluminum)
iii. Number of cores that the cable consists of (single core, twin core,
twin core with ECC etc,)
iv. Voltage grade
v. Type of insulation (taping, braiding & compounding)

CONDUITS
The commonest method of installing cables is to draw them in to a conduit. The conduit
can be steel or plastic steel conduit is made in both light gauge and heavy gauge of which
heavy gauge is much more frequently used.
In general, conduits can be classified as:
i. Light gauge steel-plain (unscrewed) conduit.
ii. Heavy gauge steel-screwed conduit.
iii. Flexible conduit
iv. PVC conduit.

I. Light gauge steel conduit:

 • This type of conduit is used with special grip fittings.
• It is available with an external diameter of 12mm, 16mm19m, 25mm, 31mm,
38mm, and 50mm.
In general, light gauge is the cheapest and quickest of conduit installations but should
be used where the location is dry and there is little likelihood of mechanical damage.
ii. Heavy gauge screwed steel conduit:
• Though it is very expensive, this type of conduit provides a permanent
installation with a maximum of protection for the cables
• The joints into fittings are by means of screw threads which provide mechanical
strength and good electrical conduit:
•Are available in approximately 3meter lengths and are threaded at the two ends.
iii. Flexible steel conduit:
• This usually consists of light galvanized steel strip spirally wound, and to some
extent, interlocked, so as to form a tube.
• It is made in size from 19mm to 50mm internal diameter and in two grades: non
water tight and water tight.
• Available in lengths up to 250 meters. So no coupling is required ands hence no
threading.
• Since the conduits are flexible and are easily bent no elbow is required.
• One of the most common uses of flexible conduit is for protecting the final
connections to motors. It has the additional advantage of reducing the transmission
of vibration. However, the flexible conduit is costlier than the rigid conduit.

Iv. PVC conduit:

Î This type of conduit wiring is finding wide applications in internal wiring
because it is light in weight, shock proof, anti-termite, fire resistant, acid and
alkaline resistant.
ÎCan be used for surface, recessed or concealed type of wiring.

CONDUIT ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS

► Conduit couplers:
 - used to join two lengths of conduit
- are threaded on both ends.
► Bends elbows and tees: - are generally called conduit fittings.
 Bends are usually used for change in direction of conduit. This should
never be sharp. The minimum allowable radius of curvature is 2.5
times the outside diameter of the conduit.
 Solid elbows and tees should be used only at the end of the conduit
run (e.g. close behind a light fitting or accessory.).
► Conduit boxes
- are used in surface conduit wiring as well as concealed conduit wiring.
- are of different designs which serve the following purposes:
i. For providing connections to light, fan, and other points.
The conduit boxes serving the purpose are known as
outlet boxes because conduit terminates at the boxes.
ii. For pulling of cables in to the conduits. The boxes
serving this purpose are known as inspection boxes.
iii. For housing junction of cables. The conduit boxes serving
this purpose are known as junction boxes.

LIGHTING ACCESSORIES AND FITTINGS

► Switches:

 Are used to control lighting circuits.

 Most are rated at 5/6A, but ratings at 15A are also available.
 Are available in three types: single pole, two-way and four-
way (intermediate) each for control of a practical circuit arrangement.
 To allow true control of a number of different circuits from one
position, switches are contained within the same unit: two-gang, six-gang,
etc.
* Single chord ceiling switch is suitable for installation in the bathroom, where by
one pull of the chord puts the switch ON and the following pull puts the switch
off.
 * Switches for water-heaters are of the double pole type and rated to carry 20A. Are
also available at 32A and 45A rating, the latter being used to control cooker
circuits.
* Dimmer switches are used to allow control of the level of lighting from luminaries.
* Splash-proof switches are found in situations where water is present, such as in
shower rooms.

► Lamp Holders
* Are designed for quick removal and replacement of the lamp and yet they must hold
the lamp in firm metallic contact to prevent overheating.
* There are three main sizes of lamp holders: Bayonet-cap (B, C), the medium Edison
screw (E.S) and the Goliath screw (G.E.S).
* For ordinary tungsten filament lamps up to 200W the lamp caps and lamp holders
are B, C, caps, up to 300W the caps are E.S, and above 300W they are G.E.S. In
any case where the lamp is to be installed, the appropriate size and type of holder
must be fitted. Lamp holders may be either the insulated type of Bakelite or the brass
type with porcelain interior.

► Plugs and socket outlets:

These are used to enable portable apparatus to be connected to the fixed wiring and
comprises of two or three contact tubes and terminals. The plug is the movable part
connected to the apparatus by flexible wire, and consists of two or three contact
pins to fit in to the contact tubes.

1.8 FUSES
* Consists of a piece of copper or tin-lead alloy wire, which will melt when carrying a
predetermined current. This element with contacts, carrier and base is called a fuse.
* Is placed in series with the circuit to be protected, and automatically breaks the
circuit when over loaded.
* The time for blowing out of a fuse depends on the magnitude of excess current. i.e.
the larger the fault current the more rapidly the fuse blows.
* Three terms are used in connection with fuses.
Current rating: this is the maximum current that a fuse will carry
indefinitely without undue deterioration of the fuse element.
 Fusing current: this is the minimum current that will ‘blow’ the fuse.
Fusing Factor: this is the ratio of minimum fusing current to the current
rating

Fusing Factor = minimum fusing current ≥ 1

Current rating

Fig.1 Time-current characteristics of a fuse.

* There are two main types of fuses: the rewirable and the cartridge (or high
breaking capacity, HBC) fuses; the high breaking is a development of the
cartridge type.

► Rewirable Fuses
* This type of fuse consists of a porcelain (usual material) bridge and base. The
bridge has two sets of contacts, which fit in to other contacts in the base. The fuse
element usually tinned copper wire is connected between the terminals of the
bridge. An asbestos tube or pad is usually fitted to reduce the effects of arcing
when the fuse element melts.
 * The rewirable fuse is a simple and relatively cheap type of over current
protective device and is still widely used despite several disadvantages
including:
a. The fact that it is rewirable enables the wrong size of the fuse wire
(element) to be used.
b. Undue deterioration of the fuse element due to oxidation.
c. Lack of discrimination. This means that normal starting surges
(e.g. when motors, etc are switched on) are “seen” by the fuse as an
over load and will therefore break the circuit.
d. Damage, particularly in conditions of severe short circuit.
* The fusing factor for a rewirable fuse is about 2.

Fig.2. Typical rewirable fuse.

► Cartridge (or High Rapture Capacity, HRC) Fuses

The obvious disadvantages of rewirable fuse led to the development and use of
the cartridge type fuse. The fusing factor of the cartridge type fuse is about 1.5.
 Fig.3 Typical cartridge fuse.

The high breaking capacity fuse (HBC) has its fusing characteristics carefully controlled
by the manufacturer. As its name implies it can safely interrupt very large currents. The
fuses are often used to protect large industrial load and main cables. The cartridge barrel
is of high-grade ceramic able to with stand the shock conditions when a heavy fault
current is interrupted. Except for very low ratings, the fuse element is made from pure
silver. The filler is powdered silica, carefully dried before use. An indicator is provided
to show when the fuse has blown.

The cartridge type (HBC) fuse is more expensive than the rewirable. The fusing factor of
HBC fuse is for small loads up to 1.25A, thus a 10 A HBC fuse will blow at 12.5A.

HBC fuses are discriminating; which means that they are able to distinguish between a
starting current taken by a motor (which lasts for a matter of seconds) and a high fault or
overload current (which lasts longer). Motors are normally protected against overloads by
the starter trip; the fuses are required only to give protections against short circuit
currents and overloads outside the capacity of thermal trip.

1. 9 CLRCUIT BREAKERS
 Is a device designed to open and close a circuit by non- automatic means and to
open the circuit automatically on a predetermined over-current without injury
to itself when properly applied within its rating. So a circuit breaker is a
combination device composed of a manual switch and an over – current device.
 A circuit breaker has several advantages over any type of
fuse
 a. In the event of fault or overload all the poles are simultaneously disconnected
from the supply
B. overload and time-lags are capable of adjustment within limits
C. the circuit can be closed again quickly onto the fault safely

Essentially a circuit breaker consists of a carefully calibrated bimetallic strip. As current

flows through the strip, heat is created and the strip beds. If enough current flow through
the strip, it bends enough to release a strip that opens the contacts, interrupting the circuit
just as it is interrupted when a fuse blows or a switch opened. In addition to the bimetallic
strip that operates by heat, most breakers have a magnetic arrangement that open the breaker
instantly in case of short circuit. A circuit breaker can be considered a switch that opens
itself in case of overload.

Circuit breakers are rated in amperes just as fuses are rated. Like fuses, breakers are
tested in open air to carry 110% of their rated loads indefinitely without tripping. Most
breakers will carry 150% of their rated load for perhaps a minute, 200% for about 20 sec.
and 300% for about 5 sec, long enough to carry the heavy current required to start most
motors.

► Standard ratings: both fuse and circuit breakers are available in standard ratings of 6,
10, 16, 20, 25, 35, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 224, 250, 300, and large sizes.

DISTRIBUTION BOARD
A distribution board is an assemblage of parts, including one or more fuses or circuit breakers,
arranged for the distribution of electrical energy to final circuits or to other sub- distribution
boards. It consists of a case inside which is a frame holding a number of fuse (CB) carriers
behind the frame or something along side or above it, is a bus-bar to which the incoming
sub-main is connected. From the bus-bar there is connection provided to one side of each
fuse way (CB). The installer to the out going terminal of the fuse ways then connects each
final sub-circuit
The standard distribution boards usually have 4, 6, 8, 12, 18 or 24 fuse ways both single phase
and three phases are available. It is not necessary to utilize all the available fuse ways on a
board, and in fact it is very desirable to leave several spare ways on each board for future
extension.
Figure 4 shows the general lay out of a distribution board.

fig 4 Typical distribution board

Switches
 A Switch is a device that is used to start, stop, or redirect the flow of electricity in an
electrical circuit.
 A Switch must be rated higher than (or equal to) the voltage and current the Switch is
controlling.
 There are three manual types of Switches used to control the ON/OFF current flow in a
circuit and they are two-way, three-way, and four-way switches.

Selecting a Switch
Circuit symbol for a
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch: simple on-off switch

 Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

 Ratings (maximum voltage and current)
 Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts

Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:

 Pole - number of switch contact sets.

 Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.
 Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.
 Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.
 Open - off position, contacts not conducting.
 Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.

For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one switching
position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two positions: open (off) and
closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts.

Switch Contact Ratings

Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different
ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many times
each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.

For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to check
the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors) because
they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches

Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example

ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST

A simple on-off switch. This type can be

used to switch the power supply to a
circuit.

When used with mains electricity this type

of switch must be in the live wire, but it is
better to use a DPST switch to isolate both
live and neutral. SPST toggle switch

(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary

A push-to-make switch returns to its

normally open (off) position when you
release the button, this is shown by the Push-to-make switch
brackets around ON. This is the standard
doorbell switch.
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary

A push-to-break switch returns to its

normally closed (on) position when you Push-to-break switch
release the button.
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT

This switch can be on in both positions,

switching on a separate device in each
case. It is often called a changeover
switch. For example, a SPDT switch can
be used to switch on a red lamp in one
position and a green lamp in the other SPDT toggle switch
position.

A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a

simple on-off switch by connecting to
COM and one of the A or B terminals
shown in the diagram. A and B are
interchangeable so switches are usually not
SPDT slide switch
labelled. (PCB mounting)

ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in
the centre which is off. Momentary (ON)-
OFF-(ON) versions are also available
where the switch returns to the central off SPDT rocker switch
position when released.
Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST

A pair of on-off switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).

A DPST switch is often used to switch

mains electricity because it can isolate both DPST rocker switch
the live and neutral connections.

Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT

A pair of on-on switches which operate

together (shown by the dotted line in the
circuit symbol).
DPDT slide switch
A DPDT switch can be wired up as a
reversing switch for a motor as shown in
the diagram.

ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT
switch. It has a third switching position in Wiring for Reversing Switch
the centre which is off. This can be very
useful for motor control because you have
forward, off and reverse positions.
Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) versions are
also available where the switch returns to
the central off position when released.

Special Switches

Type of Switch Example

Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)

This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a

standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to
switch off. This is called a latching action.

Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)

Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in

response to small movements. They are available with levers
and rollers attached.

Keyswitch

A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.

Tilt Switch (SPST)

Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this

bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be
used as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt
switches contain mercury which is poisonous.

Reed Switch (usually SPST)

The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small

magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for
example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed switches
are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover) versions are
also available.

DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)

This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example

shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a
standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.

This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the

code of a remote control.
Multi-pole Switch

The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known

as a 6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have
momentary or latching action. Latching action means it
behaves as a push-push switch, push once for the first position,
push again for the second position etc.
Multi-way Switch

Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They

may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a
rotary action and it is available with a range of contact
arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.

The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop

Multi-way rotary switch
under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you
can buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole
switch (many contact sets) described above.

1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Nomination Wiring diagram Layout
One way switch

Revers(gang) switch

Two way switch

,
Intermediate switch

Socket out let with

ground
Simple socket out let

bell

Buzzer
Push button

Incandescent lamp

Conductor
Florescent lamp