COURSE CONTENT

MEE 312: Mechanics of Machines II (2,0,1) 3 Units

Static and inertia force analysis in machines. Dynamically equivalent systems. Balancing
of rotating and reciprocating masses. Turning moment diagrams and flywheels. Governors,
Gyroscopic motion and forces. Free and forced vibrations, Friction in machines (e.g. bearing,
clutches etc).

Reference: Mechanics of Machines, Elementary theory and examples by J. Hannah and R. C.

Stephens.
 BALANCING OF ROTATING AND RECIPROCATING MASSES
Centrifugal Force
When a point moves in circular path of radius r and centre O with a constant speed V or angular
2
velocity  (rad/s), the point must have a centripetal acceleration equal to 𝑣 ⁄𝑟 or 2r directed
towards the centre O. If the point is replaced with a body of mass (m), then from the Newton’s
second law: (The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the resultant
external force which is producing the change and takes place in the direction of this force) i.e. a
force must act radially inwards toward a centre O in order to constrain the body to follow the
circular path. This force is called centripetal force
i.e. centripetal force = mass  centripetal acceleration
2
= 𝑚𝑣 ⁄𝑟 (or m2r) 1
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟

acceleration centripetal force

𝑟 𝜔2 𝑟 𝑚𝑟𝜔2

Figure 1
If a mass at the end of a light cord is whirled round in a horizontal circle, the centripetal force is
provided by the inward pull of the cord.
But from Newton’s third law:
“To every action there is always and equal and opposite reaction”
Whilst the cord is pulling the mass towards the centre of rotation, it is equally true that the mass is
exerting a radially outward pull on the cord of equal magnitude. The radially outward pull is called
the centrifugal force and only exists as an equal and opposite reaction to the centripetal force.
2
 Centrifugal force = 𝑚𝑣 ⁄𝑟 or m2r 2

Example 1
Calculate the force acting on a bearing carrying a crankshaft which has an out-of-balance load 0.12
kg at a radius of 115 mm. the shaft rotates at 4200 rev/mins.
Solution
2𝜋 × 4200
Angular velocity of shaft = = 440 rad/s
60
Force on bearing due to out of balance load = m2r
0.12 × 440 2 × 115 𝑘𝑔 ×𝑚
= ( )
103 𝑠2
= 2671 N = 2.671 KN

NB: Remember that a radian has no unit

2
Balancing of a single rotating mass
It has been shown that when a mass on attached at a radius r to a shaft rotating with an angular
velocity  (rad/s), a centrifugal force of magnitude mr2 due to inertial of the mass will act radially
outwards on the shaft. This force tend to make the shaft bend, producing considerable stresses in
the shaft, causing excessive wear to the bearing and setting up pleasant and dangerous vibration in
the system.
To counteract the out of balance effect of this force, it would be necessary to introduce a balance
mass MB (figure below) opposite to the original out-of-balance mass (m), such that the centrifugal
forces on the shaft due to the two rotating mass would be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

mB 𝜔 m
rB r

Figure 2
If the balance mass is placed at radius rB, then for balance:
MBrB2 = mr2
MBrB = mr 3
When in balance, the shaft and its attached masses may be set in any position and will remain at
rest in the position. This is said to be in static balance and the centre of gravity of the system lies
in the axis of the shaft.
The shaft may be statically balanced but might not be dynamically balance. For the two inertial
forces are made equal and opposite, they may have different line of action thus giving rise to a
couple which tends to rock the shaft in its bearing (Figure 3a)
In order to obtain correct static balance as well as correct dynamic balance, the balance must be
placed directly opposite to and in the same plane of rotation as the out-of-balance mass (Figure
3b).
mB m
rB rB

r r
m m

Figure 3a Figure 3b
If, however, the balance mass cannot be placed in the same plane of rotation as the original out-of-
balance mass, then two balance masses must be used and disposed axially along the shaft in such
a manner that the resultant dynamic force and couple on the shaft are zero.
Let m1 and m2 be the magnitude of the two balance masses placed respectively at a radius r1 and
r2, also let the distances of their planes be respectively a and b from the plane of rotation of the
original out-of-balance mass as shown in Figure 4 below:

3
 m1
m2
r1 r2

r a b
m

Figure 4
Then for complete dynamic balance, the following conditions must be satisfied.
m1r1 + m2r2 = mr 4
m1r1a = m2r2b 5

Example 2
A casting of mass 7.5 kg is being machined in a lathe and is bolted to a face plate so that its centre
of gravity is 100 mm from the mandrel centre. Find:
(a) The out-of-balance centrifugal force at a lathe speed of 150 rev/min
(b) The position of a 5 kg balance mass required to reduce this force to zero

Solution
(a) Out-of-balance centrifugal force at 150 rev/min
2𝜋 × 150 2
mr2 = 7.5 × 0.1 × ( 60 )
= 185 N
(b) To balance this force, we require a diametrically opposite force of 185 N, hence if the 5 kg
balance mass is placed diametrically opposite to the casting at a distance rB from the mandrel
centre, we get
2𝜋 × 150 2
185 = 5 × 𝑟𝐵 × ( )
60
185
rB = 5 ×246.70 = 0.15 m
O = 0.15 m = 150 mm

Balance of several masses rotating in the same plane

Figure 5a shows a number of out-of-balance masses m1, m2, m3, etc at distances r1, r2, r3, etc,
respectively from a shaft axis O and rotating in one place about that axis with angular velocity 
(rad/s).
c
m4r4
m3r3
m3 m2
r3 r2 d
b
r1 m1
r4
r m2r2
m4
m o m1r1 a
4
 Figure 5a Figure 5b
The centrifugal forces acting on the shaft due to the given masses are m1r112, m2r212, m3r312,
etc. Since factor 12 is the same for all the forces, then each of these farces will be proportional to
the corresponding mr product i.e. to m1r1, m2r2, m3r3, etc and their resultant may be found by
constructing the mr polygon as shown in Figure 5b. The polygon is constructed to scale as follows.
From any point O, draw:
oa parallel to radius r1 to represent m1r1
ab parallel to radius r2 to represent m2r2
oa parallel to radius r3 to represent m3r3
Since the forces are not balance, polygon will not close. The closing line od shown dotted, taken
in the sense O to the represents the resultant out of balance mr product. To obtain the magnitude
of the out-of-balance forces, multiply od by 2 i.e.
The resultant out of balance force on the shaft is:
od  , in direction O to d
Taken in the sense of d to O, represents the balancing mr product. Thus, the required balancing
force is:
do  2, in the direction of d to O suppose the system is balanced by a mass m B at radius
rB, placed diametrically opposite to the resultant out of balance force or mr product.
Then for balance,
mBrB = do
mB = 𝑑𝑜⁄𝑟𝐵

Example 3
Two masses A and B are firmly attached to a circular plate which rotates about it centre O at 210
rev/min. A is a mass of 20 kg at 0.5 m radius and B is 15 kg at 0.4 m radius. The angle AOB is
120o. Determine the resultant out-of-balance force on the shaft and the state its direction relative
to mass A. Find also the magnitude of the balance mass required which, when placed at a radius
0.4 m will produce equilibrium.

Solution
The position of the two masses A and B is shown in Figure 6a below.

Resultant out-of-balance forces

B
0.4
15 kg 120o
0.5 A
0.4 20 kg 5
21.8 kg
C
 Figure 6a
Now,
The mr product due to A = 20 × 0.5 = 10 kgm
The mr product due to B = 15 × 0.4 = 6 kgm
These products are represented to scale by oa and ab respectively, in the mr polygon shown in
Figure 6b below. The resultant out-of-balance mr product is then represented by ob in the direction
o to b
ob is found to measure 8.72 kgm i.e.
ob = mcrc
= 21.8 × 0.4 = 8.72 kgm
b

6 kgm
36 31’
o
o a
10 kgm

Figure 6b

Resultant unbalance force = ob  2

2𝜋 × 210 2
= 8.72 × ( )
60

= 4218 N = 4.128 KN
The direction of the resultant unbalance force acting on the shaft relative to mass A is 36o31
The balancing force (equilibrant) must be equal and opposite to the resultant unbalanced force i.e.
in the direction b to o
Therefore, let mc be the magnitude of the required balance mass C at radius rc = 04 m placed
diametrically opposite to the resultant out-of-balance force. See Figure 6a, so that
mcrc = bo
mc  0.4 = 8.72 kgm
8.72
mc = 0.4 = 21.8 kg

Balance of several masses rotating in the same plane

6
The rotating and the reciprocating masses have to be considered. The essential difference between
the balanced forces due to a rotating mass and the unbalanced force due to a reciprocating mass is
that the former is constant in magnitude but varies in direction whilst the later varies in magnitude
but is constant in direction.
It is not generally possibly to use a single rotating mass to balance completely a reciprocating mass.
In the case of a single reciprocating part can be obtained by means of a rotating balance mass placed
on the extended crank webs.
The rotating parts of an engine are the flywheel, the crank pin together with the rest of the
crankshaft and as much as the connecting rod as may be regarded to have a rotary motion with the
crank pin.
Road wheel balancing
It is vitally important that present day motor car have accurately balanced tyres and wheels.
Wheel unbalance can seriously affect steering control and causes rough running at certain road
speed. If a wheel assembly is in static balance, it may however by dynamically out-of-balance due
to a heavy spot on one side of the wheel. This dynamic unbalance produces oscillation or “wobble”
as that wheel rotates at speed wheel wobble is checked on a dynamic wheel-balance machine and
the balance masses required obtained dynamic balance are placed on the opposite side of the wheel
rim 180o apart.

7
 FLYWHEEL
The function of a flywheel is to reduce the fluctuation of speed. To keep the fluctuation of speed
due to variation of torque within acceptance limit. A flywheel fitted to the engine or machine shaft.
Flywheel is an energy storage device, it absorbs mechanical energy by increasing it angular
velocity, stores the energy in the form of kinetic energy and deliverers energy by decreasing its
velocity.
It is used to smooth out flow of energy between a power source and its load. When the speed of
the shaft increases above the mean speed the extra energy is stored in the flywheel and when the
speed falls below the mean speed, it gives out energy, thus smoothening the variation.

The equation of motion of a flywheel:

𝐼 ̇ = 𝑇𝑖 (𝜃𝑖 , 𝜔𝑖 ) − 𝑇𝑜 (𝜃𝑜 , 𝜔𝑜 ) 1

Where 𝐼 = mass moment of inertia

 = angular coordinate
𝑇𝑖 = input torque
𝜃𝑖 = input angular coordinate
𝑇𝑜 = output torque
𝜃𝑜 = output angular coordinate
𝑇𝑖 is considered positive and 𝑇𝑜 negative.
The figure below represents a mathematical representation of a flywheel.

𝑇𝑖 , 𝜃𝑖
𝑇𝑜 , 𝜃𝑜

𝐼, 𝜃

Both 𝑇𝑖 and 𝑇𝑜 may depend for their value on the angular displacement 𝜃𝑖 and 𝜃𝑜 as well as their
angular velocities 𝜔𝑖 and 𝜔𝑜 . We will assume a rigid shaft, giving 𝜃𝑖 = 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑜 , thus equation 1
becomes:
𝐼 ̇ = 𝑇𝑖 (𝜃, 𝜔) − 𝑇𝑜 (𝜃, 𝜔) 2
Primarily, we want to know the overall performance of the flywheel. What should it moment of
inertia be? How do we match the power source to the load to get an optimum motor or enjoying?
Finally, what are the resulting performance characteristic of the system?

8
From Figure 2 below, an input power subjects a flywheel to a constant torque 𝑇1 while the shaft
rotates from 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 . Velocity also increases from 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 as shown, the shaft now rotates from
𝜃2 to 𝜃3 with zero torque, therefore 𝜔1 = 𝜔2 and from 𝜃3 to 𝜃4 , a load or output torque of constant
magnitude is applied causing the shaft to slow down from 𝜔3 = 𝜔4 .

T1,

T1
2 3
1
4
u1 3 4
1 2 
T0
1 cycle

The workdone input to the flywheel is the area of the rectangle between 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 or
𝑈1 = 𝑇1 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) 3
The workdone output to the flywheel is the area of the rectangle between 𝜃3 to 𝜃4 or
𝑈𝑜 = 𝑇𝑜 (𝜃4 − 𝜃3 ) 4
If 𝑈𝑜 > 𝑈1 ; 𝜔4 < 𝜔1
If 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑈1 ; 𝜔4 = 𝜔1
If 𝑈1 > 𝑈𝑜 ; 𝜔4 > 𝜔1
It can also be written in relation in terms of kinetic energy. At 𝜃 = 𝜃1 , the flywheel has a velocity
of 𝜔1 rad/s, to its K.E.
𝑈1 = ½𝐼𝜔1 2 5
At 𝜃 = 𝜃2 , the velocity is 𝜔2 and so
𝑈2 = ½𝐼𝜔2 2 6
Therefore, change in K.E.
𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = ½𝐼(𝜔2 2 − 𝜔1 2 ) 7
If convenient to define a coefficient of speed fluctuation as
𝜔 −𝜔
𝐶𝑠 = 2𝜔 1 8
Where 𝜔 is the nominal velocity given by
𝜔 −𝜔
𝜔 = 22 1 9
Equation 7 can be factored to give
𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = ½𝐼(𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔2 + 𝜔1 ) 10
Since 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 𝐶𝑠 𝜔 and 𝜔2 + 𝜔1 = 2𝜔, we have
𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐼𝜔2 11

9
Example
A motor driving a punching machine exerts a constant torque of 675 Nm on the flywheel which
rotates at an average speed of 120 rev/min. The punch operates 60 times per minute, the duration
of the punch operation being 0.2s. It may be assumed that the punching effort is equivalent to a
constant torque on the flywheel and that friction and other losses may be neglected. Deduce the
value of the resulting torque and sketch graphs of input and output torque on a base representing
the angle of rotation of the flywheel. Hence deduce the moment of inertia of the flywheel required
if the speed variation from maximum to minimum is not to exceed 10 rev/min.
Solution
Given: Torque = 675 Nm; Average speed = 240 rev/min; variation of speed <= 10 rev/min
Tx Tx

675 675

0.4 0.6 0.2 1.0

𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒

Mean torque = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑇𝑥 × 0.2
675 = 1

 𝑇𝑥 = 3375 𝑁𝑚 = 3.375 𝐾𝑁𝑚

The punching operate 60 time/min
60 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= = 1 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60 𝑠𝑒𝑐

No of revolution of the flywheel

120
= = 2 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠𝑒𝑐
60

Hence 2 revolution = 2 × 2𝜋 = 4𝜋
The direction of the flywheel for 2 rev = 1 sec
i.e. 1 sec = 4𝜋
U = shaded area above
= (3375 − 675) × 0.2 × 4𝜋
= 6785.84 𝑁/𝑚
But 𝑈 = 𝐼𝜔(𝜔1 − 𝜔2 )
𝑈
𝐼 = 𝜔(𝜔
1 − 𝜔2 )
6785.84
= 2𝜋 2
120(10)( )
60

10
 6785.84
= 1200×0.01097

= 515.7 kgm2

Fluctuation of Speed and Energy of a Flywheel

To keep the fluctuation of speed due to variation of torque within acceptable limits, a flywheel is
fitted to the engine of machine shaft.
Torque, T
a Minimum
Minimum A c D E speed
B C
speed
Working b Crank angle, 
d
stress

Let the energy of the flywheel be Ef

At A, Ef = EfA
At B, Ef = EfA + a
At C, Ef = EfA + a - b
At D, Ef = EfA + a – b + c
At E, Ef = EfA + a – b + c – d = = EfA
Therefore, EF = ½𝐼𝜔
Fluctuation of Energy
U is the difference between the K.Es of the system at the points of maximum and minimum
speed.
2 2
∴ 𝑈 = ½𝐼𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − ½𝐼𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛
= ½𝐼(𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 )(𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Where 𝐼 is the moment of inertia of the rotating part
If workdone per cycle = E
∴ Coefficient of fluctuation of energy = 𝑈⁄𝐸
greatest fluctuation of energy per cycle
𝛽=
workdone per cycle
If the speed variation is small, 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2𝜔, 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ̇ 𝜔
½𝐼.2𝜔.̇ 𝜔
 𝛽= 𝐸
𝛽𝐸
 𝐼 = ̇ 𝜔2
Coefficient of fluctuation of speed:

11
 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝛼̇ =
𝜔
different between maximum and minimium angular speed
𝛼̇ =
mean angular speed
𝜔 = mean angular velocity
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛
If 𝜔 = 2

 𝑈 = ½𝐼2𝜔(𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑈 = 𝐼𝜔(𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
𝑈
= 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝜔
𝑈 𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛
2
=
𝐼𝜔 𝜔
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑈
i.e. = 𝐼𝜔2
𝜔

Example
An engine runs at 100 rev/min and curve of the turning moment plotted on a crank angle base
showed the following area alternatively above and below the mean turning moment line: 780, 400,
520, 620, 260, 460, 340, 420 mm2. The scales used were 1 mm = 400 Nm torque and 1 mm = 10
crank angle. If the total fluctuation in speed is limited to 1.5 percent of the mean speed determine
the mass of the flywheel necessary if the radius of gyration is 1.05 m.

Solution
Given N = 100 rpm
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔= ×𝑁 = × 200 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
60 60

780 520
A B D 280 F 340 H
C E G I
400 620 460 420

To find the fluctuation of energy, we need to know the point where the energy is maximum
and minimum.
Let the energy at A be EA = E
Energy at B, EA = E + 780
Energy at C, EA = E + 780 – 400 = E + 380
Energy at D, EA = E + 380 + 520 = E + 900
Energy at E, EA = E + 900 – 620 = E + 280
Energy at F, EA = E + 280 + 260 = E + 540

12
Energy at G, EA = E + 540 – 460 = E + 80
Energy at H, EA = E + 80 + 340 = E + 420
Energy at I, EA = E + 420 – 420 = E = EA

The fluctuation of energy between A and D is given by;

400×𝜋
𝑈 = (𝐸 + 900) × = 2000𝜋 J
180
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 𝑈
= = 2
𝜔 𝜔 𝐼𝜔
2𝜋 2𝜋
But 𝜔 = 60 × 𝑁 = 60 × 200 = 10.47 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜔𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑈
= 2
𝜔 𝐼𝜔
𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 1.5% of 𝜔
𝜔1 − 𝜔2
= 0.015
𝜔
𝑈
 0.015 = 𝐼𝜔2
𝑈 2000𝜋
𝐼= 2
=
0.015𝜔 0.015 × 10.472
6283.18
= = 3821.2 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
1.644
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 2
𝐼 93821.2
𝑚= = = 3466 𝑘𝑔
𝑘2 1.052

13
 GEARS AND GEAR TRAINS

SPUR GEARING
Gears are toothed wheel used to transport motion with a predetermined change of angular
speed (torque) in both magnitude and direction.
Smaller wheel = pinion
Larger wheel = wheel or spur.
For purpose of studying, capital and small letters will be used for quantities relating to
wheel and pinion respectively.
1/
2 Circumferential
pitch

Addendum Pitch circle

Dedendum Non-involute Root
circle
Base circle

BASIC DEFINITIONS
1. Pitch Circle Diameter (D,d): D and d are defined as the diameter of discs which would transmit
the same velocity ratio by friction as the gear wheels.
If T and t are the numbers of teeth, ,  are the responding angular velocities, then for the
same circumferential velocity of both pitch circles:
 = _d_ = _t_
 D T
The pitch point is the point of contact of the two pitch circles.
2. Circular Pitch: The distance between a point on one tooth and corresponding point on the
adjacent tooth is called circular pitch and it is measured along the pitch circle.
Circular pitch, p = _D_ = _d_
T t
3. The number of teeth/mm of pitch circle diameter is called Diametral Pitch. i.e.
Diametral pitch,  = _T_ = _t_ = __
D d p
4. The number of mm of pitch circle diameter per tooth is called the Module (m)

14
 Module, m = _D_ = _d_ = _1_
T t 
5. Addendum is the radial height of teeth above pitch circle while dedendum is the radial depth
of tooth below the pitch circle.
Working depth = Addendum + Dedendum
6. The angle between the common normal to two teeth in contact and the common tangent to the
pitch circle is called the pressure angle  or the angle of obliquity.

Common standards base on the B.S.I. Addendum is usually taking as the module i.e.
addendum = 1/ = m
Dedendum = 1.25m
Working depth = 2m
 = 200
If  and  are the angular velocity of the pinion and wheel respectively and k is the distance
between the pitch point and the first or last point of contact then,
Sliding velocity = ( + )k
The maximum sliding velocity occurs at first and last point of contact.
O1


ra

I1
A
P
B

I2

Ra

O2

Point of Contact
The first point of contact is A and the last point of contact is B where A and B are where
the addendum circles cuts the common normal. The path of contact is AB which is further
subdivided into:

15
 (i) Path of approach AP
(ii) Path of recess PB
AP = AI2 – PI2 ________ (1)
PI2 = Rsin ________ (2)
But AI2 = (Ra)2 - (O2I2)2
= Ra2 – R2cos2 ________ (3)
combine equations (2) and (3)
AP = Path of approach = Ra2 – R2cos2 - Rsin
Similarly;
PB = Path of recess = BI1 – PI1
PI1 = rsin
BI1 = ra2 – r2cos2
Therefore, PB = Path of recess = ra2 – r2cos2 - rsin

Hence path of contact = AB

AB = Ra2 – R2cos2 + ra2 – r2cos2 - (R + r)sin
ARC OF CONTACT
The arc of contact is the length measured along the pitch circle and it is equal to path of
contact divided by cos
i.e. Arc of contact = path of contact
cos
Arc of recess = path of recess
cos
Arc of approach = path of approach
cos

The contact ratio = Arc of contact

Circular pitch (p)

Note: The maximum and minimum pairs of teeth in contact are the nearest whole number above
or below this value respectively.

CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE

For correct tooth action, the points of contact on two mating teeth must be on the involute
profile and the first and last points of contact must lie between point I1 and I2 (refer to figure 2).
For no undercutting the permissible addendum radius of wheel Ra is given by Ra–R.
However for maximum Ra, A and I1 must coincide, so also B and I2 must also coincide.

Ra = O2I1 = (O2I1)2 + (I1I2)2

= R2cos2 + (R + r)2sin2
= R2cos2 + (R2 + r2 +2Rr)sin2

16
 Ra(max) = R2 + 2Rrsin2 + r2sin2

Max. addendum, Ra – R = R2 + 2Rrsin2 + r2sin2 - R

For a standard module, m

m = r/t  1/2 R2 + 2Rrsin2 + r2sin2 - R/2
divide equation (4) through by r
m = 1/t  1/2 R2 + 2Rsin2 + sin2 - _R_
r2 r 2r
Define R/r = G = gear ratio
2/t  G2 + 2Gsin2 + sin2 - G
2/t  G2 + (1 +2G)sin2 - G

t  _______2_____________
G2 + (1 +2G)sin2 - G

Bevel Gear
GEAR TRAINS
Simple Trains A C
Spur Gear
B

B
A Let N = speed A B C (c)
(a) T = number of teeth
R = pitch circle radius (b)
For case (a)
Nara = Nbrb
Na = - Tb = -rb
Nb Ta ra
For case (b)
Na = + Tc = +_rc_
Nc Ta ra
For case (c)
Na = + Tc = +_rc_
Nc Ta ra

In general, G = (-1)n-1(to/t1)
where G = gear ratio, n = number of wheel in train, ti = input tooth number and
to = output tooth number

17
Compound Trains

Follower
B Follower
C
D Driver
Follower
C

D
Driver A
B
A Driver Follower
Driver
(a) (b)

Case (a)
Nc -Ta -Td
=  Nb =
Na Tc Nd Tb
since Nc = Nd (same speed)
 Nc x Nb = -Ta x -Td
Na Nd Tc Tb
Nb = Ta x Td
Na Tc x Tb

Na Tc x Tb
 Nb = Ta x Td

In general,
Speed of driver = Product of teeth on follower
Speed of follower Product of teeth on driver

Case (b)
For reverted or co-axial wheels;
ra + rc = rb + rd

 m1Ta + m1Tc = m2TB + m2TD

2 2 2 2

where m1 = module for a and c

m2 = module for b and d

18
 m = D/T
D = 2r
i.e. m = 2r
T
 r = mT
2

EPICYCLIC GEARS (PLANETARY GEARS)

S
L
P

Consider an epicyclic train gear arrangement, S is the sun wheel, A is the annulus with
internal teeth, P is planet gear which rotate freely on a pin attached to this arm L. L is the arm
which rotates freely about an axis perpendicular to the plane.

Problem
To determine the relative velocity ratio of S to A and P when:
(i) A is fixed
(ii) A is moveable

Procedure
(a) Rotate each member through +1 complete revolution in clockwise direction (taking as
positive). This implies that the whole system is locked and rotated in +1 revolution.

(b) Fix arm L and rotate annulus through -1 complete revolution (anticlockwise): thus
restoring A to its fixed position. A, P, and S constitute a simple train and the revolutions
A
of P and S due to the rotation of A are –Ta/Tp and +Ta/Ts computed accordingly.
P

(c) Now add the members in (a) and (b) to obtain the resultant relative velocity of each
gear. This is shown in tabular form as follows.

19
 L A P S
(a) rotate whole gear +1 revolution +1 +1 +1 +1
(b) fix L and rotate A -1 revolution 0 -1 –Ta +Ta
Tp Ts
(c) Resultant motion (a) + (b) Ta Ta
1 0 1 - Tp 1 + Ts

Case 2: A is moveable which implies that all members are moving; hence a slight modification is
required to evaluate the relative velocity ratio of the gears.

Np = Na  Ta
Np Ta
= 
Na Tp Tp
Ta
Ns = +1 Np =
Tp

Ns = -Na  Ta
Ns -Ta
= 
Na Ts Ts

-T
Na = +1  Nas =
Ts

L A P S
(a) rotate whole gear +1 revolution +a +a +a +a
(b) fix L and rotate A -b revolution 0 +b +Ta  b - Ta  b
Tp Ts
(c) Resultant motion (a) + (b) T
a a+b a + a b 1 - Ta b
Tp Ts

TORQUES ON GEAR TRAINS

Cb
output
b
input Cc b
a Ca Cc
output
Cb
(a)
input
a Ca
(b)
Ca = applied input torque
Cb = resisting torque for output shaft

20
 Cc = the fixing torque for the casing.

Case (a)
Input and output shaft rotates in the same direction but in case (b) input and output shaft
rotate in opposite direction. Since there is no resultant acceleration of the system, the net torque
about any one axis musts be zero.
n
i.e.  Ci = 0 where Ci = Ca + Cb + Cc
i=1

 Ca + Cb + Cc = 0 _________________ (i)
Also since there is no acceleration, the kinetic energy of the system remains constant so
that the rate of work is zero.

 system rate of work = power = T = 0

the net torque about any one axis musts be zero.
n
i.e.  Cii = 0
i=1

 Caa + Cbb + Ccc = 0 _________________ (ii)

If the housing is fixed, it implies that c = 0
 Caa + Cbb = 0

If frictional forces are present, the efficiency of the unit is given by:
Output
efficiency, = Input

For case (b)

Output power = - Cbb (-ve b)
Input power = Caa
- Cbb
=
Caa

 Caa = - Cbb
Caa + Cbb = 0

Worked Examples
1. Two gear wheels of 4.5 module have 24 and 33 teeth respectively. The pressure angle is 20 0
and each wheel has a standard addendum of 1 module. Find the length of the arc of contact and
the maximum sliding velocity if the speed of the smaller wheel is 120 rev/min.

solution
Length of contact = path of approach + path of recess

21
 Path of approach = Ra2 – R2cos - Rsin
Path of recess = ra2 – r2cos - rsin
Note: addendum = 1 module = 4.5
m = D/T  D = mT
 2R = mT
mT 4.5 x 33
R= = 2 = 74.25 mm
2

mt 4.5 x 24
R= = = 54 mm
2 2
Ra = R + addendum = 74.25 + 4.5 = 78.75 mm
ra = r + addendum = 54 + 4.5 = 58.4 mm
Path of approach = Ra2 – R2cos2 - Rsin
= 78.752 – 74.252cos2200 - 74.25sin200
= 11.14 mm

Path of approach = ra2 – r2cos2 - rsin

= 58.52 – 542cos2200 - 54sin200
= 10.67 mm
 Path of contact = 11.14 + 10.67 = 21.81 mm
Arc of contact = path of contact
cos
21.81
= Cos200 = 23.18 mm

Kmax = 11.14 mm
Sliding velocity = ( + )Kmax
 T t
Note:  = t  = T
2 x 120
But  = 120 rev/min = 60 = 12.57 rad/s
t 24
 = T = 12.57 x 33 = 9.14 rad/s
Sliding velocity = (12.57 + 9.14) x 11.14
= 242 mm/s

2. An epicyclic train has a sun wheel with 30 teeth and two planet wheel of 50 teeth, the latter
meshing with the internal teeth of a fixed annulus. The input shaft, carrying the sun wheel,

22
 transmit 4kW at 300 rev/min. The output shaft is connected to arm which carries the planet
wheels.
(1) What is the speed of the output shaft and the torque transmitted if the overall efficiency is
95%?
(2) If the annulus is rotated independently, what should be its speed in order to make the
output shaft rotate at 10 rev/mi?

Solution
P A

S
L

ra = 2rp + rs
Ta = 2Tp + Ts
= 2 x 50 + 30 = 130

L A P S
(1) Give whole gear +1 revolution +a +a +a +a
(2) Hold arm L and give A, +b rev. 0 +b +130b -130b
50 30
13 13
(3) Add (a) + (b) +a a+b a+ 5 b a - 3 b

When the annulus is fixed and the sun wheel rotates at 300 rev/min.
Then; Na = a + b = 0  b = -a ___________ (i)
13
Ns = a – 3 b = 300 ___________ (ii)
Substitute –a for b in equation (ii)
13
Ns = a – 3 (-a) = 300 ___________ (ii)

 3a + 13a = 300
3
16a = 900
900
a = 16 = 56.25 rev/min
 b = -a = -56.25 rev/min
Speed of output shaft L (arm) = 56.25 rev/min
Output power x η = Input power = CLL
2Nc
 0.95 x 4 x 103 =60 CL
0.95 x 4 x 103 x 60
2 x 56.25

23
 CL =

= 64.5 Nm

(ii) Ns = 300 rev/min

NL = 10 = a
13b
Ns = a - 3 = 300
13b
300 = 10 - 3
870
 b = - 13
870
Na = a + b = 10 -13 = -56.9 rev/min

PROBLEMS

(1) A gear wheel has involute teeth, the pressure angle being 200. There are 18 teeth, module 12,
and the wheel rotates at 250 rev/min. if this wheel meshes with one having 30 teeth, find:
(a) the length of the line of contact
(b) the maximum rubbing velocity.
The addendum of each wheel is equal to the module.
[Ans = 56.4 mm; 1.226 m/s]

(2) When in mesh two gear wheels with 95 and 20 teeth of involute form rotate in opposite
directions and operate with a pressure angle of 200 a module of 4 mm and a contact ratio of
1.5. The arc of recess is 1.2 times the arc of approach. The smaller wheel run at 2000 rev/min
and transmits 4 kW to the larger wheel. Determine:
(a) the addenda of the two wheels
(b) the greatest speed of sliding between mating teeth, and
(c) the greatest force between a pair of mating teeth, if the effects of friction between the teeth
are neglected.
Hint: F = Torque  Power = workdone
Base circle radius for pinion Time

[Ans: Aw = 2.9, Ap = 4.24, Vmax = 2450 mm/s and F = 508 N]

(3) Two shafts A and B in the same straight line are geared together through an intermediate
parallel shaft C. The wheel connecting A and C have a module of 2, those connecting C and
B a module of 3.5. The speed of B is to be about, but less than 1/10 that of A. If the two
pinion have each 24 teeth, find suitable numbers of teeth for the wheels, the actual ratio and
the corresponding distance of shaft C from A.
X
Y 870 TX  TB
13 TA  TY
24

A
 Hint:  10   10

[Solution: TX = 116; TB = 56, reduction ratio = 11.28, distance = 140 mm]

(4) Two shaft A and B in the same straight link are geared together through an intermediate
parallel shaft C. the wheels connecting A and C have a module of 4 and those connecting C
and B a module of 9, the least number of teeth in any wheel being not less than 15. The
speed of B is to be about, but not greater than 1/12 the speed of A and the ratio at each reduction
is the same. Find suitable wheels, the actual reduction and the distance of shaft C and A and
B.
[A = 36, C1 = X = 126, C2 = Y = 16 and B = 56; reduction ratio = 1:12.25. The distance of
C from A & B = 324 mm]

(5) An epicyclic gear consists of a sun wheel which has 24 teeth planet wheels which have 28
teeth and an internally toothed annulus which is held stationary. Neglecting friction, find the
torque required to hold the annulus at rest when 9 kW is being transmitted, the sun wheel
rotating at 700 rev/min.
If the teeth have a module of 4, what is the diameter of the circle traced out by the centres
of the planet wheels?
[Ans = 409 Nm; 208]

(6) Figure below gives the pitch diameters if a set of spur gears forming train. Compute the
speed ratio of the train. Determine the speed and direction of gears 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 when
the speed of gear 2 is 450 rpm.

222D, no 4
750D
375D 3
2 5
175D

7 6
225D
400D
Figure 13

25
26
 Gyroscopic Motion and Forces
A body rotating about an axis of symmetry offers a resistance to a change in the direction of this
axis; this is known as gyroscopic effect. These forces are encountered in
i. The bearing of an automobile when the automobile make a turn
ii. In marine turbine as the ship pitches in a heavy sea
iii. In a jet airplane engine shaft as the airplane changes direction.

Important applications of the gyroscopic effect are the gyrocompass used on airplanes and ships,
and in inertia guidance control system for missiles and space travel where gyroscopes are used
to serve the angular motion of the body
Gyroscopic forces
Gyroscopic effect can be analysed on the principles of angular momentum. In Figure 1 below, x
and z lies in plane p and y axis perpendicular to the plane. Let OA rotates with angular velocity 
in the plane. Then  = vector OC and is directed perpendicular to the plane of rotation P.

To know the sense of the vector, the right-hand rule is used i.e. if the right hand is placed with the
figures pointing in the direction of angular velocity , than the thumbs will pint in sense OC.
Thus an angular velocity directed as shown by the curved arrow is represented by a vector OC
whose sense is required.
Similarly, angular acceleration and momentum may be represented using the same convention.
In Figure 2 (a) below, let a particle of mass M has a linear velocity v, hence linear momentum =
mv having the same sense and direction as that of velocity.
Angular momentum for a particle is defined as the moment of the linear momentum

In Figure 2(b), if the particles m rotates about a point o with  and radius r
Then, angular momentum H = mvr
A body of mass m, when rotating behaves as if the mass were concentrated in a ring at a radius k
(radius of gyration) from axis of rotation.
Then, H = mvk

And since V = K and I = mk2

27
Then H = mk2
Where I= mass moment of inertia about axis of rotation.
Using the right hand rue with fingers in  direction, the thumbs indicates that sense of the vector
is outward,
By differentiating:
𝑑𝐻 𝑑𝜔
=𝐼 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝑇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑇 = 𝐼𝛼
Where  is the angular acceleration of the body and T is the required torque to produce acceleration
, i.e. T = rate of change of momentum.
Now consider a disk keyed to a shaft which rotates in bearing A and B as shown in Figure 3 below.
Shaft axis is called spin axis S and s is the angular velocity about the spin axis.
Axis S, P and T are mutually perpendicular.

Figure 3
The angular momentum= 𝐼s with the direction shown. If the shaft is tilted through an angle 
about the axis P, the angular momentum vector changes from H to H1, then
H1 = H to H
H = change in angular momentum
The arc CD = radius OC   (radians)
For small , the chord  arc. Hence H = 𝐼s
∆𝐻 ∆𝜃 𝑑𝐻 ∆𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= 𝐼𝜔𝑠 ∆𝑡 and = lim 𝐼𝜔𝑠 ∆𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑝
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡→0
𝑑𝐻
 = 𝐼𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑝
𝑑𝑡

The axis about which the shaft is tilted is called the axis of precession,  is the angle of precession
and 𝜔𝑝 = angular velocity of precession
𝑑𝐻
 = 𝑇
𝑑𝑡

𝑇 = 𝐼𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑝
Where 𝑇 = gyroscopic Torque or gyroscopic couple
Fig3
Example 1
The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 30 tonnes, a radius of gyration of 600 mm, and rotates at
2400 rev/min in clockwise direction when viewed from top of the ship. The ship pitches through

28
a total angle of 150, 7½0, 7½0 below the horizontal, the motion being simple harmonic and having
period of 12 s. Determine the maximum gyroscopic couple holding-down the bolts on the turbine.
Solution
Angular velocity of vector generating SHM
2𝜋 𝜃
𝑃 = 12 rad/s (𝜔 = 𝑡 ) complete rev/min

Angular amplitude of motion (max. displacement)

1 𝜋
𝜃 = 7 2 × 180 rad/s

Maximum velocity of precession

𝜔𝑃 = 𝑃𝜃
2𝜋 1 𝜋
= 12 × 7 2 × 180
= 0.06854 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Angular velocity of rotor,
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔𝑠 =
60
2𝜋
= 2400 ×
60
= 251.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
Moment of inertia of rotor
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑘 2
= 30 × 103 × 0.62
= 10800 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
Maximum gyroscopic couple
𝑇 = 𝐼𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑃
= 10800 × 251.1 × 0.06865
= 186500 𝑁𝑚
= 186.5 𝐾𝑁𝑚

Example 2
A disc rotor has a mass of 30 kg and a radius of gyration about its axis of symmetry of 125 mm,
while its radius of gyration about a diameter of the rotor at right angles to the axis of symmetry is
75 mm. this rotor is pressed on a shaft but due to incorrect boring, the angle between the axis of
symmetry and the actual axis of rotation is 0.25o, though both these axes pass through the centre
of gravity of the rotor.
Assuming that the shaft is rigid and is carried between bearing 200 mm apart, determine the bearing
force due to the misalignment at a speed of 6000 rev/min.
If the formula is used to determine the centrifugal couple, this should be proved.
Solution
Let I = polar moment of inertia of disc
Id = moment of inertia of disc about diameter
 = angular velocity of shaft

29
From the figure below,
Angular velocity of disc about OA = cos
Angular momentum of disc about OA = Icos
The component of the momentum perpendicular to OY = Icossin
The component of being processed about OY at  rad/s, so the couple required,
C1 = I2cossin
Acting about OX in an anticlockwise direction
 Angular velocity of disc about OB = sin
 Angular momentum of disc about OB = Idsin
The component of the momentum perpendicular to OY = Idsincos
This component is being processed about OY at  rad/s, so the couple required,
C2 = Id2sincos
Acting about OX in an anticlockwise direction
The resultant couple about OX = C1 – C2
𝐼−𝐼𝑑2
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜑
2
On substitution
30(0.1252 −0.0752 ) 2𝜋 2
= × (6000 × 60 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛12
2
= 515 Nm
515
Load on bearing = 0.2 = 2750 N
Note: for small value of 
sin2 = 2
 C = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝑑)2 
For a uniform thin disc 𝐼 = 2𝐼𝑑
 C = 𝐼𝑑2 

30