Chapter Seven : Political Culture, Bureaucracy and local govnment.

Political Culture
The term ' Political culture ' is used in the field of social science.
It refers to historically based,widely shared beliefs,feelings and
values about the nature of political systems, which can serve as
a link between citizens and government. Different countries have
different political cultures, which can help us understand how
and why their governments are organized in a certain way, why
democracies succeed or fail or why some countries still have
monarchies. Understanding our own political culture can also
provide clues to political relationships, such as those we share
with each other or our governments. In the 1960's the concept
of political culture became a partly modern political analysis. This
term has been popularised by the American political thinkers like
Ulam, Beer and Almond. Political culture is the sum total of the
beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviour of the people towards a
political system.
Sidney Verba writes," It refers not to what is happening in the
world of politics, but what people believe about these
happenings. And these beliefs can be of several kinds; they can
be empirical beliefs about what the actual state of political life is
; they can be beliefs as to the goals or values that ought to be
pursued in political life and these beliefs may have an important
expressive or emotional dimension".

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Definition of Political culture :
Political culture, in political science, a set of shared views and
normative judgements held by a population regarding its
political system.
Lucian Pye is the father of political culture.
According to Almond and Powell, "Political culture consists on
attitudes, beliefs, values and skills which are current in an entire
population, as well as those special propensities and patterns
which may be found within separate parts of that population".
American Political Scientist Lucian Pye's definition is that "
Political culture is the set of attitudes, beliefs and sentiments,
which give order and meaning to a political process and which
provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern
behavior in the political system.
According to Eric Rowe, "A political culture is a pattern of
individual values, beliefs and emotional attitudes".
Ray Macridis says,"Political culture means commonly shared
goals and commonly accepted rules".
Samuel Beer writes, "The components of political culture are
values, beliefs and emotional attitudes about how government
ought to be conducted and about what it should do ".

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Political Science, the systematic study of governance by the
application of empirical and generally scientific methods of
analysis. As traditionally defined and studied, political science
examines the state and its organs and institutions. Every society
has a culture that differentiates its member's values and life
styles from thos of other societies. The anthropologist Clyde
kluckhon defined culture as"the total life way of a people, the
social legacy the individual acquires from his group ".
Most social scientists seem to agree that culture shaps or
influences social action but does not fully determine it. Culture is
only one of many factors that may give form and direction to
human behaviour. Political culture is one of the main factors of
policy environment in Bangladesh. It has great influence on
policy making. Our political culture is democratic and but less
tolerat. The dictatorship of famous political leaders, martial laws,
political violence, faulty election system was also the feature of
political culture in Bangladesh for last 4 decades.

Importance of Political Culture :

American political scientist Lucian Pye defined political culture as
the composite of basic values, feelings and knowledge that
underlie the political process. Hence, the building blocks of
political culture are the beliefs, opinions and emotions of the
citizens towarf their form of government. Political culture helps
build community and facilitate communication because people
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share an understanding of how and why political events, actions
and experiences occur in their country. Political culture is defined
by the ideologies, values, beliefs, norms,customs, traditions and
heroes characteristics of a nation. People living in a particular
political culture share views about the nature and operation of
government. Political culture differs from political ideology in
that two people can share a political culture but have different
ideologies,such as Democrats and
Republicans. Components of political culture, such as political
psychology, political consciousness, political ideology, on the one
hand, the emotional attitudes of members of society to politics,
values, attitudes that affect political behavior. Government is the
most powerful influence on our culture today because
government spends about $ 2.5 trillion a year, and every dollar
carries the power to affect our culture and behaviour through
laws, regulations, grants, entitlements and tex credits.

➢ FACTORS WHICH MOULD POLITICAL CULTURE:

Politics is such an activity which is carried on in a human
environment and is thus the product of the historical
background, social set up, physical location and climate etc. are
such characteristics that shall affect the political activity that
takes place in a given political unit. The economic conditions of a
particular community also have its bearing on its politics. A
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particular economy will create particular possibilities. A
community living in a highly industrialised economy. The
individual members of the society which have certain values,
beliefs, propensities and emotional attitudes. “Political Culture”,
according to Lucian pye, “political culture is shaped by the
general historical experiences of a country as also by the private
and personal experiences of the individuals. It is because the
individuals first became the members of society and then of the
polity” in the words of Pye , political culture can be found only in
man’s mind in the pattern of action, feeling and reflection which
they have internalized and made part of their very existence. It is
true that we cannot deny the importance of political events such
as elections, party competition during the elections, role of
pressure groups, group behavior, changing social basis of the
elite, governmental performance, stability of government and
working of the political institutions. Besides political culture
studies the inter connection between the beliefs, the political
events and the governmental structure. If the constitution of a
country is not according to the political culture, it has to be
changed. Political culture not only affects the constitution but
also the political ideologies. At last we can say that, political
culture is the set of attitudes, and rules that govern behavior in
the political system.

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RELATION BETWEEN POLITICAL SYSTEM AND POLITICAL
CULTURE :
A society’s political culture is an important component that can
affect the formulation of public opinion. Political culture is the
deeply rooted norms, values and beliefs a society has about
political power and legitimacy and plays a large role in
determining the relation of citizens to their political system. It
should be noted that political culture of a country is very close to
its general culture. Just as the political culture of a country differs
from the another country. the political sphere is also provided
with political structures and meanings in the same manner as
consistency and integration is provided to the social life by
general culture. Every generation inherits attitudes and beliefs
towards politics, partly from the earlier generation and partly it
is formulated as a reaction to the ongoing politics. Consequently,
political culture is a product of the learning process. General
elections party politics, working of pressure groups changing
social basis of the elites, governmental performance influence
the political culture. Study of a political culture is also a study in
political dynamics. The process of interaction between political
system and political actors is one of the techniques to
understand the change in political culture that happens through
time. The social processes influence the individual at all stages of
life. In short, political culture can be treated as valuable method

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for the study of the behavior of the individual in the context of
the political system .

Different kinds of Political Culture

1. Parochial political culture : when people do not possess
any tendency to participate in the process of input or not aware
of the output is called parochial political culture. These people
have no role to play in political culture.
African tribes and eskimos are considered under parochial
political culture.
2. The subject of political culture : this type of political
culture is found in monarchies and developing countries where
people aware of their government and accept the existence
whether they like it or not.
3. Participant political culture : this is the type of political
culture in which people are looking forward to participating in
the political system and thereby influence the existing working of
the existing political system. They are responsible and always
busy making reasonable demands and also involved in many
decision making process.
4. Political subculture : in most of the countries not all
groups are participating are advance some group are less
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advance. The reason for this many countries have many different
ethnic groups, there is a different educational political and
economic background.
5. Civic culture : this is the type of political culture which can
be compared to the developed society like America where
people participate in various Processes of the political system.
6. Secular political culture : when people are secular in their
Outlook, are there is a participation in the decision making
process by most of the individual. It is worked as a rational
process.
7. Ideological political culture : this types of political culture
people are guided political orientation, with the help of the
educational system and controlled political socialization.
8. Homogenous political culture : when the political system
has been categorized by the same rules, values and beliefs that
is called homogenous political culture.
9. Fragmented political culture : when everything in a
political system is different. Including Their ideologies and beliefs
is called fragmented political culture.

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 Definition of political parties
Political parties are organizations of broadly like minded men and
women that seek to win elections in order that they can assume
responsibility for controlling the apparatus of government with a
view to implementing their own policies. A political party is an
organizations that coordination candidates to compete in a
specific country's election.
Characteristic of political parties :
1)A political party is an organizations group of people.
2)They share common principles and goals. Their members share
same view on matters of public matters.
3)They try to seek control of the government through the process
of election.
4) They try to fulfil their promises to the people through
government action.
The meaning of party:
1.The channels through which people concerns become political
issues on the government policy agenda.
2.Parties pick candidate.
3.Parties run campaigns.
4.Parties provide political identity.

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5.Parties coordinate policymaking. Two
types of political parties :
1:Nation parties
a)ruling parties
b)opposition parties
2:State parties
a)ruling parties
b)opposition parties Need
for political parties:
1) Democracies can function only when there is a competitive
political party system.
2)Political parties help in making the institutions of the
government democratic
3)They educate people and encourage them to participate in the
process of election.
4)Teach them to make the correct decision.

Bases for the formation of political parties

There are many based for the formation of political parties. Many
people form a political party on the basis of religion. Their aim is
to protect the interests of their followers. For instance, Muslim
League, Akali Dal, Hindu Mahasabha, etc were formed on this
basis. In European countries Catholic parties have been formed
on this very basis. The second basis for the formation of the

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parties is economic. For example, there are many classes in the
society, i.g. of capitalists, labourers, businessmen and services.
Conservative parties protect the interest of capitalists. While
Communist and socialist parties protect the interests of the
labourers. The third basis for the formation of a political party is
racial. For example, in South Africa, the policy of apartheid has
been adopted and the white people have made different laws for
the protection of their interests. The white position people there
hated the black people and both and formed separate
organisations for the protection of their interests. Fourthly,
certain parties, are formed on political basis, like Indian National
Congress in India. In the beginning its aim was to protect the
interests of the people of India, but later it fought for the
freedom of the country. Fifthly, sometimes the basis for the
formation of political parties is psychological or natural
difference. Many people consider the old traditions of the society
as ideal and they want to review them. We call such persons
reactionaries.

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 Importance of Political parties in Democracy
Political parties have a special importance in Democracy because
during the elections they create consciousness among the
voters. They keep the nation alive hm politically. They create the
interest of the voters in politics and attract them towards
important problems. For this purpose the political parties deliver
many lectures and distribute political literature. They publish
election manifestos in order to place their performance and
policy before the people. A few weeks or days before the polling
takes place, they carry on propaganda on a large scale and their
workers go from door to door to canvass among the voters and
acquaint them with their viewpoint. When the polling takes
place,they persuade the voters to go to the polling booths and
advice them how to cast their votes.
When the results of the election are declared, each party elects
its leader in the legislature. The party with absolute or clear
majority , forms the government. The parties which do not join
the government, act as opposition. The ruling party runs the
government according to the programme given in their election
manifesto and the opposition parties criticise its faulty policies.
Many people do not like political parties and they say that
political parties are unimportant, because they create
unnecessary conflicts. President George Washington advised the
people of America against the formation of political parties, but,
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soon Republican party took birth under the leadership of
Hamilton and Democratic party under the leadership of
Jefferson. Though there are many demerits of the political
parties, yet they have doubtlessly contributed a the constitution
of America is rigid, and if there were no political parties, there
would have been no practical flexibility in it.
In the absence of political parties, it is difficult to run the
government in a Parliamentary and a presidential system of
governments because independent candidates will be elected in
the legislature and they will have no organisation and discipline.
They will also not be bound to any policy or programme.
Therefore, the successful working of the government will not be
possible.
Bryce says, "Parties are inevitable. No free country has been
without them. No one has shown how representative
government could be worked without them . They bring order
out of the chaos of a multitude of voters. If parties cause some
evils, they avert and mitigate others.
Maclver also says, " There can be no unified statement of
principle , no orderly evolution of policy, no regular resort to the
constitutional device of parliamentary election, nor of
course any of the recognised institutions by means of which a
party seeks to gain and maintain power".

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Whereas bi-party system and multi-party system are necessary
for the protection of democracy, there one party system is
altogether useless because there is every possiblity of the rise of
dictatorship in it. Where there has been or there is one party
system, the opposition is altogether crushed and the dictatorship
of the government is established. Without effective existence of
the opposition parties, the protection of democracy is not
possible. For example, in Germany, during Hitler's regime and in
Italy during Mussolini's regime , there was one party system.
Today there is one party system in Communist countries like
Soviet Union, China, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary, Finland etc.In
the countries without any political party, absolute monarchy or
military dictatorship is established. Therefore, Political parties
will be accepted for the protection of Democracy.
Advantage and Disadvantage of Political Parties
Political parties are groups of people who come together
because they share a mutual vision for their community. These
parties can form at local, regional, or national levels. These
groups meet together regularly, create platforms that represent
their vision and values, and then send members to run for
political office
Organization is the primary advantage that a political party
provides. With these parties in place, the politics at any level can
be evaluated by each voting member of society to determine if

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they also share the values of the party. At the same time, it allows
for the best possible candidate to represent a certain set of
values or ideas to run for office.
Compromise is the primary disadvantage of political parties.
Many political parties are run by a director or an executive team
and will often influence or direct the party platform. Those who
wish to join with the political party must then agree with the
platform, even if it doesn’t quite fit their needs, forcing them to
compromise instead of the leadership.
There are additional advantages and disadvantages of political
parties to think about as well.
The Advantages of Political Parties
1. Political parties encourage public participation.
Political parties, when structured within a representative form of
government, encourage the average person to be politically
active. They ask for people to become informed about specific
situations that are happening within society so they can take a
stand on those issues. Debates allow for people to express
opinions or share ideas to formulate an informed opinion. Many
political parties will even encourage members to run for political
office at all levels of government.
The Advantages of Political Parties

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1. Political parties encourage public participation.
Political parties, when structured within a representative form of
government, encourage the average person to be politically
active. They ask for people to become informed about specific
situations that are happening within society so they can take a
stand on those issues. Debates allow for people to express
opinions or share ideas to formulate an informed opinion. Many
political parties will even encourage members to run for political
office at all levels of government.
2. Political parties create checks and balances.
In the United States, with two major political parties, the system
is designed to bring politicians together so that negotiations
occur over legislation. In other systems of government with
multiple major political parties, negotiations over power and
leadership are required to form a majority government. The goal
of forming political parties is to create a system of checks and
balances to prevent one person or one group from grabbing too
much power in representative governments.
3. Political parties distribute information throughout society.
In many elections, political parties are a primary source of
information for current and future legislations. It’s the once
chance for the general population to work with politicians to
begin crafting a vision for the future. Although the voters must

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continue to press their politicians to stay true to their word in a
representative form of government, they have access through
the political party to do so.

5. Political parties help decisions be made quicker.

The state of politics in the United States in 2017 might make it
seem like this isn’t an advantage of political parties, but it
generally is. When people can come together within the
boundaries of the party, they can debate ideas and create
legislation or policies that benefit everyone faster than if they
were forced to do it themselves. The party must be managed
properly for this advantage to appear, however, and that is often
why this key point is not always seen.
6. Political parties create connections.
People are naturally attracted to others who share similar beliefs
and ideas. This attraction allows people to network with one
another, creating connections they might not have otherwise
made. Involvement in a preferred party can mean making new
friends, traveling new places, and being able to work toward
making the world a better place.
The Disadvantages of Political Parties
1. Political parties can be abusive.

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Not every government is a representative form of government.
Communism has political parties. Dictatorships often use
political parties. The purpose of the parties in these instances is
usually more about enforcement of laws and expectations
instead of being politically active from an individualized
perspective. If a political party has too much strength or leverage
within a society, it can become abusive
2. Political parties encourage polarization.
Political parties do bring people together, but they also tear
people apart. The platforms offered by each party are
increasingly presented as an all-or-nothing scenario. There is also
a certain level of righteousness assigned to that platform, making
those who disagree with it be perceived as “wrong.” Those who
agree with it are perceived as “right.” Political parties may
encourage opinions, but only if those opinions agree with the
platform.
3. Political parties prioritize themselves.
In 2016, the total cost of the U.S. election was an estimated $6.4
billion, according to information from Open Secrets. The cost of
the Presidential race was $2.38 billion. In 2012, those figures
were $6.2 billion and $2.6 billion respectively. Just one election
in the United States, at those figures, is enough to solve most
world hunger issues for an entire year. That means the goal of

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most political parties is to prioritize themselves so they can be in
power. Political parties see these costs as investments.
4. Political parties sacrifice individuality.
Personal opinions are important. We learn from individual
experiences. In the structure of a political party, however, the
individual voice is often drowned out by the group voice. If
enough voices are loud enough, a minority of people within the
party can lead the entire group toward a new direction. Because
group voices are louder, there tends to be less attention paid to
concerned individual voices – even if the observations or
information being provided would benefit everyone.
5. Political parties invite corruption.
If a person can be given a large enough and loud enough
platform, they can influence the direction of an entire election,
community, or nation. Their very structure, where individuals
influence group voices to lead the party in a specific direction,
invites corruption. Allegations of corruption are frequent in
political systems because a few typically hold power over many
and special interest groups want their message to get out to as
many people as possible.
The advantages and disadvantages of political parties show us
that organization, management, and an open mind are the three
primary traits required for society to benefit the most from this

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structure. Although political parties will always create division
and polarization at some level since different ideas are
represented, it will also always be a way for people to come
together to learn something new too.

What is the BI party system. Discuss its advantage and

disadvantage
A Bi-party system doesn't mean that a particular country has only
two parties and there is no third party in it. It means there are
only two major parties and the rest of the parties are less
important. For example, there are more than two parties in
England viz..Conservative party, Labour party, Liberal party,
Fascist and communist party. But in politics, only two parties are
important e.g.the Conservative and the labour party. Sometimes
the Conservative party and at other times the labour party forms
the Government. No seat has been obtained by the communist
and the fascist party. In the House of Commons, the liberal party
has only a few seats.
Similarly in the U.S.A. though there are many parties like the
communist party,the republican party,and the democratic party
,yet only Republican and Democratic parties are important and
they form the Government. The communist party has no
importance in politics. Thus, there is a bi party system in Great
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Britain and the U.S.A.Where there is a multi-party system, there
are more than two important parties in politics. This system
prevails in France, West Germany, Italy and certain other
countries of Europe.
MERITS OF Bi-PARTY SYSTEM :
1. Government becomes more stable: The Government is more
stable in a bi - party system, because the party which has a
majority in the legislature form the Government and the other
party act as opposition. Coalition Governments are not formed
in a bi-party system. If the ruling party loses the majority in the
legislature, the Cabinet tenders its resignation. As such
eventually, the opposition party forms the Government. It
becomes the party and which was hitherto for the ruling party,
becomes the opposition party.
2.Direct Election of the Government: In the second system, the
Government is elected by the people directly, because the voters
know the party in whose favour they casting their votes. Thus,
the people vote for the party whom they wish to form a
Government. For example, if the people in England want a
progressive Government, they cast their votes in favour of the
Labour party, and if they like the Conservative Government, they
cast their vote in favour of the Conservative Party.
3. Formation of Government is easier: In this system, it
becomes easy for the Head of the State to decide which party
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should be invited to form the Government. The Head of the State
invites the leaders of the majority party to form the Government.
In this way, the majority party forms the Government. If the
majority loses the majority support in the legislature, the Head
of the State invites the opposition party to form the Government.
4. It ensures a strong Government and continuity of policy:
Because of the stability of the Government in a bi-party system,
it is strong and it can pursue a good continuously. In contrast to
this, the cabinets change very often in a multi-party system. The
Government becomes weak and there is no continuity in the
policy. In a bi-party system, the government is stable and it can
formulate long term plans for the welfare of the people. It can
also ensure its goodwill to foreign countries.
5.Conservative Criticism: In this system, the opposition party
indulges in constructive criticism of the Government because it
is well known to the opposition party that in case of the failure
of the Government, it will have to take the responsibility of the
Government. In such an eventuality, it will have to remove all
those defects for which it had criticised the ruling party.
Laski has very aptly said," It is the only method by which the
people can at the electoral period directly choose the
Government. It enables the government to derive its policy from
the statute book. It makes knows and intelligible, the results of

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its failure. It brings an alternative Government into the
immediate being.
DISADVANTAGE OF BI-PARTY SYSTEM:
1. Dictatorship of the Cabinet: In a bi-party system the
dictatorship of the cabinet is established as in the case in England
because it has majority support in the Parliament. In such a
situation, the ruling party does not care much for the opposition.
2. Limited choice before the voters: When there are only
two parties before the electorate, they have to select one of the
two parties, even if they don't like both parties. In this way, the
electorate loses its freedom of choice. In case there are more
than two parties, the choice for the voters become wide.
3.The Prestige of the legislature is lowered: In a bi-party system,
the majority party supports the cabinet. The prime minister had
a special influence over the Parliament he is the leader of the
House under his position as Bills, budgets, political and treaties
passed in the way he ways. In case he is not supported by the
Parliament, he can recommend to the Head of the state for the
dissolution of the Lower House. Therefore, the Parliament is a
sort of puppet in the hands of the Prime minister.
4.Dictatorship of the Majority Party: In this system, the
dictatorship of the majority Party is established and it cares little
for the opposition, because it enjoys a majority in the Parliament.

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 Multiple party,one party and it’s advantages and
disadvantages
In political science,a multi party system is a political system in
which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run
for national elections,and all have the capacity to gain control of
government offices,separately or in coalition.Apart from one
party dominant and two party systems,multi party systems tend
to be more common in parliamentary systems than presidential
systems and far more common in countries that use proportional
representation compared to countries that use first past the post
elections. Several parties compete for power and all of them
have reasonable chance of forming government.
Argentina,Armenia,Belgium,Brazil,Denmark,Finland,France,Indi
a etc are examples of nations that have used a multi party system
effectively in their democracies.In these countries,usually no
single party has a parliamentary majority by itself.
Instead,multiple political parties are compelled to form
compromised coalitions for the purpose of developing power
blocks and attaining legitimate mandate.
The UK has been edging towards a multi party system in the past
few years. The use of proportional representation in elections
other than Westminster meants the electorate have got used to
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voting for smaller parties,which helps explain why they make up
33% of the vote even for the Westminster General election.
India adopted a multi party system because of the social and
geographical diversity of the nation. Through this system
different and diverse parties could represent the sections of the
society and power doesn’t absorb in the hands of one single
party. Only such a system could accommodate the huge
population like India. The diverse social,cultural,religious and
geographical features of the country could only be accommodate
under multi party.
Multi party system demands a high degree of political maturity,a
cultural of tolerance and understanding a high standard of
political disciplines. Decision making process involves wider
representation of diverse opinions and interests. It enhances
regular and periodic elections for chance of government. It
prevents dictatorship. Abundant choice of programmes and
political parties are ensured.

Advantages of multiple party system:

1)It gives room for democracy-
Democracy is a type of government in which the people rules. It
is a government that considers the choices and opinions of
people. Since multiple party system gives room for people to

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elect their leaders from any political party of their choice,it
therefore encourages democracy too.
2)Allow more shades of opinion:
Multi party system allows for more shades of opinion in the
parliament which augurs well for the country. The existence of
many political parties makes it possible for more persons to
represent the people in the parliament.
3)Provision of wider choice:
Unlike a one party or two party state,multiple party system
provides the electorate wider range of choice of political parties.
4)Widens political education:
Consequently,in a multi party system,the scope of political
education the electorate receives tends to widen with the
existence of many political parties in the system.
5)Gurantees smooth change in government:
Multiple party system is not like a one party system where one
political party rules the country for unlimited number of years. It
is easier to change any government that alienates itself from the
people in a multi party system.
6)It permits human right:

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Multiple party system allows the citizens of a country to exercise
their fundamental human rights of political association rather
than being thrown into political bondage in a plone party system
and provides avenue for freedom of speech.
7)Permits a wide range of ideology:
Ideology is like the backbone of every political party because it
highlights what that political party wants to achieve. Multi party
system allows for a wide range of ideologies. Thus, the masses
can choose from any political party that fits their aspirations and
desires.
8)The workers is more free in this system:
If his own party doesn’t care for him,ha can join a like minded
party.

Disadvantage of multiple party system:

1)Waste resources:
Using Nigeria as a case study,multiple party system usually lead
to waste of government resouces. The much needed human and
material resouces which would have been directed towards the
urgent tast of national development are wasted into unprofitable
political rivalry.
2)It is expensive to run:

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Unlike one party system multiple party system tends to the too
expensive to maintain more than two parties and their
paraphernalia.Asise from that the cost of concubine elections for
the political parties can be terrifying sometimes.
3) Leads to unhealthy rivalry:
Multiple party system usually lead to political crisis and dispute
amongst citizens in the country. This unhealthy rivalries resultes
in oppression,suppression and detention of leaders of the
opposition parties.
4)It encourages corruption in the parliament:
It has also been argued that multi party system promotes
corruption among members of the park’s during the passing of
bills.The inability to the ruling of the party to win a clear cut
majority in the parliament in a multi party system gives room to
bribery and corruption in order to pass a bill.
5)Election violence:
Election violence is a common occurrence in a multi party
system. This is so because the existence of many political parties
in a multi party system and the competitions that go with it
exposes the country to all forms of elention malpractice like
rigging.
6)Weak position of the Prime Minister:

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In this system,the position of the Prime Minister is weak because
the government is formed not by one party but many parties
from the Coalition Government. Therefore,all the parties in the
government are to be appeased. Since the policies and
programmes of these parties are different,the
Prime Minister has to face a great difficulty in satisfying them and
keep them with him. If some party refuse to support the Prime
Minister the fall of the government become inevitable.
One party system is a political system in which only one political
party controls the affairs of the governments. In this kind of
system there is no democracy or rule of laws ba cause powers are
concentrated in the hands one person or group of people. This is
called a one party dominant system. In this case opposition
parties against the dominant ruling party are allowed, but have
no real chance of gaining power. For example,in China all power
is vested in the Communist Party of China. Other parties are
allowed to exist only if they accept the leading role of the
Communist Party. A one party system happen in two ways. Firstly,
the activities of the opposition may be completely out lawer such
that even the opposition leaders are not allowed to participate
in elections. Secondly, the chances of the opposition of clinch
power are thwarted by the unfavourable legal framework that is
in place. A one party system was a characteristic of many African
states particularly immediately they gained independence and
more rampant in the period between 1960s to the 1980s. Many
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scholars have attributed this to various factors including the fact
that democracy was considered as alien to Africa. For
instance,apologists of the one party regime such as Msalimu
Nyerere maintained that African traditional societies were akin
to one party system.
One party state representing the whole of society, assuming that
there are no particular social interests,only a general and unified
political will, representing a dominant and supposedly superior
social class, the working class.
Only one political party is constitutionally recognized and
allowed to exist. One party system and state tend to have strong
and dedicated leadership.

Definition of Bureaucracy
The term "Bureaucracy" originated in the French language. It
combines the French word bureau – desk or office – with the
Greek word (kratos) – rule or political power. The French
economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay
(17121759) a French economist coined the word in the mid-18th
century.
Bureaucracy is the structure and set of rules that control the
activities of people that work for large organizations and
government. It is characterized by standardized procedure (rule-
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following), formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and
impersonal relationships. ( Wikipedia )
Karl Marx (1818-1883), theorized about the role and function of
bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right,
published in 1843. He wrote that "The Corporation is civil
society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy is the
state which has really made itself into civil society."
Max Weber (1864-1920), a German scientist, defines
bureaucracy as a highly structured, formalized, and also an
impersonal organization. He also instituted the belief that an
organization must have a defined hierarchical structure and clear
rules, regulations, and lines of authority which govern it. He
argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and
rational way in which human activity can be organized and that
systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to
maintain order, to maximize efficiency, and to eliminate
favoritism. Max Weber bureaucracy ideally has the following
characteristics:

• Specialization of labor
• A formal set of rules and regulations
• Well-defined hierarchy within the organization
• Impersonality in the application of rules

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Max Weber's bureaucracy theory made major contributions to
our understanding of organizational life. This legal-rational
approach to organizing was meant to guard against the
"particularism" that Weber saw around him. It is sometimes
called bureaucratic management theory known for its
rationalization of organizations.
Models of Bureaucracy:

• Weberian Model views bureaucracies as rational,

hierarchical organizations in which power flows from the
top downward and decisions are based on logical reasoning.
• Acquisitions Model view top-level bureaucrats as
constantly seeking to expand budgets and staff so as to
maximize their own power.
• Monopolistic Model compares bureaucracies to
monopolistic business (inefficient and costly operation)
Types of Bureaucratic Organizations:

• Governments
• Armies
• Profit-making firms (including professional sports team)
• Universities
• Charitable organizations

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 Features of bureaucracy
Sociologist Max Weber outlines some of the characteristics of a
bureaucratic organization. It is described below:
1.Division of labour – The tasks required to carry out the
objectives of the bureaucratic organization are distributed
among the employees as a daily duty of the office. 2.Determining
the working method – The procedure of bureaucratic
organization is guided by law. In this, every employee has to
perform his duties in his own field.
3. Stepping – The bureaucratic organization follows the policy of
hierarchy. That is, there is a superiorinferior relationship.
Different positions are classified and organized according to this
principle. Every lower position is governed by a higher position.
The orders of the superior officer are obeyed literally by the
lower officers.
4.Professional and paid – Bureaucrats and civil servants are
professional and salaried. They receive salaries and allowances
from the state treasury.
5. Specialization policy – Bureaucratic organization is based on
the principle of division of labor and specialization.

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6.Neutrality – Bureaucratic administration is a nonpolitical
organization. Since bureaucrats are not involved in politics, they
carry out their duties in a regular manner, avoiding hatred and
passion. Every employee keeps his personal life separate from
administrative life.
7.Recruitment and promotion – Appointments in the
bureaucratic administration are made on the basis of merit,
through competitive examinations. They are promoted on the
basis of seniority and achievement.
8. Formalities – The bureaucracy places great emphasis on the
rigid rules and procedures of formality. Everything is done
according to the rules and regulations. All work is routine.
9.Durability – The jobs of bureaucrats last till a certain age. They
remain in office until retirement. They remain even if the
government changes. They can be fired only because of physical
and mental disability.

Definition of Local government:

Local government can be described as some government bodies elected by the

people that have administrative, legislative and executive functions on the
territories under their jurisdiction. It is defined as an authority that decides or
determines certain measures within a given territory. Actually, to know the answer
of the questions like, what is local government? Which dimension and scope it
includes? It is necessary to analysis the view and opinion of some scholars and
expert in the field of public administration and political science.
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1. Local government is the government of difference, responding to different
needs, and realizing different aspirations. "There must be a definite power to
do things in a different manner from that followed in other areas within the
same of state area. If some local body has it in its power.

(Hesluck 1936 as quoted in Stewart 2000)

2. Local government is part of the government of a country which deals mainly

with problems or issues related to a given population within a given territory.
This is done basically on the responsibilities of a country that parliament
decides to delegate by the laws to local governance. In this definition we
find two important elements of local government, that of the existence of
directly elected local bodies and local finances, which constitute common
denominators of each local government.

Clarke (Aijaz, 2007)

3. Local Government is the sphere of government where local authorities are
allowed by law to issue acts or decisions to adjust the way of governance.
Hasluck (Hasluck, 2010)

4. In his book “Elements of Politics”, Sedgwick considers local government as

government of some sub organs that have special powers to issue regulations
or rules within the area which they manage. So Sedgwick connects this
government with its legislative character.
(Sidgwick, 2014)

5. Governance; "the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority

to manage a country's affairs at all levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes

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 and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interests,
exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their
differences”.
(UNDP 1997 as quoted by SHDR 1999)

6. Stones in his definition define local government as part of the governance of a

country, but that deals with problems or issues of population within certain
territory or location. According to him, this kind of government does the
socalled “housework” so that living in these areas
(Stones, 1968)
7. The World Bank identifies three distinct aspects of governance: the form of
political regime, the process by which authority is exercised in the management
of a country‘s economic and social resources for development and the capacity
of government to design, formulate, and implement policies and discharge
functions. OECD's definition falls along similar lines
(SAHDR, Ibid)

8 . In a socio-developmental definition, given by L. Godwin on local

governance, he defines this kind of government as management of their affairs
by the people of the locality where they are. Although short, this definition
socially finds place.
(Godwin, 2014)

9. It is a continuing process through which conflicting of diverse interests may be

accommodated and cooperative action may be taken. It includes formed
institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as
informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or
perceive to be in their interest."
(Commission a Global Governance 1995, as quoted by
SHDR 1999).

10. Local government should have following features:

• Have a certain population

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 • Have a specific surface area
• Have a continuous organization
• The capacity to sign contracts or to enter into relationships with third
parties. i.e the legal status and authority.
• To realise the financial functions therefore have the capacity to collect
taxes and determine its budget.
(Humes & Martin, 1961)
11. "The local government and urban policy" states that local authorities have
boundaries defined geographically, are organs highly functional, directly
elected, but on the other hand have disabilities related to the
determination of local taxes, this comes depending on the determination of
the margin from the central government.
(Hampton, 1991).
12. Local governance is a multi-functional and geographic organization
determined on pursuing social objectives, economic or political ones,
through funds given from above or those provided by its revenues, which
regulates and monitors all areas of public services within the local
community.

(Wilson and Game, 2006)

13. Lockard thinks that the local government can be defined as a public
organization, authorized to establish and administer public policies within
a given territory, the latter is a subdivision of the central government. In
fact the organization of local government is public organization, changing
from private organizations, they are aimed at the general interest of citizens.

(Lockard, 1963)

14. when Keating compares urban policies in different countries as America,

Canada, France or Britain he sees local units as individual associations or
organizations who decided to govern its own works, by defining the scope
and limits of the powers.
(Keating, 1991)
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 Importance of Local government
The local government is very important notion for the society for
the sustainable development of entire nation because of the
following peculiarities of the local government:

➢ To Promote the Democracy

➢ For the development
➢ For effective service Delivery
➢ To empowerment
➢ To promote the people’s participation
➢ To make the policy decisions
➢ To make the institutionalization of inclusiveness
➢ For the dispute resolution
➢ Effective utilization of resources
➢ To create the feelings for door step government To perform
the role of Central government
➢ For sustainable Development
➢ Makes the bridge between central government and people

More specifically the importance of local government is as

follows:
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1.Provides public services for residents of the area within its
jurisdiction, which is the main goal of this government.
2.Local development. This is very important feature, because the
primary goal is the development of local government within the
area which exercises jurisdiction.
3.Local accountability. This means that local representatives of
the people are elected by them to meet the ultimate goal that is
to provide services in the most effective manner possible. If this
is not achieved, then the vote of the people makes them to not
be re-elected at the next election.
4.Has the local authority. Management or governance of a
certain locality is made by a body composed of persons
directly elected by the people of that area. This
representative body is responsible for the administration of local
affairs in that area.
5.Local finances. In order to provide services and perform
functions effectively, it is imperative that the local unit has its
own finances. Because the services it provides to citizens should
be financially covered. These finances can be obtained from local
taxes but also from state subsidies.
6.Local autonomy. This means that the local government has the
right to establish and operate in the activities and functions that
are recognized by law. It also includes the legal right of local
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residents to choose their representatives that will govern the
territory under the set laws. It should be noted that autonomy
does not mean sovereignty over these bodies, as belonging and
legally depending on state structures.
7.Local Participation. The success or failure of the development
plans of the territory it relates to how much active participation
of the local people is there. Through this government it is
sought greater participation of people who are given the
opportunity to participate in the decision making process. It’s a
condition that, if a goal to be achieved, then the participation
of the public should be necessarily.
8.Local Leadership. Usually people who deal with local
governments, especially in rural areas, are characterized by a
lack of experience, professionalism. Therefore, they should be
provided with leadership-management skills in order to
develop various projects initiated.
The importance of this government is primarily in support of
democracy. As if democracy is to function properly, then it is
necessary the participation of as many citizens in the decision
making process. Progress achieved on the basis of these methods
is more solid and democratic than that achieved over the
communist totalitarian methods.
Secondly, the local government can create future leaders. This
means that local government is a training period and effective
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enough to gain experience and knowledge on the art of
government policy-making and governance transition to
nationwide. This has happened in our country, where yesterday’s
mayors have used their position as a springboard to move to the
party leadership or central governments. This underlines once
again that the best school of democracy and the best guarantee
for success is the practice in local government.
Thirdly, its importance lies in the fact that manages much better
and more efficiently the local affairs as it is closer to the needs of
citizen.
Besides, the local government has more importantance. The
burden of the provincial and Central government is lessened by
it. Local self government is also essential for the success of
democracy. These institutions impart training to the citizens in
the running of the government. Moreover democracy is made
real in local self government.De Touquiville observes, the local
assemblies of citizen constitutes the strength of free Nations.
It has some more importance:

➢ Local government is door step government to the local

people.
➢ Local government is responsible towards the local people.
➢ Local government is democratic and promotes
democratization.

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 ➢ The system of local governance indicates that system of
government which promotes the people's participation in
each and every activity of government.
➢ The aim of local governance is to empower local people
and it ensures the citizen participation into the governing
system of local government.
➢ It creates an environment for healthy growth of political
parties and helps to produce the capable and experienced
future leaders at local level.
Under democratic regime, people's participation is help to solve
diverse types of local problems.

➢ Promotes the national integration, creates sense of

belongingness and help to solve verities of local issues such
as poverty, underdevelopment, condition of exploitation.
➢ Local self-government denotes right and the ability of local
authorities within the limits of law, to regulate and
manage a substantial share of public affairs under their
own responsibilities and the interest of local population.
➢ Local self-government offers the best opportunity to the
people to bring knowledge, interest and enthusiasm to
bear on the solution of their own local problem.
➢ In modern local government institutions has performed
multi-faceted functions. They performed political,
economic, social- cultural and administrative functions.
42 | P a g e
They are directly responsible towards the local people as well as
central government
In the perspectives of the nature of government In the
perspective of government, the local government has three basic
characteristic: Executives, legislative and judicial. Therefore, the
role of the local government can be:
Executive role: To execute or implement the plan and policies
Legislative role: To make the necessary laws, directives and other
plans and policies. Validate the plans, policies and programs of
local government.
Judicial role: To increase the access to the justices for the local
people. To minimize the petty dispute to local level in effective
and efficient way.
Besides,its plays political, development and adminstrative role.
These are descriptions of the importance of local government.

Sources of income of Local Bodies

The following are the main sources of Local Bodies:-
Different kinds of taxes : State and local governments
collect tax revenues from three primary sources: income,
43 | P a g e
sales, house, and property taxes. Income and sales taxes
make up the majority of combined state tax revenue, while
property taxes are the largest source of tax revenue for local
governments, including school districts.

Grant from the State Government : Grants and other

monetary transfers to local governments are either
conditional or unconditional. Conditional grants are
designated for a specific purpose and may not be used for
another project, while unconditional grants may be used for
any purpose the recipient local government sees fit.

Water, Electricity, Trams ,Buses etc : Local Government

income from the water and electricity bill. Bus station ,tram
have to pay taxes to the local government.

Income from the entertainment tax imposed on circus,

melas, etc :
Entertainment tax also sometimes referred to as
"amusement tax" is any tax levied on any form of
commercial entertainment, such as movie tickets,
exhibitions, sport events and more. The specific rules such
as the tax rate of entertainment tax and cases of tax
exemption are subject to local authorities, as is their
collection. The entertainment tax has in the most cases the
44 | P a g e
form of indirect tax, which is levied on buyer. Nowadays, the
most discussed subject of those taxes are their
implementations to online services, especially the ones
working on streaming basis such as Netflix, Spotify and
others.
Besides Local Bodies income from the Tax on the sale of
animals in the market and fairs; passenger tax in fair;
licences issued to Commission Agents; passing the building
plans of the citizens; The Municipal shops and markets;
selling filth which is untilised as fertilizer by the farmer.

Functions of the Local government

1. Control and provision of Markets and motor packs:

This is one of the most important functions of the Local
government. In rural areas where there is hardly good
motor packs or large market for the people, the local
government is expected to provide and control markets and
motor parks.

2. Collection and disposition of refuse: As it is always

said, “Cleanliness is next to Godliness”. No society can
survive in a dirty environment and that is why the local

45 | P a g e
government has this function. They collect and dispose
refuse in the community.

3. Making recommendations: Local government is also

given the obligation of making recommendation to
state/federal government on issues and problems of rural
communities that cannot be solved by the
local government.
4. Provision and control of cemeteries and slaughter
houses: In cases where the local government does not exist,
it is usually difficult to control the way people use
cemeteries. However, with local government, rules are
given on how the local people use cemeteries and slaughter
houses. This brings about development in the nation and
makes the local government organized.

5. Regulation and issuing of birth, death and marriage

certificates: When someone dies or gives birth in the local
community, it is the job of the local government to issue
certificates for that. Even after marriage ceremonies the
local government gives marriage certificates to the
celebrants.

46 | P a g e
6. They issue and regulate various types of licenses:
Since there is no federal or state body that gives licenses at
the local level, the local government is given that function.
They are responsible for issuing different types of licenses;
such as: drivers license, gun ownership licenses etc.

7. Naming of streets: In order to bring development to

the local level, as it is at the federal and state level, the local
government is giving this function. They name streets and
number plots of land in the community.

8. Collection of various rates and taxes: At the local

level, the local government is responsible for collecting
taxes and rates. They can also impose fines on the people
for different reasons. All this is to ensure development of
the nation.

9. Building and maintaining of schools and colleges: It is

also the fundamental duty of the local government to
provide and maintain primary, adult and vocational
education. This, in turn, helps to bring about equitable
development in the country.

10. Awarding of bursaries and scholarships: The local

government also has the function of awarding bursaries and

47 | P a g e
scholarships for people at the local level. This is so because,
in most cases, scholarships given by the federal or local
government can be limited to certain
communities. Thus, Awards given by the local government
ensures fairness and equity.

11. Control of public housing, town and housing

planning: No matter how developed a nation is, if there is
no good control of public housing and planning, it can not
be seen as a developed nation. For this reason, local
government is given the responsibility of controlling public
housing, towns

12. Provisions of health facilities: Health is a very

important sector of every country and that is why the local
government has to take this function. If there is no good
health facility, it simply means that there will be increase in
death rate and sick patients in the community.

13. Provisions of public libraries: Every educated person

needs a place where he/she can read and stay current with
things happening in different fields of study. At the local
level, this may not be possible except there are public
libraries and reading rooms for the people in the

48 | P a g e
 community. Undoubtedly, this brings about rapid
development in the country too.

15. Provisions of pipe borne water and other public institutions:

The local government is supposed to provide good water for
the people. They also provide recreational facilities such as
public play grounds, hotels, swimming pools etc.

THE END

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