SQL MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPTS-PART 1 HIMANSHU KUMAR

SQL
MOST IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
PLACEMENT PREPARATION
[EXCLUSIVE NOTES]

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Curated By- HIMANSHU KUMAR(LINKEDIN)

TOPICS COVERED-
PART-3 :-
➢ AND and OR operators
➢ Union Clause
➢ Join (Cartesian Join & Self Join)
➢ DROP, DELETE, TRUNCATE
➢ DROP, TRUNCATE
➢ Date functions
➢ EXISTS
➢ WITH clause
➢ NULL Values

HIMANSHU KUMAR(LINKEDIN)

https://www.linkedin.com/in/himanshukumarmahuri

pg. 1 | HIMANSHU KUMAR (LINKEDIN)

AND and OR operators-
In SQL, the AND & OR operators are used for filtering the data
and getting precise results based on conditions. The
SQL AND & OR operators are also used to combine multiple
conditions. These two operators can be combined to test for
multiple conditions in a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement.
When combining these conditions, it is important to use
parentheses so that the database knows what order to evaluate
each condition.

• The AND and OR operators are used with the WHERE

clause.
• These two operators are called conjunctive operators.

AND Operator:-

This operator displays only those records where both the

conditions condition1 and condition2 evaluates to True.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition1 AND condi
tion2 and ...conditionN;

table_name: name of the table

condition1,2,..N : first condition, second conditio

n and so on

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OR Operator:
This operator displays the records where either one of the
conditions condition1 and condition2 evaluates to True. That is,
either condition1 is True or condition2 is True.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition1 OR condit
ion2 OR... conditionN;
table_name: name of the table
condition1,2,..N : first condition, second conditio
n and so on

Now, we consider a table database to demonstrate AND & OR

operators with multiple cases:

If suppose we want to fetch all the records from the Student

table where Age is 18 and ADDRESS is Delhi. then the query
will be:
Query:

SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age = 18 AND ADDRESS =

'Delhi';
Output:

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 ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

4 SURESH Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

Take another example, to fetch all the records from the Student
table where NAME is Ram and Age is 18.
Query:

SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age = 18 AND NAME = 'Ra

m';
Output:

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

To fetch all the records from the Student table where NAME is
Ram or NAME is SUJIT.
Query:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE NAME = 'Ram' OR NAME =
'SUJIT';
Output:

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

3 SUJIT ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20

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 ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

3 SUJIT ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20

To fetch all the records from the Student table where NAME is
Ram or Age is 20.
Query:

SELECT * FROM Student WHERE NAME = 'Ram' OR Age = 2

0;
Output:

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

3 SUJIT ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20

3 SUJIT ROHTAK XXXXXXXXXX 20

Combining AND and OR:

We can combine AND and OR operators in the below manner
to write complex queries.

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE condition1 AND (cond
ition2 OR condition3);
Take an example to fetch all the records from the Student
table where Age is 18 NAME is Ram or RAMESH.
Query:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age = 18 AND (NAME = 'R
am' OR NAME = 'RAMESH');

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Output:

ROLL_NO NAME ADDRESS PHONE Age

1 Ram Delhi XXXXXXXXXX 18

2 RAMESH GURGAON XXXXXXXXXX 18

Union Clause-
The Union Clause is used to combine two separate select
statements and produce the result set as a union of both the
select statements.
NOTE:

1. The fields to be used in both the select statements must

be in same order, same number and same data type.
2. The Union clause produces distinct values in the result
set, to fetch the duplicate values too UNION ALL must be
used instead of just UNION.

Basic Syntax:-

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 UNION SELECT colu

mn_name(s) FROM table2;
Resultant set consists of distinct values.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1 UNION ALL SELECT
column_name(s) FROM table2;
Resultant set consists of duplicate values too.

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Queries:-

• To fetch distinct ROLL_NO from Student and

Student_Details table.

• SELECT ROLL_NO FROM Student UNION SELECT ROLL_N

O FROM Student_Details;

Output:

ROLL_NO

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 ROLL_NO

• To fetch ROLL_NO from Student and Student_Details

table including duplicate values.

• SELECT ROLL_NO FROM Student UNION ALL SELECT RO

LL_NO FROM Student_Details;

Output:

ROLL_NO

• To fetch ROLL_NO , NAME from Student table WHERE

ROLL_NO is greater than 3 and ROLL_NO , Branch from
Student_Details table WHERE ROLL_NO is less than 3 ,
including duplicate values and finally sorting the data by
ROLL_NO.

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 • SELECT ROLL_NO,NAME FROM Student WHERE ROLL_NO>
3
• UNION ALL
• SELECT ROLL_NO,Branch FROM Student_Details WHER
E ROLL_NO<3
• ORDER BY 1;
• Note:The column names in both the select statem
ents can be different but the
• data type must be same.And in the result set t
he name of column used in the first
• select statement will appear.

Output:

ROLL_NO NAME

1 Information Technology

2 Computer Science

4 SURESH

Join (Cartesian Join & Self Join)-

In this article, we will discuss about the remaining two JOINS:

• CARTESIAN JOIN
• SELF JOIN

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Consider the two tables below:

StudentCourse

CARTESIAN JOIN: The CARTESIAN JOIN is also known as

CROSS JOIN. In a CARTESIAN JOIN there is a join for each row
of one table to every row of another table. This usually
happens when the matching column or WHERE condition is
not specified.

▪ In the absence of a WHERE condition the

CARTESIAN JOIN will behave like a
CARTESIAN PRODUCT . i.e., the number of
rows in the result-set is the product of the
number of rows of the two tables.
▪ In the presence of WHERE condition this JOIN
will function like a INNER JOIN.

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 ▪ Generally speaking, Cross join is similar to an
inner join where the join-condition will always
evaluate to True

Syntax:

SELECT table1.column1 , table1.column2, table2.colu

mn1...
FROM table1
CROSS JOIN table2;
table1: First table.
table2: Second table
Example Queries(CARTESIAN JOIN):

• In the below query we will select NAME and Age from

Student table and COURSE_ID from StudentCourse table.
In the output you can see that each row of the table
Student is joined with every row of the table
StudentCourse. The total rows in the result-set = 4 * 4 =
16.

• SELECT Student.NAME, Student.AGE, StudentCourse

.COURSE_ID
• FROM Student
• CROSS JOIN StudentCourse;

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Output:

2. SELF JOIN: As the name signifies, in SELF JOIN a table is

joined to itself. That is, each row of the table is joined
with itself and all other rows depending on some
conditions. In other words we can say that it is a join
between two copies of the same table.

Syntax:

SELECT a.coulmn1 , b.column2

FROM table_name a, table_name b
WHERE some_condition;
table_name: Name of the table.
some_condition: Condition for selecting the rows.

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Example Queries(SELF JOIN):
SELECT a.ROLL_NO , b.NAME
FROM Student a, Student b
WHERE a.ROLL_NO < b.ROLL_NO;

Output:

DROP, DELETE, TRUNCATE-

DROP: DROP is used to delete a whole database or just a
table.
TRUNCATE: Truncate statement is also used for same
purpose.

DROP vs TRUNCATE

• Truncate is normally ultra-fast and its ideal for cleaning

out data from a temporary table.
• It also preserves the structure of the table for future use,
unlike drop table where the table is deleted with its full
structure.

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Basic Syntax for deleting a table:
DROP TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be deleted.
Basic Syntax for deleting a whole data base:
DROP DATABASE database_name;
database_name: Name of the database to be deleted.
Basic Syntax for truncating a table:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be truncated.
NOTE: Table or Database deletion using DROP statement
cannot be rolled back, so it must be used wisely. Suppose we
have following tables in a database.
DATABASE name - student_data

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Queries

• To delete Student table from student_data database.

• DELETE TABLE Student;

After running the above query we will be left with only

Student_details table.

• To delete the whole database

• DROP DATABASE student_data;

After running the above query whole database will be

deleted.

• To truncate Student_details table from student_data

database.
• TRUNCATE TABLE Student_details;

After running the above query Student_details table will be

truncated, i.e, the data will be deleted but the structure will
remain in the memory for furter operations.

DROP, TRUNCATE-
DROP
DROP is used to delete a whole database or just a table.The
DROP statement destroys the objects like an existing
database, table, index, or view.
A DROP statement in SQL removes a component from a
relational database management system (RDBMS).

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Syntax:
DROP object object_name
Examples:
DROP TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be deleted.

DROP DATABASE database_name;

database_name: Name of the database to be deleted.

TRUNCATE
TRUNCATE statement is a Data Definition Language (DDL)
operation that is used to mark the extents of a table for
deallocation (empty for reuse). The result of this operation
quickly removes all data from a table, typically bypassing a
number of integrity enforcing mechanisms.
The TRUNCATE TABLE mytable statement is logically (though
not physically) equivalent to the DELETE FROM mytable
statement (without a WHERE clause).
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
table_name: Name of the table to be truncated.
DATABASE name - student_data

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DROP vs TRUNCATE-

• Truncate is normally ultra-fast and its ideal for deleting

data from a temporary table.
• Truncate preserves the structure of the table for future
use, unlike drop table where the table is deleted with its
full structure.
• Table or Database deletion using DROP
statement cannot be rolled back, so it must be used
wisely.

Queries

• To delete the whole database

• DROP DATABASE student_data;

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After running the above query whole database will be deleted.

• To truncate Student_details table from student_data

database.
• TRUNCATE TABLE Student_details;

After running the above query Student_details table will be

truncated, i.e, the data will be deleted but the structure will
remain in the memory for further operations.

Date functions-
In SQL, dates are complicated for newbies, since while
working with database, the format of the date in table must be
matched with the input date in order to insert. In various
scenarios instead of date, datetime (time is also involved with
date) is used.
In MySql the default date functions are:

• NOW(): Returns the current date and time. Example:

• SELECT NOW();

Output:

2017-01-13 08:03:52

• CURDATE(): Returns the current date. Example:

• SELECT CURDATE();

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Output:

2017-01-13

• CURTIME(): Returns the current time. Example:

• SELECT CURTIME();

Output:

08:05:15

• DATE(): Extracts the date part of a date or date/time

expression. Example:
For the below table named 'Test'

Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

• SELECT Name, DATE(BirthTime) AS BirthDate FROM
Test;
• Output:

Name BirthDate

Pratik 1996-09-26

• EXTRACT(): Returns a single part of a date/time. Syntax:

• EXTRACT(unit FROM date);

There are several units that can be considered but only some
are used such as:

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MICROSECOND, SECOND, MINUTE, HOUR, DAY, WEEK,
MONTH, QUARTER, YEAR, etc.
And 'date' is a valid date expression.

Example:
For the below table named 'Test'

Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

Queries
SELECT Name, Extract(DAY FROM BirthTime) AS BirthDa
y FROM Test;

Output:

Name BirthDay

Pratik 26
SELECT Name, Extract(YEAR FROM BirthTime) AS BirthY
ear FROM Test;

Output:

Name BirthYear

Pratik 1996
SELECT Name, Extract(SECOND FROM BirthTime) AS Birt
hSecond FROM Test;

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Output:

Name BirthSecond

Pratik 581

• DATE_ADD() : Adds a specified time interval to a date

Syntax:

• DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL expr type);

Where, date - valid date expression and expr is the number

of interval we want to add.
and type can be one of the following:
MICROSECOND, SECOND, MINUTE, HOUR, DAY, WEEK,
MONTH, QUARTER, YEAR, etc.

Example:
For the below table named 'Test'

Id Name BirthTime

4120 Pratik 1996-09-26 16:44:15.581

Queries
o SELECT Name, DATE_ADD(BirthTime, INTERVAL 1
YEAR) AS BirthTimeModified FROM Test;

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Output:

Name BirthTimeModified

Pratik 1997-09-26 16:44:15.581

o SELECT Name, DATE_ADD(BirthTime, INTERVAL 3
0 DAY) AS BirthDayModified FROM Test;

Output:

Name BirthDayModified

Pratik 1996-10-26 16:44:15.581

o SELECT Name, DATE_ADD(BirthTime, INTERVAL 4
HOUR) AS BirthHourModified FROM Test;

Output:

Name BirthSecond

Pratik 1996-10-26 20:44:15.581

• DATE_SUB(): Subtracts a specified time interval from a

date. Syntax for DATE_SUB is same as DATE_ADD just
the difference is that DATE_SUB is used to subtract a
given interval of date.
• DATEDIFF(): Returns the number of days between two
dates.Syntax:

• DATEDIFF(date1, date2);
• date1 & date2- date/time expression

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 Example:

SELECT DATEDIFF('2017-01-13','2017-01-03') AS DateD

iff;

Output:

DateDiff

10

• DATE_FORMAT(): Displays date/time data in different

formats.Syntax:

• DATE_FORMAT(date,format);

date is a valid date and format specifies the output format for
the date/time. The formats that can be used are:

o %a-Abbreviated weekday name (Sun-Sat)

o %b-Abbreviated month name (Jan-Dec)
o %c-Month, numeric (0-12)
o %D-Day of month with English suffix (0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd)
o %d-Day of month, numeric (00-31)
o %e-Day of month, numeric (0-31)
o %f-Microseconds (000000-999999)
o %H-Hour (00-23)
o %h-Hour (01-12)
o %I-Hour (01-12)
o %i-Minutes, numeric (00-59)
o %j-Day of year (001-366)
o %k-Hour (0-23)
o %l-Hour (1-12)
o %M-Month name (January-December)
o %m-Month, numeric (00-12)

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 o %p-AM or PM
o %r-Time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss followed by AM or PM)
o %S-Seconds (00-59)
o %s-Seconds (00-59)
o %T-Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
o %U-Week (00-53) where Sunday is the first day of week
o %u-Week (00-53) where Monday is the first day of week
o %V-Week (01-53) where Sunday is the first day of week,
used with %X
o %v-Week (01-53) where Monday is the first day of week,
used with %x
o %W-Weekday name (Sunday-Saturday)
o %w-Day of the week (0=Sunday, 6=Saturday)
o %X-Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of
week, four digits, used with %V
o %x-Year for the week where Monday is the first day of
week, four digits, used with %v
o %Y-Year, numeric, four digits
o %y-Year, numeric, two digits

Example:

DATE_FORMAT(NOW(),'%d %b %y')

Result:

13 Jan 17

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EXISTS-
The EXISTS condition in SQL is used to check whether the
result of a correlated nested query is empty (contains no
tuples) or not. The result of EXISTS is a boolean value True or
False. It can be used in a SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT or
DELETE statement.

Syntax:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition);
Examples:
Consider the following two relation "Customers" and "Orders".

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Queries

1. Using EXISTS condition with SELECT statement To

fetch the first and last name of the customers who placed
atleast one order.

SELECT fname, lname

FROM Customers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM Orders WHERE Customer
s.customer_id = Orders.c_id);

Output:

2. Using NOT with EXISTS Fetch last and first name of the
customers who has not placed any order.

SELECT lname, fname

FROM Customer
WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT *FROM Orders WHERE Custo
mers.customer_id = Orders.c_id);

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Output:

3. Using EXISTS condition with DELETE statement Delete

the record of all the customer from Order Table whose
last name is 'Mehra'.

DELETE
FROM Orders
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *FROM customers WHERE Custom
ers.customer_id = Orders.cid AND Customers.lname
= 'Mehra'); SELECT * FROM Orders;

Output:

4. Using EXISTS condition with UPDATE

statement Update the lname as 'Kumari' of customer in
Customer Table whose customer_id is 401.

UPDATE Customers
SET lname = 'Kumari'
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT *FROM Customers WHERE custom
er_id = 401);
SELECT * FROM Customers;

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Output:

WITH clause-
The SQL WITH clause was introduced by Oracle in the Oracle
9i release 2 database. The SQL WITH clause allows you to
give a sub-query block a name (a process also called sub-
query refactoring), which can be referenced in several places
within the main SQL query.

• The clause is used for defining a temporary relation such

that the output of this temporary relation is available and
is used by the query that is associated with the WITH
clause.
• Queries that have an associated WITH clause can also be
written using nested sub-queries but doing so add more
complexity to read/debug the SQL query.
• WITH clause is not supported by all database system.
• The name assigned to the sub-query is treated as though
it was an inline view or table

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 • The SQL WITH clause was introduced by Oracle in the
Oracle 9i release 2 database.

Syntax:

WITH temporaryTable (averageValue) as(SELECT avg(At

tr1)FROM Table) SELECT Attr1 FROM Table, temporaryT
able WHERE Table.Attr1 > temporaryTable.averageValu
e;

In this query, WITH clause is used to define a temporary

relation temporaryTable that has only 1 attribute
averageValue. averageValue holds the average value of
column Attr1 described in relation Table. The SELECT
statement that follows the WITH clause will produce only
those tuples where the value of Attr1 in relation Table is
greater than the average value obtained from the WITH clause
statement.

Note: When a query with a WITH clause is executed, first the

query mentioned within the clause is evaluated and the
output of this evaluation is stored in a temporary relation.
Following this, the main query associated with the
WITH clause is finally executed that would use the temporary
relation produced.

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Queries
Example 1: Find all the employee whose salary is more than
the average salary of all employees.
Name of the relation: Employee

EmployeeID Name Salary

100011 Smith 50000

100022 Bill 94000

100027 Sam 70550

100845 Walden 80000

115585 Erik 60000

1100070 Kate 69000

SQL Query:

WITH temporaryTable(averageValue) as
(SELECT avg(Salary)
from Employee)
SELECT EmployeeID,Name, Salary
FROM Employee, temporaryTable
WHERE Employee.Salary > temporaryTable.aver
ageValue;

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Output:

EmployeeID Name Salary

100022 Bill 94000

100845 Walden 80000

Explanation: The average salary of all employees is 70591.

Therefore, all employees whose salary is more than the
obtained average lies in the output relation.

Example 2: Find all the airlines where the total salary of all
pilots in that airline is more than the average of total salary of
all pilots in the database.

Name of the relation: Pilot

EmployeeID Airline Name Salary

70007 Airbus 380 Kim 60000

70002 Boeing Laura 20000

10027 Airbus 380 Will 80050

10778 Airbus 380 Warren 80780

115585 Boeing Smith 25000

114070 Airbus 380 Katy 78000

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SQL Query:
WITH totalSalary(Airline, total) as
(SELECT Airline, sum(Salary)
FROM Pilot
GROUP BY Airline),
airlineAverage(avgSalary) as
(SELECT avg(Salary)
FROM Pilot )
SELECT Airline
FROM totalSalary, airlineAverage
WHERE totalSalary.total > airlineAverage.avgSal
ary;
Output:

Airline

Airbus 380

Explanation: The total salary of all pilots of Airbus 380 =

298,830 and that of Boeing = 45000. Average salary of all
pilots in the table Pilot = 57305. Since only the total salary of
all pilots of Airbus 380 is greater than the average salary
obtained, so Airbus 380 lies in the output relation.

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Important Points:

• The SQL WITH clause is good when used with complex

SQL statements rather than simple ones
• It also allows you to break down complex SQL queries
into smaller ones which make it easy for debugging and
processing the complex queries.
• The SQL WITH clause is basically a drop-in replacement
to the normal sub-query.

NULL Values-
In SQL there may be some records in a table that do not have
values or data for every field. This could be possible because at
a time of data entry information is not available. So SQL
supports a special value known as NULL which is used to
represent the values of attributes that may be unknown or not
apply to a tuple. SQL places a NULL value in the field in the
absence of a user-defined value. For example, the
Apartment_number attribute of an address applies only to
address that are in apartment buildings and not to other types
of residences.
Importance of NULL value:

• It is important to understand that a NULL value is different

from a zero value.
• A NULL value is used to represent a missing value, but that
it usually has one of three different interpretations:

o The value unknown (value exists but is not known)

o Value not available (exists but is purposely withheld)

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 o Attribute not applicable (undefined for this tuple)
• It is often not possible to determine which of the meanings
is intended. Hence, SQL does not distinguish between the
different meanings of NULL.

Principles of NULL values:

• Setting a NULL value is appropriate when the actual value

is unknown, or when a value would not be meaningful.
• A NULL value is not equivalent to a value of ZERO if the
data type is a number and is not equivalent to spaces if the
data type is character.
• A NULL value can be inserted into columns of any data
type.
• A NULL value will evaluate NULL in any expression.
• Suppose if any column has a NULL value, then UNIQUE,
FOREIGN key, CHECK constraints will ignore by SQL.

In general, each NULL value is considered to be different from

every other NULL in the database. When a NULL is involved in
a comparison operation, the result is considered to be
UNKNOWN. Hence, SQL uses a three-valued logic with
values True, False, and Unknown. It is, therefore, necessary to
define the results of three-valued logical expressions when the
logical connectives AND, OR, and NOT are used.

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How to test for NULL Values?
SQL allows queries that check whether an attribute value is
NULL. Rather than using = or to compare an attribute value to
NULL, SQL uses IS and IS NOT. This is because SQL considers
each NULL value as being distinct from every other NULL value,
so equality comparison is not appropriate. Now, consider the
following Employee Table,

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Suppose if we find the Fname, Lname of the Employee having
no Super_ssn then the query will be:
Query

SELECT Fname, Lname FROM Employee WHERE Super_ssn I

S NULL;
Output:

Now if we find the Count of the number of Employees having

Super_ssn.
Query:

SELECT COUNT(*) AS Count FROM Employee WHERE Super_

ssn IS NOT NULL;

Output:

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