Fluid Sealing Technology

FLUID
SCALING
TECHNOLOGY
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Editor
L . L. F a u lk n er
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department o f Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
1. Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson

2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan
3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J. George Wills
4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman
5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G. Boothroyd and
C. Poli
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J. Karassik
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L. Ryan
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Components;
Part B: Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller
9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
10. Vibrations o f Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
11. Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
1 2. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H.
Bickford
14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N. Siddall
1 5. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
1 6. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Lewis
H. Bell
17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear
Noise, J. Derek Smith
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design and Appli
cations Handbook, American Chain Association
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A.
Schweitzer
20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
21. Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design and Calcula
tions, John D. Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S. Knox
23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N.
Siddall
24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W. Heilich III and
Eugene E. Shube
25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston and Chris E.
Passerello
26. Mechanical Fastening o f Plastics: An Engineering Handbook, Brayton Lin
coln, Kenneth J. Gomes, and James F. Braden
27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W. S. Robertson
28. Principles o f Automated Drafting, Daniel L. Ryan
29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J. Martini
30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S. Knox
31. Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications, Jerome C.
Lange
32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques, Lyn
don 0 . Barton
33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measure
ment, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford, and Mark E. Coticchia
34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V. Ganapathy
35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A. Burgess
36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,
Jasbir Singh
37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H. Kirchhoff
38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L. Ryan
39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Application,
Michael J. Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division, edited by Phil
ip W. Harland
41. Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic Tech
nology, R. P. Donovan
42. Design o f Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J. Preston, George W . Crawford, and
Mark E. Coticchia
44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard S. Havi-
land
45. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R. Mancuso
46. Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion, Fluid
Flow, and Heat Transfer, V. Ganapathy
48. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, Jerome C.
Lange
49. Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E. Adams
50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C. Orthwein
51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L. Trietley
52. Metallurgical Applications o f Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenom
ena, edited by Lawrence E. Murr, Karl P. Staudhammer, and Marc A.
Meyers
53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S. Busk
54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology, Wil
liam D. Engelke
55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition] with cam design software
for the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W. Jensen
56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application, Sylvester Camp
bell
57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D. Ardayfio
58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D. Erick
son
59. Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C. Stan
Wei
60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S. Knox, with contri
butions by Thomas C. Boos, Ross S. Culverhouse, and Paul F. Muchnicki
61. Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V. Dukkipati
and Joseph R. Amyot
62. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, P. K.
Mallick
63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls Selection and Application, Scott M.
Juds
64. Finite Element Analysis with Persona! Computers, Edward R. Champion,
Jr., and J. Michael Ensminger
65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger
66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers,
Jeffrey M. Steele
67. Measurement and Instrumen ta tion in Engineering: Principles and Basic
Laboratory Experiments, Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse
68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Igor J.
Karassik
69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Alexander Blake
70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior o f Bolted Joints: Second
Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
71. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H. Hablanian
72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter
74. Thermal Fatigue o f Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski
75. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors, Preben
W. Jensen
76. Handbook o f Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
77. Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by
Marc A. Meyers, Lawrence E. Murr, and Karl P. Staudhammer
78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P. C. Koelet
79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L. Keating
80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J. Bartz
81. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lyndon 0 . Barton
82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James W.
Murdock
83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, Sec
ond Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. K. Mallick
84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications, Edward R. Champion, Jr.
85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
86. Vibrations o f Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised and Ex
panded, V. Ganapathy
88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lewis H. Bell and Douglas H. Bell
89. Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H. MacNeal
90. Mechanical Properties o f Polymers and Composites: Second Edition, Re
vised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Nielsen and Robert F. Landel
91. Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G. Bayer
92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by DavidW.South
and Jon R. Mancuso
93. Handbook o f Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.
94. Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures,Ray E.
Monahan
95. Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications, Charles
A. Schacht
96. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques
for Use in Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D. Meadows
97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior o f Bolted Joints: Third Edi
tion, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
98. Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John
Piotrowski
99. Computer-Aided Design o f Po/ymer-Matrix Composite Structures, edited
by Suong Van Hoa
100. Friction Science and Technology, Peter J. Blau
101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties and Engi
neering Applications, Edward Miller
102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W. Volk
104. Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E. Stewart
105. Optimizing the Shape o f Mechanical Elements and Structures, A. A.
Seireg and Jorge Rodriguez
106. Kinematics and Dynamics o f Machinery, Vladimir Stejskal and Michael
Valasek
107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
108. Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A. Cruse
109. Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A. Speck
110. Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah
111. High- Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Marsbed H. Hablanian
112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook,
James D. Meadows
113. Handbook o f Materials Selection for Engineering Applications, edited by
G. T. Murray
114. Handbook o f Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith and
Reinhard Hanselka
115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven
M. Lepi
116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K. Garg
117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K. Muller and Bernard S. Nau
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg
Machining o f Ceramics and Composites, edited by Said Jahanmir and M.

Ramulu
Heat Exchange Design Handbook, T. Kuppan
Couplings and Joints: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jon R.

Mancuso
Mechanical Engineering Software
Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietrich
Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Soft

ware for the IBM PC, David G. Ullman
FLUID
S6AUNG
T6CHNOLOGV
PAINCIPLCS AND APPLICATIONS
H€INZ K. M Ull€R
Consultant
Waiblingen, Germany
R€RNRRD S. NAU
Consultant
Dunstable, England
M a r c el D ekker N ew Yo rk
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Muller, Heinz K.
Fluid sealing technology principles and applications / Heinz K. Muller, Bernard S. Nau.
p. cm.—(Mechanical engineering: 117)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-9969-0
1. Sealing (Technology) I. Nau, B. S. (Bernard Stanley). II. Title. III. Series:
Mechanical engineering (Marcel Dekker, Inc.): 117.
TJ246.M85 1998
621.8'85—dc21 98-4223
CIP
The use o f registered names, trade names, etc. in this book, whether or not they are specifically in
dicated, does not mean, in view o f trademark legislation and protection, that such names are to be
regarded as free or to be used freely. Some seals and sealing systems described in and/or depicted
in this book are legally protected by patent applications, patents, or trademarks.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Current printing (last digit):
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PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
Preface
In living creatures, sealing is realized in many different ways, for example, by

diaphragms, butterfly valves, or the clotting of blood. Such mechanisms, in the
figurative sense, are to be attributed to static sealing “technology.” However,
in biological evolution there are no rotors or hydraulically actuated rods. A l
though evolution has developed inconceivably complex systems, a continuously
rotating or sliding organ has not appeared. This could be attributed to the in
ability of biological evolution to develop dynamic seals with adequate tightness,
which is the prerequisite for nutrition and the transmission of signals to the con
nected organs. Man invented sliding pistons and then developed a vast com
plexity of rotating and reciprocating machinery. During this process inventors
often recognized that a new idea, however excellent in principle, could not be
put into effect because a sealing problem could not be solved, either technically
or economically.
The desire to absolutely avoid leakage proves an unattainable goal not only
because of physical problems but also because of economic demands. Com
promises are indispensable but the ubiquitous oil puddles in our driveways con
stitute visible evidence that we need to work further on such compromises. On
the other hand, under certain circumstances even relatively high leakage rates
may be considered harmless and tolerable if it is simply air or water vapor. Less
harmless leakage, however, may require very costly measures for exhausting,
draining, and post-processing the leaking fluid. The requirement to seal moving
iv Preface
shafts, pistons, and rods of various machinery in the course of technical evolu
tion has resulted in a vast variety of sealing systems that may represent the
highest diversity among all elementary machine components of mechanical en
gineering. The sealing systems that dominate the seal market with regard to
production volume and turnover— rotary shaft seals, hydraulic seals, and me
chanical seals— still hold many problems for both the seal manufacturer and the
application. In the course of m odem technical development, with its demands
to cope with constantly rising pressure, temperature, and sliding speed, it is par
ticularly the dynamic seal that may be a stumbling block for the designer. Fail
ing seal designs sometimes clearly reveal that the designer was not familiar
with modem, proven solutions of a particular sealing problem.
W hen a seal fails, the resulting costs may become very high. The repair costs
can be several hundred times or even several thousand times higher than the
price of the failed seal. Unfortunately, this fact is sometimes not realized when
seals are selected and installation details are designed. A sudden failure of a seal
can result in a fatal catastrophe. The spectacular disaster of the Challenger
space shuttle revealed the dangers connected with a faulty seal design. The
shaft seals of process pumps and compressors handling toxic or radioactive flu
ids are particularly critical. In addition to the high cost of repair and temporal
shutdown of a chemical, petrochemical, or nuclear plant, the failure of such
seals, in the case of releasing toxins into the environment, directly threatens
human health and life.
Fluid sealing technology— the design, manufacture, and operation of seals and
sealing systems— is based on many disciplines as diverse as fluid mechanics, lu
brication, friction, wear, heat transfer, properties of materials, and mechanical de
sign. The physical processes in the seal interface are governed by molecular
interaction, the geometry of the seal faces, a proper balance of forces; by heat
conduction, heat transfer, and phase changes; and by many material properties.
Sometimes the interrelation of influences is of such complexity that it seems
hopeless to reliably predict the operational behavior of the seal by straightfor
ward analytical calculation. Engineers are expected, however, to provide a reli
able solution or else to demonstrate why the requirements defined cannot be met
by the state of the art. In many cases the expert knowledge of seal companies
helps, but, as a rule, profound knowledge is restricted to the particular seals man
ufactured or distributed by the seal company. Because of the diversity of fluid
sealing technology as a whole, experts in one field of sealing often lack basic
knowledge in other fields. Moreover, in regard to product liability, the informa
tion seal companies give on the operational behavior of a seal in a particular ap
plication is normally cautious and tentative, and given with the provision that the
user has the responsibility to proof the seal’s reliability under actual operating
conditions. Furnishing such proof can be expensive, especially when it requires
Preface v
long-term tests. The designer, therefore, should have knowledge as broad as pos
sible of the essentials of m odem fluid sealing technology.
This book considers the fundamental physical basis of seals and presents ex
pert knowledge of all major types of seals, seal materials, and sealing applica
tions. The mathematical background offered here will enable the reader to
discern the axiomatic basis of formulas that allow one to assess the relative sig
nificance of the parameters involved in leakage or friction, for example. The
book, of course, cannot replace professional discussions between manufacturers
and users of seals but it will enable the user to put determined and purposeful
questions to the seal manufacturer.
The book was carefully designed to meet the needs of design engineers,
plant and maintenance engineers, project engineers, draftsmen, technical sup
port staff, and technical marketing staff. This book will be of help in design
ing, selecting, and operating seals and sealing systems to meet the technical and
economic demands of modem industry.
Heinz K. M uller
Bernard S. Nau
Contents
Preface iii
I. Introduction to Fluid Sealing Technology
1. Terminology and Concepts 1
2. Polymeric Materials 17
3. Sealing M echanism of Elastomer Seals 39
4. Flow in Thin Films: Incompressible 55
5. Flow in Thin Films: Compressible 67
II. Rotary Seals: Rubber and Plastic
6. Rotary Lip Seals 73
7. Rotary Lip Seals for Pressure 101
III. Reciprocating Seals
8. Hydraulic Seals 111
9. Pneumatic Seals 161
10. Piston Rings 175
IV. Flexible Packings: Rotary and Reciprocating
11. Compression Packings 199
V. Mechanical Seals
12. Mechanical Seal Principles 215
13. M echanical Seal Designs 273
14. M echanical Seal Face Materials 293
Contents
VI. Noncontact Shaft Seals

15. Throttling Seals for Liquids 309
16. Clearance Seals for Gases 321
17. Gas Film Seals 335
18. Centrifugal Seals 349
19. Screw Seals 359
20. Slingers and Collecting Labyrinths for Liquids 369
21. Magnetic Liquid Seals 381
VII. Static Seals, Bellows, and Diaphragms
22. Hermetic Seals 393
23. Gasketed Joints: Structural Aspects 409
24. Gaskets in Flanged Joints 421
25. Static Seal Applications 449
Index 475
1
Terminology and Concepts
1 THE SEALING PROBLEM

The generalized problem of sealing betw een the m oving components of a
m achine is represented diagram m atically in Fig. 1 and can be stated as the
control o f flu id interchange between two regions sharing a common bound
ary. In “dynam ic” sealing situations there is significant relative sliding m o
tion at the boundary, the m otion being predom inantly parallel to the
boundary. In “static” sealing situations such motion is essentially absent. E x
amples of dynamic seals include rotary m echanical seals, rubber lip seals,
labyrinth seals, and piston rings. Static seals include gaskets, metal O-rings,
and sealants.
The boundary is normally cylindrical, e.g. part of a reciprocating or rotat
ing machine element such as a shaft, piston, or rod; but it can also be a plane
annular end face. Overriding structural, design, or tolerance considerations
often necessitate a relatively large gap between the stationary and moving sur
faces, which cannot therefore perform the sealing function unaided. The gap
can be reduced to suitably small dimensions by introducing additional compo
nents for this purpose, i.e. a “seal.” Fluid flow through the gap may be driven
by a variety of physical processes, for example a pressure gradient, concen
tration gradient, temperature gradient, velocity gradient (including viscous
shear), m olecular interaction (adhesion and cohesion) or body forces such as
gravitation, inertia, or electromagnetic forces.
1
2 Chapter 1
region 2
fluid 2
--
moving boundary @ ^—
Figure 1 The basic sealing problem.
2 FLOW AND LEAKAGE

Any clearance, however small, permits the passage of fluid molecules in either
direction. Sealing is therefore a matter of degree; it is never absolute. The terms
“leaking” and “sealing” are often used in a loose colloquial way, but in serious
engineering they must be defined in a way appropriate to the context. Leakage
is normally considered to be fluid flowing outwards past the seal to the region
surrounding the machine being sealed. However, under some circumstances
leakage may he ambient fluid passing inwards, past the seal, to mix with the
fluid inside the machine and may be pumped inwards by the moving compo
nents. Depending on the application, contamination caused by such inward
leakage may or may not be acceptable.
The following modes of leakage will now be distinguished.
Diffusion: The size of a typical gas or vapor molecule is less than one
nanometer (10-9 m); it can therefore diffuse through the smallest engineering
gaps, even pores in a machine casing or seal component. Even a glass sphere
containing a vacuum slowly fills with helium, which diffuses through the wall
from the surrounding air! Very costly sealing systems are therefore required if
leakage of hazardous gas or vapor is to be controlled to a very high standard.
However, if the fluid to be sealed does not create an environmental nuisance—
e.g. compressed air or steam— relatively large leakage rates may be tolerated
and low-cost sealing systems can be used. M ost industrial applications fall
somewhere between these extremes.
The diffusion process is driven by concentration gradient, as random molec
ular motion tends to level out differences in concentration.
Convection: Air flow induced by the rotating parts of a seal can move fine
liquid droplets outwards through a sealing gap, especially in noncontacting seals.
Equally, rotating parts can induce inward air flow, which transports dust particles
or liquid droplets from the environment into the space being sealed. Convective
leakage is very sensitive to the detailed geometry in and around the sealing gap.
Terminology and Concepts 3
Pressure flow: This is the leakage mode that is usually of most concern in
practice. Liquid-phase leakage due to a pressure difference is frequently appar
ent as dripping or flowing liquid. For nonhazardous fluids, sealing systems are
defined as technically tight if there is no liquid leakage. Under this definition,
a thin liquid meniscus at the atmospheric side of the seal is not normally con
sidered to be leakage even though there may be evaporation to atmosphere
(‘vapor em ission’). The leak rate due to pressure flow increases with the pres
sure gradient and decreases with the viscosity of the fluid, if nothing else
changes.
Pressurized gases, or vapor, also leak in response to pressure difference.
Gas or vapor-phase leakage also results if a volatile liquid changes phase as it
passes through the sealing gap. The phase change may be due to the reducing
pressure or frictional heating, or both. The large increase in volume as the
phase changes has the useful effect of throttling the flow and so reducing the
mass flow rate.
At the low leakrates of concern for toxicity or pollution control, gas or vapor
leakage may escape notice unless sensitive instrumentation is used for its detec
tion, e.g. a hydrocarbon detector sensitive to concentrations of parts per million
(ppm). Currently such detectors use either flame ionization or thermal conduc
tivity sensors.
Some recent leakage control regulations (e.g. in the USA) specify concen
tration limits adjacent to the seal, such as ‘100 ppm ’, ‘1000 ppm ’, etc. The con
centration is measured using a detector of the type referred to above. Such
concentration measurements are not absolute as: (1) the detector does not col
lect all the leakage escaping from the seal and (2) the concentration read by the
instrument depends on the sampling flow rate, air + vapor, drawn into the in
strument. If an enclosure is fitted, surrounding the seal, then it is possible to
trap all leakage and obtain an absolute measurement (g/s) from the rate of
change of concentration.
3 SEAL COMPONENTS AND FUNCTION

In this chapter we discuss seal design and function in a very generalized way,
to illustrate how concepts apply widely to different types of seal. In later chap
ters we give detailed attention to specific types of seal.
The main components of a simple conceptual seal are illustrated in Fig. 2.
There is a movable seal body SB and a moving surface M S, which moves rel
ative to the seal body. Between these is the primary sealing interface P, formed
between the mating seal faces. The clearance between the seal faces at P is the
“seal gap” or “film thickness.” This clearance is very small by ordinary engi
neering standards, so a convenient unit of measurement is the jam (i.e. m i
crometer or micron: 0.001 mm or 10~6 m).
4 Chapter 1
I to IV: potential m k of symrnetiy

HI || _ _ II
retention seal body SB IV
device R
| closin / housing H
J force secondary
^ sealing
’seals I interfaces
fluid
moving
surface HfH
potential motions
[ primary sealing Interface P IV
Figure 2 Components of a dynamic seal (schematic).
A secondary sealing interface S restricts leakage between the seal body and
the housing H; the closing force F minimizes the clearance at the primary and
secondary sealing interfaces. A retention device R prevents body slipping due
to friction with the moving wall. In more complex sealing systems, S is actu
ally established by a second sealing body.
The orientation of the sealing interface depends on the seal type and defines
the geometrical form of the primary sealing interface (Fig. 2):
Axis (Fig. 2) Seal type Seal face geometry
I shaft-seal cylindrical
II piston-seal cylindrical
III end-face seal (int. pres.) plane
IV end-face seal (ext. pres.) plane
Since the seal gap is small compared with the diameter of the seal, a two-
dimensional model is sufficient when discussing flow in the primary sealing
interface. Figure 2 shows appropriate rectangular coordinates. The relative mo
tion at the sealing interface then depends on the seal configuration, as follows:
Motion Seal configuration
x direction rod seals and piston seals

z direction shaft seals
Secondary motion: Incidental secondary motion in the y direction, i.e. nor

mal to the sealing interface, can cause serious practical difficulties. In particu
lar it may result in accidental contact between moving parts due to shaft runout
or eccentricity. To minimize such problems the seal body must have a degree
of freedom to respond to the secondary motion, at the same time maintaining
the sealing function at this secondary sealing interface.
4 THE PRIMARY SEAL

The primary seal will now be considered in more detail.
Among the diversity of sealing systems the form and dimensions of the seal
gap varies greatly. The film thickness ranges from about 0.1 pm up to 1 mm.
However, the absolute film thickness is not always a good indicator of the
leakage rate to be anticipated. Depending on seal design, a small clearance
may leak while a large clearance may be technically tight. In considering this
further, it is convenient to consider separately two categories of seal: those
with a preset, fixed, clearance and those where the face separation is dynami
cally controlled.
Preset sealing gap: W hen the leakage path is bounded by rigid surfaces
positively located, relative to one another, a preset sealing gap is formed. The
form of this gap is defined by the relative position and the shape of the seal
ing elements, for example by the difference in diameter of concentric cylin
drical elements. Examples of such seals include throttle bushes— which have
a predictable flow rate— labyrinths, and splash collectors. Fixed-gap seals suf
fer minimal wear over long periods of service but the flow rate is usually rel
atively high and is sensitive to the relative eccentricity of the gap-forming
components. Fixed-bush seals typically have a practically achievable minimum
gap of about 10 jam (0.01 mm). In labyrinth seals and splash collectors the
clearance is commonly in excess of 0.3 mm. W hen sealing pressurized fluid,
leakage may be considerably reduced if the seal is designed to reduce the film
thickness automatically as pressure increases. Such dynamically controlled
seals are considered next.
D ynam ically controlled sealing-gap: In contact seals the leakage path is
completely closed by solid contact between the mating surfaces, at least so long
as the sealing faces are stationary. But as they begin to slide, relative to each
other, various factors cause the sealing surfaces to separate slightly as an inter
facial fluid film forms. Such dynamic fluid films usually have thicknesses in
the range 0.1 to 1 pm, i.e. comparable to the roughness and residual waviness
(out-of-flatness) of the sealing surfaces. The film dimension in the direction of
leakage flow is much greater than its thickness, e.g. about 0.2 mm in elas-
tomeric rotary lip seals and 2 mm in mechanical seals. The aspect ratio of the
film is therefore extreme, 1000:1 to 2000:1. Scaled up to the size of a soccer
6 Chapter 1
pitch, the film would be only 5 to 10 cm thick, which would also be the height
of deviations from perfect flatness of the surface.
Given such a microscopic size scale, one might wonder whether fluid flow
can be calculated using conventional hydrodynamic laws. But since oil and
water molecules, for instance, are no more than about one nanometer (0.001 pm)
across, fluid molecules are still very small compared to the thinnest dynamic
films. Even in a 0.5 pm film, 500 oil molecules could be placed on top of each
other across its thickness. Hence even in such very thin films the laws of fluid
continua still apply. W hen discussing various types of seal in more detail use
will be made of this convenient result.
Only when the mating surfaces approach within a few molecules does
boundary interaction have to be taken into account, this is the “boundary lubri
cation” regime where surface chemistry effects dominate.
For both fixed-clearance seals and dynamic-clearance seals the theoretical
basis for the calculation of flow and film-pressure distribution is presented in
Chapter 4. But two important concepts will be introduced here:
Hydrostatic pressure: Fluid sealed at pressure p\ penetrates between the
mating seal faces to form a film similar to that between the faces of a hydrostat
ic bearing. As the fluid flows towards the outer edge of the film the hydrostatic
pressure drops progressively until at the outer edge it reaches ambient pressure
P 2 , Fig. 3. The shape of this hydrostatic pressure distribution depends on the film
profile in the flow direction, which may be parallel, converging or diverging; in
Fig. 3 an arbitrary shape is shown. The importance of the hydrostatic pressure is
that, by supporting some or all of the load tending to bring the sealing faces into
contact, it can reduce or even eliminate solid contact between the seal faces.
Hydrodynamic pressure: Due to the viscosity of the fluid in the film be
tween the sealing faces, it is drawn along by the moving seal surface, just as in
a hydrodynamic bearing (e.g. a plain journal bearing). The result of this is that
hydrostatic
/ pressure
\ profile
Figure 3 Hydrostatic pressure profile in a nonuniform sealing gap.

the fluid pressure increases in regions where the film converges, lifting the faces
apart, Fig. 4. For example, in mechanical seals and elastomeric seals, the m at
ing seal faces can be separated by a hydrodynamic fluid film maintained in this
way. Although the seal faces may be in contact when at rest, they can separate
when in motion, due to the hydrodynamic effect.
In a seal having a low modulus face, the elastic deflection of the face by the
fluid film pressure (hydrostatic plus hydrodynamic) also plays an important
role. The deflected shape changes the film pressure, which changes the deflec
tion, and so on! The film shape and film pressure adjust to find a mutually com
patible combination. This will be considered further in a later chapter.
Tracking, inertia and damping: Although there may be sufficient load on
the seal to close the gap between sealing faces at rest, a seal in motion may be
unable to track rapid gap fluctuations, such as those due to structural vibration,
shaft runout, or errors in surface form. In this situation the sealing gap increases
locally at least. This behavior is affected by the inertia of the seal body, and
any film or external damping forces; also, with polymeric materials, viscoelas
ticity of the material can cause a phase lag in the recovery of the surface after
displacement.
When tracking is not perfect, fluid can be sucked in as the film increases
and squeezed out as it closes. This ingress and egress of fluid may be in dif
ferent directions, due to asymmetry of the film geometry, causing a net trans
fer of fluid through the seal. This breathing or pumping effect can actually
cause fluid to flow against the externally applied pressure gradient, an effect
known as inward-pumping. This effect can be particularly troublesome if there
is liquid on both sides of the seal, as in submerged equipment.
P fluid SB
residual roughness, waviness

hydrodynamic pressure profile
Figure 4 Hydrodynamic pressure profile in a sealing gap, due to shear flow between
moving nonparallel surfaces (e.g. due to residual waviness or roughness).
5 Chapter 1
* elasticity
* surface roughness
* pressure * chemical resistance
* temperature / * wear resistance
* density * porosity of
* vapour pressure
* viscosity ^ s e a l body \ and
* ph-value of
| movjngpUrface |
fluid |
geometry of leakage
sealing interface affecting friction
wear
Figure 5 Some factors affecting seal performance.
Factors affecting seal function: Figure 5 summarizes some of the factors

affecting the sealing interface. Note that the chemical and physical properties
of the sealed fluid and those of the seal itself are just as crucial as the details
of the motion of the components. Quantitative aspects of film formation, leak
age, friction, and wear will be treated in chapters dealing with specific types
of seal.
5 THE SECONDARY SEAL

In many seals there are one or more secondary leakage paths, additional to the
leakage path through the primary sealing gap. To control such leakage, sec
ondary sealing elements are incorporated, for example various types of auxil
iary sealing ring, bellows, or membrane (Fig. 6). W hilst controlling leakage
these elements must also accommodate secondary motions, slight movements
of the primary seal as it adjusts to cyclic or transient shaft displacements, ther
ciearanee membrane
(bellows)
cl
interference
seal
Figure 6 Examples of secondary seal concepts.

mal expansion effects, etc. The sliding surface of a contacting secondary seal
may be termed the slip-face of the secondary seal.
6 CLOSING FORCES
Preload: Seals having a dynamically controlled sealing gap must closely track
the counterface, often working against inertia of the sealing body and friction
at the secondary seal (see above). A preload is therefore necessary to ensure
sealing at the primary sealing interface regardless of fluid pressure. In general,
the total specific load (= closing force -f sealing interface area) should not be
less than the sealed fluid pressure. A separate source of preload may be required
for the secondary seal. In Fig. 2 the closing forces are shown as a combined
closing force F.
To ensure these functions, even if additional loading is supplied by fluid
pressure, a preloading force must be designed into the seal, Fig. 7. For this pur
pose, mechanical seals are equipped with compression springs (a) or a bellows,
which also acts as a spring. Elastomeric seals can be preloaded by the combined
effect of dimensional interference and elastic deformation of the seal itself (b).
Soft packing rings in a gland (“stuffing box”) is precompressed axially and re
lies on the Poisson effect to produce lateral expansion and hence a closing force
acting on the sealing interface.
Pressure load: To allow the preload to be kept reasonably low, the seal
is often designed so that fluid pressure supplem ents the preload, whilst m ain
taining the specific load at a value greater than the sealed pressure. This prin
ciple of automatic sealing is very effective, particularly at high fluid pressures.
Figure 8 shows how this fluid-based component of specific load can be con
trolled by changing the geometry of the seal. It becomes smaller as the active
fluid-loaded area A\ is reduced in relation to the sealing interface area A. The
ratio k = A jlA is the area ratio or balance ratio of an automatic seal, such as
a mechanical seal. The specific load can be tailored by adjusting the position
a) separate b) elastic seal c) plastic seal

spring load with interference with axial load
Figure 7 Examples of preloading concepts.

10 Chapter 1
Figure 8 Control of specific load p m, acting on sealing interface, by varying the

pressure area ratio B = A\/A (schematic).
of the secondary seal, radially in a mechanical seal; this determines the value
of the active fluid-loaded area A\.
7 TORQUE TRANSMISSION
Torque is transmitted from a rotating shaft, through rotating and static compo
nents of the seal, to the stationary seal housing. The stationary part of a seal
must therefore be prevented from rotating. Equally, the rotating assembly must
be designed to allow transmission of the drive torque to the primary sealing
face without interfering with freedom of movement at the secondary seal. For
this purpose a positive device is preferred, such as a pin-and-slot, in both ro
tating and stationary parts of the seal. In mechanical seals, reliance is some
times placed on the friction of an elastomeric component or torsional stiffness
of a pre-load spring.
8 IMPLEMENTATION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

In real sealing systems the individual functions of the basic elements described
above, and in Fig. 2, are achieved in many different ways. Fig. 9 shows exam
ples from sealing systems described in subsequent chapters. All have a seal
body SB, a moving surface M S, a primary sealing interface P, a secondary seal
ing interface S, and if necessary a retention (torque transmission) device R.
The simple piston ring seal in Fig. 9a quite closely resembles the concep
tual seal in Fig. 2. The outspringing piston ring creates its own preload force,
and gas pressure in the groove acts on the periphery ( A \ in Fig. 8) automati
cally supplementing the preload to close the primary sealing gap. A secondary
SB
p r *vio p iviS
a) piston ring b) O-ring c) coaxial seal
H SB1 f S
SI
P MS MS P s' P SB2
d) rotary e) floating f) radial face
lip seal bushing seal (mech, seal)
SB
,S
= 7 T=
p MS
g) stuffing box seal h) labyrinth seal
Figure 9 Equivalent components of several types of seal (schematic). SB = sealing

body; P = primary sealing interface; S = secondary sealing interface; R = retention
device; MS = moving surface (shaft, rod, piston).
sealing interface is located between the piston ring and the side wall of the
groove.
The elastomeric O-ring in Fig. 9b is installed in a housing groove with di
mensional interference, the O-ring section being thicker than the groove. Thus
the preload force is created by elastic deformation. A secondary seal is formed
by contact with a side wall of the groove, with automatic loading by the fluid
pressure. A dynamic sealing gap may develop if there is sliding motion (axial
or rotary) at the primary sealing interface.
The body of the coaxial seal in Fig. 9c consists of a reinforced PTFE ring
having initial interference on the shaft. The closing force is increased by the
preload applied by an elastomeric clamping ring, which also acts as the sec
ondary seal. Again, sliding of the coaxial seal against the rod creates a dynamic
sealing interface.
The sealing lip of the elastomeric rotary shaft seal— Fig. 9d— is installed
with initial dimensional interference at the surface of the shaft. The primary
sealing interface is the narrow contact band between lip and shaft. The closing
force is created by elastic flexure of the beam section carrying the lip, plus the
force exerted by a garter spring. The secondary seal, as well as retention in the
12 Chapter 1
housing, are provided by the shrink fit of an L-shaped elastomer-covered stiff

ening ring.
In the floating bushing seal in Fig. 9e the clearance due to the difference in
diameter of a rigid sealing ring and the shaft, forms a primary sealing interface.
A pin prevents rotation of the sealing ring relative to the housing. Springs pre
load the bush towards one end of the housing, thereby applying a closing force
to the O-ring secondary seal.
The mechanical seal (radial face seal) in Fig. 9f is a more complex sealing
system. A rotating ring (SB1) is preloaded by springs and driven by pins to
form a dynamic sealing interface in conjunction with the stationary ring (SB2),
again held by antirotation pins. Both rings have, in this example, elastomeric
O-rings as secondary seals. Thus the dynamic sealing interface in a mechanical
seal is formed between two relatively complex assemblies.
The stuffing box seal in Fig. 9g consists of a number of axially compressed
elastoplastic rings (packing rings) that bridge the space between housing and
shaft by lateral expansion (Poisson effect) to form the primary and secondary
sealing interfaces, at shaft and housing respectively.
In labyrinth seals— Fig. 9h— the labyrinth ring is often centered by springs,
to limit contact stresses when the vanes touch the counterface. Together with
the shaft, the labyrinth vanes and grooves form a dynamic sealing interface. The
end-face contact between the labyrinth base and the housing represents the sec
ondary seal.
9 SEALING MODES
Economics often demand mechanically simple, low-cost sealing systems, which
are allowed to leak within certain acceptable limits, which depend on the ap
plication. A dynamic seal invariably leaks in some degree. More effective tech
nical sealing can be achieved at the expense of more complex and costly sealing
systems, such as multiple seals. In principle the following sealing modes can
be distinguished:
Passive sealing: This relies on the flow resistance of a single “passive” seal
ing element, whether of the preset gap type or dynamically controlled. De
pending on the application, such an element may have adequate resistance to
leakage flow, e.g. Fig. 10. This is no more than a throttling device, and the leak
age flow rate , however small, is finite. The leak rate is predictable, being
governed by the pressure difference and the relative motion. Liquid may evap
orate in the sealing gap because of the pressure drop and/or frictional heating,
in which case there may be no liquid-phase leakage.
Active sealing: With active sealing, relative rotary motion at the sealing in
terface actively generates inward flow into the chamber to be sealed. This is
represented diagrammatically in Fig. 11. The seal therefore acts as a pump
© zz= + n
Figure 1 0 Passive sealing principle: preset gap between a bush and shaft, leakage
rate
whose flow wr depends on special features incorporated in the sealing faces. A

different situation exists in reciprocating applications, since piston seals and rod
seals have an inherent ability for inward pumping on alternate strokes. For ac
tive seals in general, pumping mechanisms may depend on centrifugal forces
and/or viscous shear flow, as well as geometry.
Active pumping features PF may be built in to a seal during manufacture or
may develop in service, as the result of deformation and/or wear. Under opti
mal conditions such inward pumping can prevent leakage. However, a stable
equilibrium condition where = wr is only attainable when sealing between
different fluid phases (liquid to gas), due to the mixing and diffusion that occurs
between fluids of similar phase. If both internal and external fluids are liquid
there is always the possibility that liquid may be pumped inwards, even against
a higher pressure.
Buffered sealing systems: Figure 12 is a diagram of a system with two
dynamic sealing gaps in series, separated by a chamber containing buffer
© PF
Figure 11 Active sealing principle: pumped return flow opposes leakage flow
m^. PF is a surface feature to produce pumping.
14 Chapter 1
buffer chamber
L i _________
P! § j pb 7
f ......... buffer / ^ambient
fluid
m
s2
msM
Figure 12 Principle of a double seal with buffer fluid.
fluid, which may be liquid or gas. The two seals do not have to be of the same
type and usually are not. For instance, the inner seal might be a mechanical
seal and the outer seal a bushing, a labyrinth, a lip seal, or another mechani
cal seal.
With a buffered system three main options exist to ensure technically leak-
free sealing of fluid at pressure p\\
1. Flooded buffer chamber filled with a buffer liquid under pressure p b

2. Evacuation of the buffer chamber, by continuously exhausting the primary
leakage flow m i, together with inevitable inflow m 2 inwards past the outer
seal.
3. Dry-running outboard seal, which contains any gaseous or vapor emissions
from the inner seal and can take over the primary sealing function if the
inner seal should fail. The buffer fluid may be air or an inert gas, for ex
ample, and the pressure effectively atmospheric.
The relative magnitude of the buffer pressure is a valuable design variable,
the choice of which depends on the objective but can be any of the following:
i. p b > pi
ii. p \ > p b > p ambient
hi. p b — ambient
IV. Pb < P ambient
The magnitude of the buffer pressure p b and design of the internal seal can be
chosen to generate either inflow ms1 into the sealed fluid or outflow mi, which
is mostly carried away by the circulating buffer fluid, perhaps for subsequent
treatment or disposal. Although the basic function of the buffer fluid is com
monly to minimize escape of sealed fluid to atmosphere (arrangements i-iii) it
can also be to:
Cool the sealing system, e.g. (ii) or (iii)

Reduce the pressure across each stage, e.g. (ii)
Lubricate the primary sealing interface, e.g. (i)
Suppress crystallization of evaporating leakage, e.g. (iii)
Supply clean liquid to the inner seal when the sealed fluid contains abrasive
particles
For mechanical seals in process plant applications, the US standard API 682
“Shaft Sealing Systems for Centrifugal and Rotary Pumps” makes recommen
dations for the use of alternative two-stage mechanical seal arrangements.
At very high sealed pressures p \, additional measures may be necessary to
limit the load on the sealing interface. This is discussed later with reference to
particular examples of buffered sealing systems.
Hermetic sealing: In a hermetically sealed system the sealing gap is to
tally closed by some form of diaphragm (Fig. 13). Referring to the basic def
inition at the beginning of the chapter, in a hermetic system the two regions
no longer strictly share a common surface in contact with the fluids. In prac
tice a thin elastomeric or metallic diaphragm forms a separator. The hermetic
sealing approach changes a dynamic sealing problem to a static sealing prob
lem, but leakage is still possible, however small, for example due to m olecu
lar diffusion.
Convoluted membranes (bellows) or rolling diaphragms allow a limited
amount of axial motion. However, hermetic sealing of a rotating element by a
diaphragm requires other means for transmitting the motion, for example a
swashplate mechanism or magnetic coupling.
Liquid diaphragm: In recent years magnetic liquids have been developed
that can form a liquid diaphragm to control leakage (Fig. 14). The fluid is com
posed of fine magnetic particles suspended in a specially selected liquid and is
held in position in an annular gap by a powerful magnetic field produced by
Figure 13 Hermetic sealing by a flexible diaphragm or bellows (schematic).

16 Chapter 1
Figure 1 4 Liquid diaphragm seal, using magnetic liquid in a magnetic field.
permanent magnets. The magnetic fluid forms a stable barrier between stator
and rotor that is able to withstand a low gas pressure, thereby creating a seal.
Magnetic liquid seals have been used in computer disc drives to prevent ingress
of contaminants, and as rotary vacuum seals.
Although diffusion of gas through the fluid can be low, it is likely to be
higher than for a solid barrier; hence this is not strictly a hermetic seal. It is
also possible to use ferroelectric fluid in an electric field in an analogous way.
Polymeric Materials
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Williams, J. G. Stress Analysis of Polymers. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, 1980.
George, A. F. The effect of high pressure carbon dioxide on silicone and fluorocarbon seal
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Mullins. L. Engineering with rubber. Rubber Chem. Technol. 59:3, 1986.
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Sealing Mechanism of Elastomer Seals

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Rotary Lip Seals

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Rotary Lip Seals for Pressure

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Mechanical Seal Principles

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Flitney, R. K. , and Nau, B. S. A study of factors affecting mechanical seal performance. Proc.
Instn. Mech. Engrs. 200, 107, 1–12, 1986.
Dolan, J. P. , Harrison, D. , and Watkins, R. Mechanical seal selection and testing. Eleventh
International Conference on Fluid Sealing. BHRA, Cannes, 1987.
Nau, B. S. Reliability of mechanical seals in centrifugal process pumps. Eleventh
Doust, T. G. , and Parmar, A. Transient thermoelastic effect in a mechanical face seal.
Eleventh International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cannes, 1987.
Waidner, P. Vorgänge in Dichtspalt wasserabdichtender Gleitringdichtungen (Interface
effects in mechanical seals, sealing water). Thesis, Univ Stuttgart, (in German) 1987.
Müller, H. K. , and Waidner, P. , Niederdruck-Gleitringdichtungen—Vorgänge im Dichtspalt
(Low pressure mechanical seals—interface effects). Konstruktion 40, (in German) 1988.
Bertele, O. v. Another look at seal life and failure. Twelfth International Conference on Fluid
Sealing. BHRA Brighton, 1989.
Salant, R. , Hassan, S. E. Large scale thermoelastic instability in hydrostatic mechanical
seals. Twelfth International Conference on Fluid Sealing. BHRA, Brighton, 1989.
Guidelines for meeting emission regulations for rotating machinery with mechanical seals.
STLE Special Publn. SP-30, 1990.
Nau, B. S. Research in mechanical seals. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 204:349–376, 1990.
Nau, B. S. , and Leefe, S. E. A review of some aspects of the prediction of mechanical seal
coning. Tribology Trans. 34:4, 611–617, 1991.
Müller, G. S. and Müller, H. K. Verwirbelungsverluste von Gleitringdichtungen (Churning
losses of mechanical seals). Konstruktion, 42, (in German) 1990.
Lebeck, A. O. Principles and Design of Mechanical Face Seals. John Wiley, 1991, ISBN 0-
471-51533-7.
Summers-Smith, J. D. Mechanical Seal Practice for Improved Performance. 2d ed. MEP,
London, 1992, ISBN 0-85298-806-0.
Shaft sealing systems for centrifugal and rotary pumps. API Standard 682, 1992.
Barnes, N. D. , Flitney, R. K. , Nau, B. S. Mechanical seal chamber design for improved
performance. Proceedings Ninth International Pump Users Symposium, Texas A&M
University, 1992.
Wallace, N. M. and ten Houte de Lange, J. A. M. Zero emission solutions for mechanical
seals on light hydrocarbons. Proceedings Ninth International Pump Users Symposium, Texas
A&M University, 1992.
Müller, H. K. , Schefzik, C. , Wallace, N. , Evans, J. Laserface sealing technology: analysis
and application. Fifteenth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHR Group, Maastricht,
1997.
Mechanical Seal Designs

Also, see Bibliography in Chapter 12, p. 271–272.
Pape, J. G. Fundamental aspects of radial face seals, Diss. TH Delft, 1969.
3.
Technol. 102:341–349, 1980.
Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 199: A1, 1985.
Ann. Occup. Hyg. 30:2, 241–247, 1986.
Instn. Mech. Engrs. 200, 107, 1–12, 1986.
Dolan, J. P. , Harrison, D. ,and Watkins, R. Mechanical seal selection and testing. Eleventh
effects in mechanical seals, sealing water). Thesis, Univ Stuttgart, 1987.
Müller, H. K. , and Waidner, P. , Niederdruck-Gleitringdichtungen—Vorgange im Dichtspalt
(Low pressure mechanical seals—interface effects). Konstruktion 40, 1988.
Sealing. B.H.R.A. Brighton, 1989.
Salant, R. , and Hassan, S. E. Large scale thermoelastic instability in hydrostatic mechanical
Nau, B. S. Research in mechanical seals. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 204:349–376, 1990.
coning. Tribology Trans. 34: 4, 611–617, 1991.
471-51533-7.
London, 1992, ISBN 0-85298-806-0.
Barnes, N. D. , Flitney, R. K. , and Nau, B. S. Mechanical seal chamber design for improved
University, 1992.
Mechanical Seal Face Materials

Pape, J. G. Fundamental aspects of radial face seals, Diss. TH Delft, 1969.
3.
Technol. 102:341–349, 1980.
Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 199:A1, 1985.
Ann. Occup. Hyg. 30: 2, 241–247, 1986.
Instn. Mech. Engrs. 200, 107, 1–12, 1986.
Dolan, J. P. , Harrison, D. , and Watkins, R. Mechanical seal selection and testing. Eleventh
effects in mechanical seals, sealing water). Thesis, Univ Stuttgart, 1987.
Müller, H. K. , and Waidner, P. , Niederdruck-Gleitringdichtungen—Vorgänge im Dichtspalt
(Low pressure mechanical seals—interface effects). Konstruktion 40, 1988.
Sealing. B.H.R.A. Brighton, 1989.
Salant, R. , and Hassan, S. E. Large scale thermoelastic instability in hydrostatic mechanical
Nau, B. S. Research in mechanical seals. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 204: 349–376, 1990.
coning. Tribology Trans. 34: 4, 611–617, 1991.
471-51533-7.
London, 1992, ISBN 0-85298-806-0.
Barnes, N. D. , Flitney, R. K. , and Nau, B. S. Mechanical seal chamber design for improved
University, 1992.
Nau, B. S. Mechanical seal face materials. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 211 : 165–183, 1997.
Throttling Seals for Liquids
Stair, W. K. Liquid buffered bushing seals for large gas circulators. First International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Ashford, 1961.
Fisher, M. J. A study of the suitability of a hydrostatic seal for boiler feed pumps. BHRA report
RR 776, 1963.
Goldwag, E. Hydrostatic seals for water turbine shafts. Second International Conference on
Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cranfield, 1964.
Loch, E. Schwimmring-Dichtungen (Floating ring seals). Konstruktion 16, 1964.
Parry, J. Development of reciprocating seals for very high pressures. Third International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cambridge, 1967.
Bussemaker, E. J. Development of floating ring type shaft seals for centrifugal compressors.
Fifth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Coventry, 1971.
Bell, R. P. Comparison of off-design performance of various hydrostatic seals. Fifth
International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Coventry, 1971.
O’Donoghue, J. P. A review of positive clearance radial face seals. In: Review and
Bibliography on Aspects of Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cranfield, 1972.
Nendzig, G. Useage of bushing seals in connection with oscillating positive-displacement
pumps. Ninth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Nordwijkerhout, 1981.
Koga, T. Hydrostatic non-contact seal and its application to extreme condition, Tenth
International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Innsbruck, 1987.
Watson, S. , and Nau, B. S. Analysis of a novel rotary seal. Eleventh International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cannes, 1987.
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(in German). ISBN 3-920484-00-2, Waiblingen, Germany, 1990.
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pumps in arduous conditions. Thirteenth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHR
Group, Brugge, 1992.
Clearance Seals for Gases

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Thesis, Tech. Univ., Karlsruhe, 1952.
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Sept. 1959.
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Engineering, June 1960.
Komotori, K. Leakage characteristics of “straight-through” labyrinths with axial motion. Third
International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cambridge, 1967.
Komotori, K. Leakage characteristics of labyrinth seals. Fifth International Conference on
Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Coventry, 1971.
PTFE seals in reciprocating compressors . ASME Design Manual, 1975.
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Limited, London, 1977.
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Düsseldorf, 1981.
EP 0 211 275 , Procedure for the production of a brush seal and means to accomplish the
procedure, European patent, Patentee: MTU Munich, 1986.
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Aeroengine Congress, Amsterdam, June 1988.
Atkinson, E. , and Bristol, B. Effects of material choices on brush seal performance. J. of
Lub.Engg., Sept. 1992.
Guidelines for meeting emission regulations for compressors with advanced sealing systems.
STLE Special Publn. SP-32, Oct. 1992.
Mayhew, E. R. , Bill, R. C. , and Voorhees, W. J. , Military engine seal development: potential
for dual use. Thirtieth AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1994.
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development. Thirty-second AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, July 1996.
Gas Film Seals

McKibbin, A. H. , and Parks, A. J. Aircraft gas turbine mainshaft face seals, problems and
promises. Fourth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Philadelphia, 1969.
Zuk, I. Analysis of face deformation effects on gas film seal performance. Trans. ASLE 16:
N4, 1973.
Belousow, A. I. , and Falalejew, S. W. Design of a non-contacting mechanical seal for aircraft
compressors. 7 WNTK, Kazan, 1986 (in Russian).
Netzel, J. P. High performance gas compressor seals. Eleventh International Conference on
Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cannes, 1987.
Gleitringdichtung zur Abdichtung eines gasförmigen Mediums (Mechanical seal for gaseous
media). German Patent DE 3722303 1987.
Schöpplein, W. , and Zeus, D. Hochbelastete Gleitringdichtungen, öl- und gasgeschmiert, für
Turboverdichter (High performance mechanical seals, oil- and gas-lubricated, for rotating
compressors). VDI Berichte, Nr. 706, 1988 (in German).
Müller, H. K. , and Falalejew, S. W. Gasgeschmierte Gleitringdichtung als Lagerabdichtung
für Flugtriebwerke (Gas lubricated mechanical seal for sealing the bearing cavities of aircraft
engines). Konstruktion 43, 1991 (in German).
Non-contacting shaft seal. Japanese patents JP 331828/92; JP 181059/93, 1992/93.
Wasser, J. R. Dry seal technology for rotating equipment. Forty-eighth Annual Meeting of
STLE, 1993.
Glienecke, J. , Launert, A. , and Schlums, H. Gasgeschmierte Axialgleitringdichtungen für
hohe p·v-Werte (Gas lubricated mechanical seals with high p·v factors). Konstruktion 46, Jan.
1994 (in German).
Mayhew, E. R. , Bill, R. C. , and Voorhees, W. J. , Military engine seal development: potential
for dual use. Thirtieth AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference, June 1994.
Floating ring seal with return structures and process for making it. U.S. Patent 5,529,317,
1996.
Müller, H. K. , Schefzik, C. , Wallace, N. , and Evans, J. Laserface sealing technology:
analysis and application. Fifteenth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHR Group,
Maastricht, 1997.
Centrifugal Seals
Wood, G. M. et al. Performance of centrifugal shaft seals for high temperature, high pressure
liquids. Machine Design, Jan. 1964.
Ketola, H. N. , and McGrew, J. M. Theory of the partially wetted disc. Third International
Thew, M. T. , and Saunders, M. G. The hydrodynamic disc seal. Third International
Thew, M. T. Further experiments on the hydrodynamic disc seal. Fourth International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Philadelphia, 1969.
Screw Seals
Asanuma, T. Studies on the sealing action of viscous fluids. First International Conference on
Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Harlow, 1961.
McGowan, M. T. A. The development of a rotary seal for the large C02 circulators used at the
Trawsfynydd power station. Second International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA,
Cranfield, 1964.
McGrew, J. M. , and McHugh, J. D. Analysis and test of the screw seal in laminar and
turbulent operation. Trans. ASME, Series. D., J. Basic Eng. 87: 1, 1965.
Fisher, C. F. , and Stair, W. K. On gas ingestion and fluid inertia effects in viscoseals. Fourth
International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Philadelphia, 1967.
Pape, J. G. , and Vrakking, W. Viscoseal pressure generation and friction. Trans. ASLE 11:
310, 1968.
Vohr, J. H. , and Chow, C. Y. Theoretical analysis of spiral grooved screw seals for turbulent
operation. Trans. ASME, J. Lub. 91: No. 4, 1969.
Passera, W. Concentric-running screw viscosity seals in laminar flow—theory and
experiment. Fifth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Coventry, 1971.
Karow, K. Concentric double screw seals with laminar flow. Fifth International Conference on
Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Coventry, 1971.
Sawada, A. Performance of rarified-gas viscoseal with a net axial flow. Tenth International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Innsbruck, 1983.
Decker, O. Dynamic seal technology: trends and development; part 2: floating and visco
seals. Mechanical Engineering: 99, No. 4, 1986.
Slingers and Collecting Labyrinths for Liquids

Haas, W. , and Müller, H. K. Design directives for liquid spattered labyrinth seals. Eleventh
International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Cannes, 1987.
Fritz, E. , Haas, W. , and Müller, H. K. Berührungsfreie Spindelabdichtung im
Werkzeugmaschinenbau (Contactless spindle seals for machine tool applications) (in
German). Rep. no. 39, Inst. f. Maschinenelemente, Universität Stuttgart, 1991.
Fritz, E. , Haas, W. , and Müller, H. K. Liquid-collecting labyrinth seals for machine tool
spindles. Thirteenth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHR Group, Brugge, 1992.
Stanger, N. , Haas, W. , and Müller, H. K. Sealing liquid with air. Fourteenth International
Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHR Group, Firenze, 1994.
Magnetic LiquidSeals
Rosensweig, R. E. , Miskolczy, G. , and Ezekiel, F. D. Magnetic-fluid seals. Machine Design,
March 1968, pp. 145–150.
Moskowitz, R. Dynamic sealing with magnetic fluids. Trans. ASLE 18: 2, 1974
Bailey, R. L. The status of magnetic-liquid seals. Eighth International Conference on Fluid
Sealing, BHRA, Durham, 1978.
Raj, K. Testing magnetic fluid seals. Ind. Res. and Dev., pp. 115–122, March 1979.
Walowit, J. Α. , Pinkus, O. Analysis of magnetic-fluid seals. Trans. ASLE 24: 4, 1980.
Rosensweig, R. E. Ferrohydrodynamics. Cambridge University Press, 1985.
Kurfess, J. , Müller, H. K. , and Haas, W. Sealing liquids with magnetic liquids. J. Magnetism
Magnetic Materials 85, 1990.
Hermetic Seals
Matheny, J. D. Bellows spring rate. Machine Design 34, 1962.
Matt, R. J. High temperature metal bellows seals for aircraft and missiles accessories. Trans
ASME, Ser. B, J. Engg. 85, 1963.
van Beukering, H. C. J. , and van der Aa, H. H. M. A rolling diaphragm seal for high
pressures and high speeds. Third International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA,
Cambridge, U.K., 1967.
Trutnovsky, K. Berührungsdichtungen (Contact seals) (in German). ISBN 3-540-06689-6,
Berlin, 1975.
Lott, H. J. Membranen (Diaphragms) (in German). KEM 8/9, 1981.
Kawahara, Y. , Nikamoto, H. , and Terai, K. A study of failure phenomena of diaphragms.
Tenth International Conference on Fluid Sealing, BHRA, Innsbruck, 1984.
Flint, K. Rolling diaphragms. Technical File No. 143, Engineering, March 1986.
World Pumps . Engineered sealing—a new approach. March 1986.
Newby, T. Sealing options for pumps. Chemical Engineer, April 1988.
Gasketed Joints: Structural Aspects

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FLUID

1. Spring Designer's Handbook, Harold Carlson

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg

Machining o f Ceramics and Composites, edited by Said Jahanmir and M.

Heat Exchange Design Handbook, T. Kuppan

Couplings and Joints: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jon R.

Mechanical Engineering Software

Spring Design with an IBM PC, Al Dietrich

Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Soft­

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

In living creatures, sealing is realized in many different ways, for example, by

VI. Noncontact Shaft Seals

1 THE SEALING PROBLEM

Figure 1 The basic sealing problem.

2 FLOW AND LEAKAGE

3 SEAL COMPONENTS AND FUNCTION

I to IV: potential m k of symrnetiy

Figure 2 Components of a dynamic seal (schematic).

Axis (Fig. 2) Seal type Seal face geometry

Motion Seal configuration

x direction rod seals and piston seals

Secondary motion: Incidental secondary motion in the y direction, i.e. nor­

4 THE PRIMARY SEAL

Figure 3 Hydrostatic pressure profile in a nonuniform sealing gap.

residual roughness, waviness

Figure 5 Some factors affecting seal performance.

Factors affecting seal function: Figure 5 summarizes some of the factors

5 THE SECONDARY SEAL

Figure 6 Examples of secondary seal concepts.

a) separate b) elastic seal c) plastic seal

Figure 7 Examples of preloading concepts.

Figure 8 Control of specific load p m, acting on sealing interface, by varying the

8 IMPLEMENTATION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

Figure 9 Equivalent components of several types of seal (schematic). SB = sealing

housing, are provided by the shrink fit of an L-shaped elastomer-covered stiff­

whose flow wr depends on special features incorporated in the sealing faces. A

Figure 12 Principle of a double seal with buffer fluid.

1. Flooded buffer chamber filled with a buffer liquid under pressure p b

Cool the sealing system, e.g. (ii) or (iii)

Figure 13 Hermetic sealing by a flexible diaphragm or bellows (schematic).

Figure 1 4 Liquid diaphragm seal, using magnetic liquid in a magnetic field.

Sealing Mechanism of Elastomer Seals

Rotary Lip Seals

Rotary Lip Seals for Pressure

Mechanical Seal Principles

Mechanical Seal Designs

Mechanical Seal Face Materials

Clearance Seals for Gases

Gas Film Seals

Slingers and Collecting Labyrinths for Liquids

Gasketed Joints: Structural Aspects

Gaskets in Flanged Joints

Static Seal Applications

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Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Soft

Secondary motion: Incidental secondary motion in the y direction, i.e. nor

housing, are provided by the shrink fit of an L-shaped elastomer-covered stiff