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Turbomachinery
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books
Founding Editor
L.L.Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
1. Spring Designer’s Handbook, Harold Carlson
2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L.Ryan
3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J.George Wills
4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A.Himmelman
5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G.Boothroyd and C.Poli
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J.Karassik
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L.Ryan
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Components; Part B:

Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller
9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
10. Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
11. Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints, John H. Bickford
14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N.Siddall
15. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
16. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Lewis H. Bell
17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear Noise, J.Derek
Smith
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design and Applications
Handbook, American Chain Association
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by Philip A. Schweitzer
20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
21. Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design and Calculations, John
D.Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S.Knox
23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications, James N. Siddall
24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W.Heilich III and Eugene
E.Shube
25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L.Huston and Chris E. Passerello
26. Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook, Brayton Lincoln,

Kenneth J.Gomes, and James F.Braden
27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W.S.Robertson
28. Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L.Ryan
29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J.Martini
30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications, Charles S.Knox
31. Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications, Jerome C.Lange
32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques, Lyndon

O.Barton
33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measurement,

Edward J.Preston, George W.Crawford, and Mark E.Coticchia
34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V.Ganapathy
35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A.Burgess
36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications, Jasbir Singh
37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H.Kirchhoff
38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L.Ryan
39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Application, Michael

J.Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S.Gauge Division, edited by Philip

W.Harland
41. Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic Technology,
R.P.Donovan
42. Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J.Preston, George W.Crawford, and Mark E.

Coticchia
44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing, Girard S.Haviland
45. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Jon R.Mancuso
46. Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion, Fluid Flow, and
Heat Transfer, V.Ganapathy
48. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics, Jerome C.Lange
49. Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E.Adams
50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C.Orthwein
51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L.Trietley
52. Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena, edited

by Lawrence E.Murr, Karl P.Staudhammer, and Marc A.Meyers
53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S.Busk
54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology, William

D.Engelke
55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Editioin; with cam design software fort he
IBM PC and compatibles, disk included, Preben W.Jensen
56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application, Sylvester Campbell
57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D.Ardayfio
58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by Wallace D.Erickson
59. Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC, C.Stan Wei
60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S.Knox, with contributions by
Thomas C.Boos, Ross S.Culverhouse, and Paul F.Muchnicki
61. Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V.Dukkipati and Joseph

R.Amyot
62. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, P.K.Mallick
63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application, Scott M.Juds
64. Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers, Edward R.Champion, Jr., and
J.Michael Ensminger
65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition, Revised and

Expanded, Dale Ensminger
66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for Engineers, Jeffrey
M.Steele
67. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic Laboratory

Experiments, Francis S.Tse and Ivan E.Morse
68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Igor J.Karassik
69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Alexander Blake
70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, John H.Bickford
71. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H.Hablanian
72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design, Frank Porter
74. Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski

75. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors, Preben W.Jensen
76. Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
77. Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by Marc

A.Meyers, Lawrence E.Murr, and Karl P.Staudhammer
78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications, P.C.Koelet
79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L.Keating
80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J.Bartz
81. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Lyndon O.Barton
82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer, James W.Murdock
83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design, Second

Edition, Revised and Expanded, P.K.Mallick
84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications, Edward R.Champion, Jr.
85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
86. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Werner
Soedel
87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
V.Ganapathy
88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Lewis H.Bell and Douglas H.Bell
89. Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H.MacNeal
90. Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites: Second Edition, Revised and
Expanded, Lawrence E.Nielsen and Robert F.Landel
91. Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G.Bayer
92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by David W.South and Jon
R.Mancuso
93. Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.

94. Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures, Ray E.Monahan
95. Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications, Charles A.Schacht
96. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques for Use in
Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D.Meadows
97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints: Third Edition, Revised
and Expanded, John H.Bickford
98. Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John Piotrowski
99. Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures, edited by Suong

Van Hoa
100. Friction Science and Technology, Peter J.Blau
101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties and Engi neering
Applications, Edward Miller
102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W.Volk
104. Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E.Stewart
105. Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures, A.A.Seireg and Jorge
Rodriguez
106. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, Vladimír Stejskal and Michael Valášek
107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
108. Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A.Cruse
109. Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A.Speck
110. Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by Chunill Hah
111. High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition, Revised and

Expanded, Marsbed H.Hablanian
112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook, James

D.Meadows
113. Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications, edited by
G.T.Murray
114. Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith and Reinhard
Hanselka
115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven M.Lepi
116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K.Garg
117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K.Muller and Bernard S.Nau
118. Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A.A.Seireg
119. Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A.Melnikov
120. Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems, Stephen A.McKeown
121. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application, Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Jon R.Mancuso
122. Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
123. Gear Noise and Vibration, J.Derek Smith
124. Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications, John J.Bloomer
125. Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E.Totten
126. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T.Kuppan
127. Designing for Product Sound Quality, Richard H.Lyon
128. Probability Applications in Mechanical Design, Franklin E.Fisher and Joy R.Fisher
129. Nickel Alloys, edited by Ulrich Heubner
130. Rotating Machinery Vibration: Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting, Maurice

L.Adams, Jr.
131. Formulas for Dynamic Analysis, Ronald L.Huston and C.Q.Liu
132. Handbook of Machinery Dynamics, Lynn L.Faulkner and Earl Logan, Jr.
133. Rapid Prototyping Technology. Selection and Application, Kenneth G.Cooper

134. Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics: Design and Analysis, Abdulla S.Rangwala
135. Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions, edited by

John D.Campbell and Andrew K.S.Jardine
136. Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems, Ralph L.Vandagriff
137. Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, D.M.Pirro and
A.A.Wessol
138. Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook: Good Environmental Design and Manufacturing,
edited by Mahendra S.Hundal
139. Micromachining of Engineering Materials, edited by Joseph McGeough
140. Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems: Design and Implementation, John
H.Lumkes, Jr.
141. Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing, Sunil Pullarcot
142. Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, edited by Peter

J.Shull
143. Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design, and Control,

Andrei Makartchouk
144. Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis, loan D.Marinescu, Constantin Ispas, and Dan
Boboc
145. Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies, Susan Carlson Skalak
146. Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics: Thermal and Mechanical Design
and Analysis, Ali Jamnia
147. Bearing Design in Machinery: Engineering Tribology and Lubrication, Avraham

Harnoy
148. Mechanical Reliability Improvement: Probability and Statistics for Experi mental
Testing, R.E.Little
149. Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design, Applications, and
Calculations, V.Ganapathy
150. The CAD Guidebook: A Basic Manual for Understanding and Improving Computer-
Aided Design, Stephen J.Schoonmaker
151. Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics, Randall F.Barron
152. Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials, Wolé Soboyejo
153. Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design, Gary

S.Wasserman
154. Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids: Third Edition, I.G.Currie
155. Intermediate Heat Transfer, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
156. HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers: Fundamentals, Application, and
Operation, Herbert W.Stanford II
157. Gear Noise and Vibration: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, J.Derek Smith
158. Handbook of Turbomachinery: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Earl Logan,
Jr., and Ramendra Roy
159. Piping and Pipeline Engineering: Design, Construction, Maintenance, Integrity, and
Repair, George A.Antaki
160. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory, Rama S.R.Gorla and Aijaz Ahmed Khan
Additional Volumes in Preparation
Target Costing: Market-Driven Product Design, M.Bradford Clifton, Wesley

P.Townsend, Henry M.B.Bird, and Robert E.Albano
Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric Models, Vijay

Srinivasan
Fluidized Bed Combustion, Simeon N.Oka
Structural Analysis of Polymeric Composite Materials, Mark E.Tuttle
Handbook of Pneumatic Conveying Engineering, David Mills, Mark G.Jones, and Vijay
K.Agarwal
Handbook of Mechanical Design Based on Material Composition, George E.Totten, Lin

Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Raymond G.Bayer
Engineering Design for Wear: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Raymond
G.Bayer
Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, Second Edition, William C.Orthwein
Progressing Cavity Pumps, Downhole Pumps, and Mudmotors, Lev Nelik
Mechanical Engineering Software
Spring Design with an IBM PC, AI Dietrich
Mechanical Design Failure Analysis: With Failure Analysis System Software fort he IBM
PC, David G.Ullman
Turbomachinery
Design and Theory
Rama S.R.Gorla
Cleveland State University
Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.
Aijaz A.Khan
N.E.D. University of Engineering and Technology
Karachi, Pakistan
MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

NEW YORK • BASEL
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Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
To my parents, Tirupelamma and Subba Reddy Gorla, who encouraged me to strive for
excellence in education
—R.S.R.G.
To my wife, Tahseen Ara, and to my daughters, Shumaila, Sheema, and Afifa
—A.A.K.
Preface
Turbomachinery: Design and Theory offers an introduction to the subject of

turbomachinery and is intended to be a text for a single-semester course for senior
undergraduate and beginning graduate students in mechanical engineering, aerospace
engineering, chemical engineering, design engineering, and manufacturing engineering.
This book is also a valuable reference to practicing engineers in the fields of propulsion
and turbomachinery.
A basic knowledge of thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer is assumed.
We have introduced the relevant concepts from these topics and reviewed them as
applied to turbomachines in more detail. An introduction to dimensional analysis is
included. We applied the basic principles to the study of hydraulic pumps, hydraulic
turbines, centrifugal compressors and fans, axial flow compressors and fans, steam
turbines, and axial flow and radial flow gas turbines. A brief discussion of cavitation in
hydraulic machinery is presented.
Each chapter includes a large number of solved illustrative and design example
problems. An intuitive and systematic approach is used in the solution of these example
problems, with particular attention to the proper use of units, which will help students
understand the subject matter easily. In addition, we have provided several exercise
problems at the end of each chapter, which will allow students to gain more experience.
We urge students to take these exercise problems seriously: they are designed to help
students fully grasp each topic and to lead them toward a more concrete understanding
and mastery of the techniques presented.
This book has been written in a straightforward and systematic manner, without
including irrelevant details. Our goal is to offer an engineering textbook on
turbomachinery that will be read by students with enthusiasm and interest—we have
made special efforts to touch students’ minds and assist them in exploring the exciting
subject matter.
R.S.R.G. would like to express thanks to his wife, Vijaya Lakshmi, for her support and
understanding during the preparation of this book. A.A.K. would like to extend special
recognition to his daughter, Shumaila, a practicing computer engineer, for her patience
and perfect skills in the preparation of figures; to Sheema Aijaz, a civil engineer who
provided numerous suggestions for enhancement of the material on hydraulic
turbomachines; and to M.Sadiq, who typed some portions of the manuscript. A.A.K. is
also indebted to Aftab Ahmed, Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at N.E.D.
University of Engineering and Technology, for his many helpful discussions during the
writing of this book.
We would like to thank Shirley Love for her assistance in typing portions of the
manuscript. We also thank the reviewers for their helpful comments, and we are grateful
to John Corrigan, editor at Marcel Dekker, Inc., for encouragement and assistance.
Rama S.R.Gorla
Aijaz A.Khan
Contents
Preface xvi
1. Introduction: Dimensional Analysis—Basic Thermodynamics and Fluid 1

Mechanics
2. Hydraulic Pumps 48
3. Hydraulic Turbines 93
4. Centrifugal Compressors and Fans 145
5. Axial Flow Compressors and Fans 191
6. Steam Turbines 244
7. Axial Flow and Radial Flow Gas Turbines 290
8. Cavitation in Hydraulic Machinery 331
Appendix 357
Bibliography 387
Index 392
Turbomachinery
1
Introduction: Dimensional Analysis—Basic
Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO TURBOMACHINERY
A turbomachine is a device in which energy transfer occurs between a flowing fluid and a
rotating element due to dynamic action, and results in a change in pressure and
momentum of the fluid. Mechanical energy transfer occurs inside or outside of the
turbomachine, usually in a steady-flow process. Turbomachines include all those
machines that produce power, such as turbines, as well as those types that produce a head
or pressure, such as centrifugal pumps and compressors. The turbomachine extracts
energy from or imparts energy to a continuously moving stream of fluid. However in a
positive displacement machine, it is intermittent.
The turbomachine as described above covers a wide range of machines, such as gas
turbines, steam turbines, centrifugal pumps, centrifugal and axial flow compressors,
windmills, water wheels, and hydraulic turbines. In this text, we shall deal with
incompressible and compressible fluid flow machines.
1.2 TYPES OF TURBOMACHINES
There are different types of turbomachines. They can be classified as:

1. Turbomachines in which (i) work is done by the fluid and (ii) work is done on the
fluid.
Turbomachinery 2
Figure 1.1 Types and shapes of

turbomachines.
2. Turbomachines in which fluid moves through the rotating member in axial direction
with no radial movement of the streamlines. Such machines are called axial flow
machines whereas if the flow is essentially radial, it is called a radial flow or
Introduction: dimensional analysis 3
centrifugal flow machine. Some of these machines are shown in Fig. 1.1, and
photographs of actual machines are shown in Figs. 1.2–1.6. Two primary points will
be observed: first, that the main element is a rotor or runner carrying blades or vanes;
and secondly, that the path of the fluid in the rotor may be substantially axial,
substantially radial, or in some cases a combination of both. Turbomachines can
further be classified as follows:
Turbines: Machines that produce power by expansion of a continuously

flowing fluid to a lower pressure or head.
Pumps: Machines that increase the pressure or head of flowing fluid.
Fans: Machines that impart only a small pressure-rise to a
continuously flowing gas; usually the gas may be considered to be
incompressible.
Figure 1.2 Radial flow fan rotor.

(Courtesy of the Buffalo Forge Corp.)
Turbomachinery 4
Figure 1.3 Centrifugal compressor

rotor (the large double-sided impellar
on the right is the main compressor
and the small single-sided impellar is
an auxiliary for cooling purposes).
(Courtesy of Rolls-Royce, Ltd.)
Figure 1.4 Centrifugal pump rotor

(open type impeller). (Courtesy of the
Ingersoll-Rand Co.)
Figure 1.5 Multi-stage axial flow

compressor rotor. (Courtesy of the
Westinghouse Electric Corp.)
Turbomachinery 6
Figure 1.6 Axial flow pump rotor.

(Courtesy of the Worthington Corp.)
Compressors: Machines that impart kinetic energy to a gas by

compressing it and then allowing it to rapidly expand. Compressors can
be axial flow, centrifugal, or a combination of both types, in order to
produce the highly compressed air. In a dynamic compressor, this is
achieved by imparting kinetic energy to the air in the impeller and then
this kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy in the diffuser.
1.3 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
To study the performance characteristics of turbomachines, a large number of variables

are involved. The use of dimensional analysis reduces the variables to a number of
manageable dimensional groups. Usually, the properties of interest in regard to
turbomachine are the power output, the efficiency, and the head. The performance of
turbomachines depends on one or more of several variables. A summary of the physical
properties and dimensions is given in Table 1.1 for reference.
Dimensional analysis applied to turbomachines has two more important uses: (1)
prediction of a prototype’s performance from tests conducted on a scale
Table 1.1 Physical Properties and Dimensions
Property Dimension
Surface L2
Volume L3
Density M/L3
Velocity L/T
Acceleration L/T2
Momentum ML/T
Force ML/T2
Energy and work ML2/T2
Power ML2/T3
Moment of inertia ML2
Angular velocity I/T
Angular acceleration I/T2
Angular momentum ML2/T
Torque ML2/T2
Modules of elasticity M/LT2
Surface tension M/T2
Viscosity (absolute) M/LT
Viscosity (kinematic) L2/T
model (similitude), and (2) determination of the most suitable type of machine, on the
basis of maximum efficiency, for a specified range of head, speed, and flow rate. It is
assumed here that the student has acquired the basic techniques of forming
nondimensional groups.
1.4 DIMENSIONS AND EQUATIONS
The variables involved in engineering are expressed in terms of a limited number of basic
dimensions. For most engineering problems, the basic dimensions are:
1. SI system: mass, length, temperature and time.
2. English system: mass, length, temperature, time and force.
The dimensions of pressure can be designated as follows
Turbomachinery 8
(1.1)
Equation (1.1) reads as follows: “The dimension of P equals force per length squared.” In
this case, L2 represents the dimensional characteristics of area. The left hand side of Eq.
(1.1) must have the same dimensions as the right hand side.
1.5 THE BUCKINGHAM Π THEOREM
In 1915, Buckingham showed that the number of independent dimensionless group of

variables (dimensionless parameters) needed to correlate the unknown variables in a
given process is equal to n–m, where n is the number of variables involved and m is the
number of dimensionless parameters included in the variables. Suppose, for example, the
drag force F of a flowing fluid past a sphere is known to be a function of the velocity (ν)
mass density (ρ) viscosity (µ) and diameter (D). Then we have five variables (F, ν, ρ, µ,
and D) and three basic dimensions (L, F, and T) involved. Then, there are 5−3=2 basic
grouping of variables that can be used to correlate experimental results.
1.6 HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Consider a control volume around the pump through which an incompressible fluid of
density ρ flows at a volume flow rate of Q.
Since the flow enters at one point and leaves at another point the volume flow rate Q
can be independently adjusted by means of a throttle valve. The discharge Q of a pump is
given by
Q=f(N,D,g,H,µ,ρ)
(1.2)
where H is the head, D is the diameter of impeller, g is the acceleration due to gravity, ρ
is the density of fluid, N is the revolution, and µ is the viscosity of fluid.
In Eq. (1.2), primary dimensions are only four. Taking N, D, and ρ as repeating
variables, we get
II1=(N)2(d)b(ρ)c(Q)
M0L0T0=(T−1)a(L)b(ML−3)c(L3T−1)
For dimensional homogeneity, equating the powers of M, L, and T on both sides of the
equation: for M, 0=c or c=0; for T, 0=−a−1 or a=−1; for L, 0=b−3c+3 or b=−3.
Therefore,
(1.3)
Similarly,
II2=(N)d(d)e(ρ)f(g)
M0L0T0=(T−1)d(L)e(ML−3)f(LT−2)
Now, equating the exponents: for M, 0=f or f=0; for T, 0 =−d−2 or d =−2; for L,
0=e−3f+1 or e =−1.
Thus,
(1.4)
Similarly,
II3=(N)g(D)h(ρ)i(H)
M0L0T0=(T−1)g(L)h(ML−3)i(L)
Equating the exponents: for M, 0=i or i=0; for T, 0 =−g or g=0; for L, 0=h−3i+ 1 or
h=−1.
Thus,
(1.5)
and,
Equating the exponents: for M, 0=l+1 or l=−1; for T, 0=−j−1 or j=−1; for L, 0=k−3l−1 or
k=−2.
Thus,
(1.6)
The functional relationship may be written as
Since the product of two Π terms is dimensionless, therefore replace the terms Π2 and Π3
by gh/N2D2
or
(1.7)
Turbomachinery 10
A dimensionless term of extremely great importance that may be obtained by

manipulating the discharge and head coefficients is the specific speed, defined by the
equation
(1.8)
The following few dimensionless terms are useful in the analysis of incompressible fluid
flow machines:
1. The flow coefficient and speed ratio: The term Q/(ND3) is called the flow coefficient or
specific capacity and indicates the volume flow rate of fluid through a turbomachine
of unit diameter runner, operating at unit speed. It is constant for similar rotors.
2. The head coefficient: The term gH/N2D2 is called the specific head. It is the kinetic
energy of the fluid spouting under the head H divided by the kinetic energy of the
fluid running at the rotor tangential speed. It is constant for similar impellers.
(1.9)
3. Power coefficient or specific power: The dimensionless quantity P/(ρN2D2) is called

the power coefficient or the specific power. It shows the relation between power, fluid
density, speed and wheel diameter.
4. Specific speed: The most important parameter of incompressible fluid flow machinery
is specific speed. It is the non-dimensional term. All turbomachineries operating under
the same conditions of flow and head having the same specific speed, irrespective of
the actual physical size of the machines. Specific speed can be expressed in this form
(1.10)
The specific speed parameter expressing the variation of all the variables N, Q and H or
N, P and H, which cause similar flows in turbomachines that are geometrically similar.
The specific speed represented by Eq. (1.10) is a nondimensional quantity. It can also be
expressed in alternate forms.
These are
(1.11)
and
(1.12)
Equation (1.11) is used for specifying the specific speeds of pumps and Eq. (1.12) is used
for the specific speeds of turbines. The turbine specific speed may be defined as the speed
of a geometrically similar turbine, which develops 1 hp under a head of 1 meter of water.
It is clear that Ns is a dimensional quantity. In metric units, it varies between 4 (for very
high head Pelton wheel) and 1000 (for the low-head propeller on Kaplan turbines).
1.7 THE REYNOLDS NUMBER
Reynolds number is represented by
where ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. Since the quantity D2N is proportional to
DV for similar machines that have the same speed ratio. In flow through turbomachines,
however, the dimensionless parameter D2N/ν is not as important since the viscous
resistance alone does not determine the machine losses. Various other losses such as
those due to shock at entry, impact, turbulence, and leakage affect the machine
characteristics along with various friction losses.
Consider a control volume around a hydraulic turbine through which an
incompressible fluid of density ρ flows at a volume flow rate of Q, which is controlled by
a valve. The head difference across the control volume is H, and if the control volume
represents a turbine of diameter D, the turbine develops a shaft power P at a speed of
rotation N. The functional equation may be written as
(1.13)
Equation (1.13) may be written as the product of all the variables raised to a power and a
constant, such that
(1.14)
Substituting the respective dimensions in the above Eq. (1.14),
(1.15)
Equating the powers of M, L, and T on both sides of the equation: for M, 1 = a+c; for L,
2=−3a−c+d+3e+2f; for T, −3=−b−c−e−2f.
There are six variables and only three equations. It is therefore necessary to solve for
three of the indices in terms of the remaining three. Solving for a, b, and d in terms of c,
e, and f we have:
a=1−c
b=3−c−e−2f
d=5−2c−3e−2f
Substituting the values of a, b, and d in Eq. (1.13), and collecting like indices into
separate brackets,
Turbomachinery 12
(1.16)
In Eq. (1.16), the second term in the brackets is the inverse of the Reynolds number.
Since the value of c is unknown, this term can be inverted and Eq. (1.16) may be written
as
(1.17)
In Eq. (1.17) each group of variables is dimensionless and all are used in hydraulic
turbomachinery practice, and are known by the following names: the power coefficient
the flow coefficient (Q/ND3=ø); and the head coefficient
2 2
(gH/N D =ψ).
Eqution (1.17) can be expressed in the following form:
(1.18)
Equation (1.18) indicates that the power coefficient of a hydraulic machine is a function
of Reynolds number, flow coefficient and head coefficient. In flow through hydraulic
turbomachinery, Reynolds number is usually very high. Therefore the viscous action of
the fluid has very little effect on the power output of the machine and the power
coefficient remains only a function of ø and ψ.
Figure 1.7 Performance characteristics

of hydraulic machines: (a) hydraulic
turbine, (b) hydraulic pump.
Typical dimensionless characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine and pump are shown
in Fig. 1.7 (a) and (b), respectively. These characteristic curves are also the curves of any
other combination of P, N, Q, and H for a given machine or for any other geometrically
similar machine.
1.8 MODEL TESTING
Some very large hydraulic machines are tested in a model form before making the full-
sized machine. After the result is obtained from the model, one may transpose the results
from the model to the full-sized machine. Therefore if the curves shown in Fig 1.7 have
been obtained for a completely similar model, these same curves would apply to the full-
sized prototype machine.
1.9 GEOMETRIC SIMILARITY
For geometric similarity to exist between the model and prototype, both of them should
be identical in shape but differ only in size. Or, in other words, for geometric similarity
between the model and the prototype, the ratios of all the corresponding linear
dimensions should be equal.
Let Lp be the length of the prototype, Bp, the breadth of the prototype, Dp the depth of
the prototype, and Lm, Bm and Dm the corresponding dimensions of the model. For
geometric similarity, linear ratio (or scale ratio) is given by
(1.19)
Similarly, the area ratio between prototype and model is given by
(1.20)
and the volume ratio
(1.21)
1.10 KINEMATIC SIMILARITY
For kinematic similarity, both model and prototype have identical motions or velocities.
If the ratio of the corresponding points is equal, then the velocity ratio of the prototype to
the model is
(1.22)
Turbomachinery 14
where V1 is the velocity of liquid in the prototype at point 1, V2, the velocity of liquid in
the prototype at point 2, ν1, the velocity of liquid in the model at point 1, and ν2 is the
velocity of liquid in the model at point 2.
1.11 DYNAMIC SIMILARITY
If model and prototype have identical forces acting on them, then dynamic similarity will
exist. Let F1 be the forces acting on the prototype at point 1, and F2 be the forces acting
on the prototype at point 2. Then the force ratio to establish dynamic similarity between
the prototype and the model is given by
(1.23)
1.12 PROTOTYPE AND MODEL EFFICIENCY
Let us suppose that the similarity laws are satisfied, ηp and ηm are the prototype and
model efficiencies, respectively. Now from similarity laws, representing the model and
prototype by subscripts m and p respectively,
Turbine efficiency is given by
Hence,
Thus, the efficiencies of the model and prototype are the same providing the similarity
laws are satisfied.
1.13 PROPERTIES INVOLVING THE MASS OR WEIGHT OF

THE FLUID
1.13.1 Specific Weight (γ)

The weight per unit volume is defined as specific weight and it is given the symbol γ
(gamma). For the purpose of all calculations relating to hydraulics, fluid machines, the
specific weight of water is taken as 1000 1/m3. In S.I. units, the specific weight of water
is taken as 9.80 kN/m3.
1.13.2 Mass Density (ρ)

The mass per unit volume is mass density. In S.I. systems, the units are kilograms per
cubic meter or NS2/m4. Mass density, often simply called density, is given the greek
symbol ρ (rho). The mass density of water at 15.5° is 1000 kg/m3.
1.13.3 Specific Gravity (sp.gr.)

The ratio of the specific weight of a given liquid to the specific weight of water at a
standard reference temperature is defined as specific gravity. The standard reference
temperature for water is often taken as 4°C Because specific gravity is a ratio of specific
weights, it is dimensionless and, of course, independent of system of units used.
1.13.4 Viscosity (µ)

We define viscosity as the property of a fluid, which offers resistance to the relative
motion of fluid molecules. The energy loss due to friction in a flowing fluid is due to the
viscosity. When a fluid moves, a shearing stress develops in it. The magnitude of the
shearing stress depends on the viscosity of the fluid. Shearing stress, denoted by the
symbol τ (tau) can be defined as the force required to slide on unit area layers of a
substance over another. Thus τ is a force divided by an area and can be measured in units
N/m2 or Pa. In a fluid such as water, oil, alcohol, or other common liquids, we find that
the magnitude of the shearing stress is directly proportional to the change of velocity
between different positions in the fluid. This fact can be stated mathematically as
(1.24)
where is the velocity gradient and the constant of proportionality µ is called the
dynamic viscosity of fluid.
Units for Dynamic Viscosity

Solving for µ gives
Substituting the units only into this equation gives

Turbomachinery 16
Since Pa is a shorter symbol representing N/m2, we can also express µ as
1.13.5 Kinematic Viscosity (ν)

The ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid is called the kinematic
viscosity ν (nu). It is defined as
(1.25)
Any fluid that behaves in accordance with Eq. (1.25) is called a Newtonian fluid.
1.14 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW MACHINES
Compressible fluids are working substances in gas turbines, centrifugal and axial flow
compressors. To include the compressibility of these types of fluids (gases), some new
variables must be added to those already discussed in the case of hydraulic machines and
changes must be made in some of the definitions used. The important parameters in
compressible flow machines are pressure and temperature.
Figure 1.8 Compression and

expansion in compressible flow
machines: (a) compression, (b)
expansion.
In Fig. 1.8 T–s charts for compression and expansion processes are shown.
Isentropic compression and expansion processes are represented by s and the subscript
0 refers to stagnation or total conditions. 1 and 2 refer to the inlet and outlet states of the
gas, respectively. The pressure at the outlet, P02, can be expressed as follows
(1.26)
The pressure ratio P02/P01 replaces the head H, while the mass flow rate m (kg/s) replaces
Q. Using the perfect gas equation, density may be written as ρ=P/RT. Now, deleting
density and combining R with T, the functional relationship can be written as
(1.27)
Substituting the basic dimensions and equating the indices, the following fundamental
relationship may be obtained
(1.28)
In Eq. (1.28), R is constant and may be eliminated. The Reynolds number in most cases is
very high and the flow is turbulent and therefore changes in this parameter over the usual
operating range may be neglected. However, due to
Figure 1.9 Axial flow compressor

characteristics: (a) pressure ratio, (b)
efficiency.
large changes of density, a significant reduction in Re can occur which must be taken into
consideration. For a constant diameter machine, the diameter D may be ignored, and
hence Eq. (1.28) becomes
Turbomachinery 18
(1.29)
In Eq. (1.29) some of the terms are new and no longer dimensionless. For a particular
machine, it is typical to plot P02/P01 and T02/T01 against the mass flow
Figure 1.10 Axial flow gas turbine

characteristics: (a) pressure ratio, (b)
efficiency.
rate parameter for different values of the speed parameter . Equation

(1.28) must be used if it is required to change the size of the machine. The term
ND/(RT01)1/2 indicates the Mach number effect. This occurs because the impeller velocity
and the acoustic velocity while the Mach number
(1.30)
The performance curves for an axial flow compressor and turbine are shown in Figs. 1.9
and 1.10.
1.15 BASIC THERMODYNAMICS, FLUID MECHANICS, AND

DEFINITIONS OF EFFICIENCY
In this section, the basic physical laws of fluid mechanics and thermodynamics will be
discussed. These laws are:
1. The continuity equation.
2. The First Law of Thermodynamics.
3. Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
4. The Second Law of Thermodynamics.

The above items are comprehensively dealt with in books on thermodynamics with
engineering applications, so that much of the elementary discussion and analysis of these
laws need not be repeated here.
1.16 CONTINUITY EQUATION
For steady flow through a turbomachine, m remains constant. If A1 and A2 are the flow
areas at Secs. 1 and 2 along a passage respectively, then
(1.31)
where ρ1, is the density at section 1, ρ2, the density at section 2, C1, the velocity at section
1, and C2, is the velocity at section 2.
1.17 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, if a system is taken through a complete

cycle during which heat is supplied and work is done, then
(1.32)
where represents the heat supplied to the system during this cycle and the
work done by the system during the cycle. The units of heat and work are taken to be the
same. During a change of state from 1 to 2, there is a change in the internal energy of the
system
(1.33)
For an infinitesimal change of state
(1.34)
1.17.1 The Steady Flow Energy Equation

The First Law of Thermodynamics can be applied to a system to find the change in the
energy of the system when it undergoes a change of state. The total energy of a system, E
may be written as:
E=Internal Energy+Kinetic Energy+Potential Energy
(1.35)
Turbomachinery 20
where U is the internal energy. Since the terms comprising E are point functions, we can
write Eq. (1.35) in the following form
(1.36)
The First Law of Thermodynamics for a change of state of a system may therefore be
written as follows
(1.37)
Let subscript 1 represents the system in its initial state and 2 represents the system in its
final state, the energy equation at the inlet and outlet of any device may be written
(1.38)
Equation (1.38) indicates that there are differences between, or changes in, similar forms
of energy entering or leaving the unit. In many applications, these differences are
insignificant and can be ignored. Most closed systems encountered in practice are
stationary; i.e. they do not involve any changes in their velocity or the elevation of their
centers of gravity during a process. Thus, for stationary closed systems, the changes in
kinetic and potential energies are negligible (i.e. ∆(K.E.)=∆(P.E.)=0), and the first law
relation reduces to
(1.39)
If the initial and final states are specified the internal energies 1 and 2 can easily be
determined from property tables or some thermodynamic relations.
1.17.2 Other Forms of the First Law Relation

The first law can be written in various forms. For example, the first law relation on a
unit-mass basis is
(1.40)
Dividing Eq. (1.39) by the time interval ∆t and taking the limit as ∆t→0 yields the rate
form of the first law
(1.41)
where is the rate of net heat transfer, the power, and is the rate of change of total
energy. Equations. (1.40) and (1.41) can be expressed in differential form
(1.42)
(1.43)
For a cyclic process, the initial and final states are identical; therefore, ∆E=E2−E1.
Then the first law relation for a cycle simplifies to
(1.44)
That is, the net heat transfer and the net work done during a cycle must be equal.
Defining the stagnation enthalpy by: and assuming g (Z2−Z1) is negligible,
the steady flow energy equation becomes
(1.45)
Most turbomachinery flow processes are adiabatic, and so =0. For work producing
machines, >0; so that
(1.46)
For work absorbing machines (compressors) W<0; so that
(1.47)
1.18 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
Newton’s Second Law states that the sum of all the forces acting on a control volume in a
particular direction is equal to the rate of change of momentum of the fluid across the
control volume. For a control volume with fluid entering with uniform velocity C1 and
leaving with uniform velocity C2, then
(1.48)
Equation (1.48) is the one-dimensional form of the steady flow momentum equation, and
applies for linear momentum. However, turbomachines have impellers that rotate, and the
power output is expressed as the product of torque and angular velocity. Therefore,
angular momentum is the most descriptive parameter for this system.
1.19 THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: ENTROPY
This law states that for a fluid passing through a cycle involving heat exchanges
Turbomachinery 22
(1.49)
where δQ is an element of heat transferred to the system at an absolute temperature T. If

all the processes in the cycle are reversible, so that δQ=δQR, then
(1.50)
The property called entropy, for a finite change of state, is then given by
(1.51)
For an incremental change of state
(1.52)
where m is the mass of the fluid. For steady flow through a control volume in which the
fluid experiences a change of state from inlet 1 to outlet 2,
(1.53)
For adiabatic process, δQ=0 so that
(1.54)
For reversible process
(1.55)
In the absence of motion, gravity and other effects, the first law of thermodynamics, Eq.
(1.34) becomes
(1.56)
Putting h=u+pν and dh=du+pdν+νdp in Eq. (1.56) gives
(1.57)
1.20 EFFICIENCY AND LOSSES

Let H be the head parameter (m), Q discharge (m3/s)

The waterpower supplied to the machine is given by
(1.58)
and letting ρ=1000 kg/m3,
Now, let ∆Q be the amount of water leaking from the tail race. This is the amount of
water, which is not providing useful work.
Then:
For volumetric efficiency, we have
(1.59)
Net power supplied to turbine
(1.60)
If Hr is the runner head, then the hydraulic power generated by the runner is given by
(1.61)
The hydraulic efficiency, ηh is given by
(1.61)
If Pm represents the power loss due to mechanical friction at the bearing, then the
available shaft power is given by
(1.63)
Mechanical efficiency is given by
(1.64)
The combined effect of all these losses may be expressed in the form of overall
efficiency. Thus
Turbomachinery 24
(1.65)
1.21 STEAM AND GAS TURBINES
Figure 1.11 shows an enthalpy-entropy or Mollier diagram. The process is represented by

line 1–2 and shows the expansion from pressure P1 to a lower pressure P2. The line 1–2s
represents isentropic expansion. The actual
Figure 1.11 Enthalpy-entropy

diagrams for turbines and compressors:
(a) turbine expansion process, (b)
compression process.
turbine-specific work is given by
(1.66)
Similarly, the isentropic turbine rotor specific work between the same two pressures is
(1.67)
Efficiency can be expressed in several ways. The choice of definitions depends largely
upon whether the kinetic energy at the exit is usefully utilized or wasted. In multistage
gas turbines, the kinetic energy leaving one stage is utilized in the next stage. Similarly,
in turbojet engines, the energy in the gas exhausting through the nozzle is used for
propulsion. For the above two cases, the turbine isentropic efficiency ηtt is defined as
(1.68)
When the exhaust kinetic energy is not totally used but not totally wasted either, the total-
to-static efficiency, ηts, is used. In this case, the ideal or isentropic turbine work is that
obtained between static points 01 and 2s. Thus
(1.69)
If the difference between inlet and outlet kinetic energies is small, Eq. (1.69) becomes
An example where the outlet kinetic energy is wasted is a turbine exhausting directly to
the atmosphere rather than exiting through a diffuser.
1.22 EFFICIENCY OF COMPRESSORS
The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is defined as
(1.70)
If the difference between inlet and outlet kinetic energies is small, and
(1.71)
1.23 POLYTROPIC OR SMALL-STAGE EFFICIENCY
Isentropic efficiency as described above can be misleading if used for compression and
expansion processes in several stages. Turbomachines may be used in large numbers of
very small stages irrespective of the actual number of stages in the machine. If each small
stage has the same efficiency, then the isentropic efficiency of the whole machine will be
different from the small stage efficiency, and this difference is dependent upon the
pressure ratio of the machine.
Isentropic efficiency of compressors tends to decrease and isentropic efficiency of
turbines tends to increase as the pressure ratios for which the machines are designed are
increased. This is made more apparent in the following argument.
Turbomachinery 26
Consider an axial flow compressor, which is made up of several stages, each stage
having equal values of ηc, as shown in Fig. 1.12.
Then the overall temperature rise can be expressed by
Figure 1.12 Compression process in

stages.
(Prime symbol is used for isentropic temperature rise, and subscript s is for stage
temperature).
Also, by definition of ηc, and thus: It is clear
from Fig. 1.12 that Hence, ηc<ηs and the difference will increase with
increasing pressure ratio. The opposite effect is obtained in a turbine where ηs (i.e., small
stage efficiency) is less than the overall efficiency of the turbine.
The above discussions have led to the concept of polytropic efficiency, η∞, which is
defined as the isentropic efficiency of an elemental stage in the process such that it is
constant throughout the entire process.
The relationship between a polytropic efficiency, which is constant through the
compressor, and the overall efficiency ηc may be obtained for a gas of constant specific
heat.
For compression,
But, constant for an isentropic process, which in differential form is
Now, substituting dT′ from the previous equation, we have
Integrating the above equation between the inlet 1 and outlet 2, we get
(1.72)
Equation (1.72) can also be written in the form
(1.73)
The relation between η∞c and ηc is given by
(1.74)
From Eq. (1.74), if we write as Eq. (1.73) is the functional relation between P
and T for a polytropic process, and thus it is clear that the non isentropic process is
polytropic.
Similarly, for an isentropic expansion and polytropic expansion, the following
relations can be developed between the inlet 1 and outlet 2:
and
(1.75)
Turbomachinery 28
where η∞t is the small-stage or polytropic efficiency for the turbine.

Figure 1.13 shows the overall efficiency related to the polytropic efficiency for a
constant value of γ=1.4, for varying polytropic efficiencies and for varying pressure
ratios.
As mentioned earlier, the isentropic efficiency for an expansion process exceeds the
small-stage efficiency. Overall isentropic efficiencies have been
Figure 1.13 Relationships among

overall efficiency, polytropic
efficiency, and pressure ratio.
Figure 1.14 Turbine isentropic

efficiency against pressure ratio for
various polytropic efficiencies (γ=1.4).
calculated for a range of pressure ratios and different polytropic efficiencies. These
relationships are shown in Fig. 1.14.
1.24 NOZZLE EFFICIENCY
The function of the nozzle is to transform the high-pressure temperature energy

(enthalpy) of the gasses at the inlet position into kinetic energy. This is achieved by
decreasing the pressure and temperature of the gasses in the nozzle.
From Fig. 1.15, it is clear that the maximum amount of transformation will result
when we have an isentropic process between the pressures at the entrance and exit of the
nozzle. Such a process is illustrated as the path 1–2s. Now, when nozzle flow is
accompanied by friction, the entropy will increase. As a result, the path is curved as
illustrated by line 1–2. The difference in the enthalpy change between the actual process
and the ideal process is due to friction. This ratio is known as the nozzle adiabatic
efficiency and is called nozzle efficiency (ηn) or jet
Turbomachinery 30
Figure 1.15 Comparison of ideal and

actual nozzle expansion on a T-s or h–
s plane.
pipe efficiency (ηj). This efficiency is given by:
(1.76)
1.25 DIFFUSER EFFICIENCY
The diffuser efficiency ηd is defined in a similar manner to compressor efficiency (see

Fig. 1.16):
(1.77)
The purpose of diffusion or deceleration is to convert the maximum possible kinetic

energy into pressure energy. The diffusion is difficult to achieve and is rightly regarded
as one of the main problems of turbomachinery design. This problem is due to the growth
of boundary layers and the separation of the fluid molecules from the diverging part of
the diffuser. If the rate of diffusion is too rapid, large losses in stagnation pressure are
inevitable. On the other hand, if
Figure 1.16 Mollier diagram for the

diffusion process.
the rate of diffusion is very low, the fluid is exposed to an excessive length of wall and
friction losses become predominant. To minimize these two effects, there must be an
optimum rate of diffusion.
1.26 ENERGY TRANSFER IN TURBOMACHINERY
This section deals with the kinematics and dynamics of turbomachines by means of
definitions, diagrams, and dimensionless parameters. The kinematics and dynamic factors
depend on the velocities of fluid flow in the machine as well as the rotor velocity itself
and the forces of interaction due to velocity changes.
1.27 THE EULER TURBINE EQUATION
The fluid flows through the turbomachine rotor are assumed to be steady over a long
period of time. Turbulence and other losses may then be neglected, and the mass flow
rate m is constant. As shown in Fig. 1.17, let ω (omega) be the angular velocity about the
axis A–A.
Turbomachinery 32
Fluid enters the rotor at point 1 and leaves at point 2.

In turbomachine flow analysis, the most important variable is the fluid velocity and its
variation in the different coordinate directions. In the designing of blade shapes, velocity
vector diagrams are very useful. The flow in and across
Figure 1.17 Velocity components for a

generalized rotor.
the stators, the absolute velocities are of interest (i.e., C). The flow velocities across the
rotor relative to the rotating blade must be considered. The fluid enters with velocity C1,
which is at a radial distance r1 from the axis A–A. At point 2 the fluid leaves with
absolute velocity (that velocity relative to an outside observer). The point 2 is at a radial
distance r2 from the axis A–A. The rotating disc may be either a turbine or a compressor.
It is necessary to restrict the flow to a steady flow, i.e., the mass flow rate is constant (no
accumulation of fluid in the rotor). The velocity C1 at the inlet to the rotor can be
resolved into three components; viz.;
Ca1—Axial velocity in a direction parallel to the axis of the rotating shaft.
Cr1—Radial velocity in the direction normal to the axis of the rotating shaft.
Cw1—whirl or tangential velocity in the direction normal to a radius.
Similarly, exit velocity C2 can be resolved into three components; that is, Ca2, Cr2, and
Cw2. The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components through the rotor gives
rise to an axial force, which must be taken by a thrust bearing to the stationary rotor
casing. The change in magnitude of the radial velocity components produces radial force.
Neither has any effect on the angular motion of the rotor. The whirl or tangential
components Cw produce the rotational effect. This may be expressed in general as
follows:
The unit mass of fluid entering at section 1 and leaving in any unit of time produces:
The angular momentum at the inlet: Cw1r1
The angular momentum at the outlet: Cw2r2
And therefore the rate of change of angular momentum=Cw1r1−Cw2r2
By Newton’s laws of motion, this is equal to the summation of all the applied forces
on the rotor; i.e., the net torque of the rotor τ (tau). Under steady flow conditions, using
mass flow rate m, the torque exerted by or acting on the rotor will be:
τ=m(Cw1r1−Cw2r2)
Therefore the rate of energy transfer, W, is the product of the torque and the angular
velocity of the rotor ω (omega), so:
W=τω=mω(Cw1r1−Cw2r2)
For unit mass flow, energy will be given by:

W=ω(Cw1r1−Cw2r2)=(Cw1r1ω−Cw2r2ω)
But, ω r1=U1 and ω r2=U2.

Hence, W=(CW1U1−CW2U2),
(1.78)
where, W is the energy transferred per unit mass, and U1 and U2 are the rotor speeds at
the inlet and the exit respectively. Equation (1.78) is referred to as Euler’s turbine
equation. The standard thermodynamic sign convention is that work done by a fluid is
positive, and work done on a fluid is negative. This means the work produced by the
turbine is positive and the work absorbed by the compressors and pumps is negative.
Therefore, the energy transfer equations can be written separately as
W=(Cw1U1−Cw2U2) for turbine
and
W=(Cw2U2−Cw1U1) for compressor and pump.
The Euler turbine equation is very useful for evaluating the flow of fluids that have very
small viscosities, like water, steam, air, and combustion products.
To calculate torque from the Euler turbine equation, it is necessary to know the
velocity components Cw1, Cw2, and the rotor speeds U1 and U2 or the velocities V1, V2,
Cr1, Cr2 as well as U1 and U2. These quantities can be determined easily by drawing the
velocity triangles at the rotor inlet and outlet, as shown in Fig. 1.18. The velocity
triangles are key to the analysis of turbo-machinery problems, and are usually combined
into one diagram. These triangles are usually drawn as a vector triangle:
Since these are vector triangles, the two velocities U and V are relative to one another,
so that the tail of V is at the head of U. Thus the vector sum of U and V is equal to the
vector C. The flow through a turbomachine rotor, the absolute velocities C1 and C2 as
well as the relative velocities V1 and V2 can have three
Turbomachinery 34
Figure 1.18 Velocity triangles for a

rotor.
components as mentioned earlier. However, the two velocity components, one tangential
to the rotor (Cw) and another perpendicular to it are sufficient. The component Cr is called
the meridional component, which passes through the point under consideration and the
turbomachine axis. The velocity components Cr1 and Cr2 are the flow velocity
components, which may be axial or radial depending on the type of machine.
1.28 COMPONENTS OF ENERGY TRANSFER
The Euler equation is useful because it can be transformed into other forms, which are
not only convenient to certain aspects of design, but also useful in understanding the
basic physical principles of energy transfer. Consider the fluid velocities at the inlet and
outlet of the turbomachine, again designated by the subscripts 1 and 2, respectively. By
simple geometry,
and
Equating the values of and expanding,
and
Similarly,
Inserting these values in the Euler equation,
(1.79)
The first term, , represents the energy transfer due to change of absolute
kinetic energy of the fluid during its passage between the entrance and exit sections. In a
pump or compressor, the discharge kinetic energy from the rotor, may be
considerable. Normally, it is static head or pressure that is required as useful energy.
Usually the kinetic energy at the rotor outlet is converted into a static pressure head by
passing the fluid through a diffuser. In a turbine, the change in absolute kinetic energy
represents the power transmitted from the fluid to the rotor due to an impulse effect. As
this absolute kinetic energy change can be used to accomplish rise in pressure, it can be
called a “virtual pressure rise” or “a pressure rise” which is possible to attain. The amount
of pressure rise in the diffuser depends, of course, on the efficiency of the diffuser. Since
this pressure rise comes from the diffuser, which is external to the rotor, this term, i.e.,
, is sometimes called an “external effect.”
Turbomachinery 36
The other two terms of Eq. (1.79) are factors that produce pressure rise within the
rotor itself, and hence they are called “internal diffusion.” The centrifugal effect,
, is due to the centrifugal forces that are developed as the fluid particles
move outwards towards the rim of the machine. This effect is produced if the fluid
changes radius as it flows from the entrance to the exit section. The third term,
, represents the energy transfer due to the change of the relative kinetic
energy of the fluid. If V2>V1, the passage acts like a nozzle and if V2<V1, it acts like a
diffuser. From the above discussions, it is apparent that in a turbocompresser, pressure
rise occurs due to both external effects and internal diffusion effect. However, in axial
flow compressors, the centrifugal effects are not utilized at all. This is why the pressure
rise per stage is less than in a machine that utilizes all the kinetic energy effects available.
It should be noted that the turbine derives power from the same effects.
Illustrative Example 1.1: A radial flow hydraulic turbine produces 32 kW under a head
of 16 m and running at 100 rpm. A geometrically similar model producing 42 kW and a
head of 6 m is to be tested under geometrically similar conditions. If model efficiency is
assumed to be 92%, find the diameter ratio between the model and prototype, the volume
flow rate through the model, and speed of the model.
Solution:
Assuming constant fluid density, equating head, flow, and power coefficients, using
subscripts 1 for the prototype and 2 for the model, we have from Eq. (1.19),
Also, we know from Eq. (1.19) that
Then
Equating the diameter ratios, we get
or
Therefore the model speed is
Model scale ratio is given by
or,
or,
Illustrative Example 1.2: A centrifugal pump delivers 2.5 m3/s under a head of 14 m
and running at a speed of 2010 rpm. The impeller diameter of the pump is 125 mm. If a
104 mm diameter impeller is fitted and the pump runs at a speed of 2210 rpm, what is the
volume rate? Determine also the new pump head.
Solution:
First of all, let us assume that dynamic similarity exists between the two pumps.
Equating the flow coefficients, we get [Eq. (1.3)]
Solving the above equation, the volume flow rate of the second pump is
Now, equating head coefficients for both cases gives [Eq. (1.9)]
Substituting the given values,
Turbomachinery 38
Therefore, H2=11.72 m of water.
Illustrative Example 1.3: An axial flow compressor handling air and designed to run at
5000 rpm at ambient temperature and pressure of 18°C and 1.013 bar, respectively. The
performance characteristic of the compressor is obtained at the atmosphere temperature
of 25°C What is the correct speed at which the compressor must run? If an entry pressure
of 65 kPa is obtained at the point where the mass flow rate would be 64kg/s, calculate the
expected mass flow rate obtained in the test.
Solution:
Since the machine is the same in both cases, the gas constant R and diameter can be
cancelled from the operating equations. Using first the speed parameter,
Therefore,
Hence, the correct speed is 5060 rpm. Now, considering the mass flow parameter,
Therefore,
Illustrative Example 1.4: A pump discharges liquid at the rate of Q against a head of H.
If specific weight of the liquid is w, find the expression for the pumping power.
Solution:
Let Power P be given by:
where k, a, b, and c are constants. Substituting the respective dimensions in the above
equation,
Equating corresponding indices for M 1=a or a=1; for L 2=−2a + 3b+c; and for T
−3=−2a−b or b=1, so c=1.
Therefore,
P=kwQH
Illustrative Example 1.5: Prove that the drag force F on a partially submerged body is
given by:
where V is the velocity of the body, l is the linear dimension, ρ, the fluid density, k is
the rms height of surface roughness, and g is the gravitational acceleration.
Solution:
Let the functional relation be:
F=f(V,l,k,ρ,g)
Or in the general form:

F=f(F,V,l,k,ρ,g)=0
In the above equation, there are only two primary dimensions. Thus, m=2. Taking V, l,
and ρ as repeating variables, we get:
Π1=(V)a(l)b(ρ)cF
M°L°T°=(LT−1)a(L)b(ML−3)c(MLT−2)
Equating the powers of M, L, and T on both sides of the equation, for M,
0=c+1 or c=−1; for T, 0=−a−2 or a=−2; and for L, 0=a+ b−3c+ 1 or b=−2.
Therefore,
Similarly,
Π2=(v)d(l)e(ρ)f(k)
Therefore,
M0L0T0=(LT−1)d(L)e(ML−3)f(L)
for M, 0=f or f=0; for T, 0=−d or d=0; and for L, 0=d+e−3f+ 1 or e=−1.
Thus,
and
Turbomachinery 40
Π3=(V)g(l)h(ρ)i(g)
M0L0T0=(LT−1)g(L)h(ML−3)i(LT−2)
Equating the exponents gives, for M, 0=i or i=0; for T, 0=–g−2 or g=−2; for L,
0=g+h−3i+1 or h=1.
Therefore,
Now the functional relationship may be written as:
Therefore,
Illustrative Example 1.6: Consider an axial flow pump, which has rotor diameter of 32
cm that discharges liquid water at the rate of 2.5 m3/min while running at 1450 rpm. The
corresponding energy input is 120 J/kg, and the total efficiency is 78%. If a second
geometrically similar pump with diameter of 22 cm operates at 2900 rpm, what are its (1)
flow rate, (2) change in total pressure, and (3) input power?
Solution:
Using the geometric and dynamic similarity equations,
Therefore,
As the head coefficient is constant,
The change in total pressure is:

∆P=W2ηttρ=(226.88)(0.78)(1000) N/m2
=(226.88)(0.78)(1000)10−5=1.77 bar
Input power is given by

Illustrative Example 1.7: Consider an axial flow gas turbine in which air enters at the
stagnation temperature of 1050 K. The turbine operates with a total pressure ratio of 4:1.
The rotor turns at 15500 rpm and the overall diameter of the rotor is 30 cm. If the total-
to-total efficiency is 0.85, find the power output per kg per second of airflow if the rotor
diameter is reduced to 20 cm and the rotational speed is 12,500 rpm. Take γ=1.4.
Solution:
Using the isentropic P−T relation:
Using total-to-total efficiency,
and
Illustrative Example 1.8: At what velocity should tests be run in a wind tunnel on a
model of an airplane wing of 160 mm chord in order that the Reynolds number should be
the same as that of the prototype of 1000 mm chord moving at 40.5 m/s. Air is under
atmospheric pressure in the wind tunnel.
Solution:
Let
Velocity of the model: Vm
Length of the model: Lm=160 mm
Length of the prototype: Lp=1000 mm
Velocity of the prototype: Vp=40.5 m/s
According to the given conditions:

(Re) =(Re)
Turbomachinery 42
Therefore, νm=νp=νair
Hence
VmLm=VpLp,
or
Vm=LpVp/Lm=40.5×1000/160=253.13 m/s
Illustrative Example 1.9: Show that the kinetic energy of a body equals kmV2 using the
method of dimensional analysis.
Solution:
Since the kinetic energy of a body depends on its mass and velocity,
K.E.=f(V, m), or K.E.=kVamb.
Dimensionally,
Equating the exponents of F, L, and T, we get:

F: 1=b; L: 1=a−b; T: 0 =−a+2b
This gives b=1 and a=2. So, K.E.=kV2m, where k is a constant.
Illustrative Example 1.10: Consider a radial inward flow machine, the radial and
tangential velocity components are 340 m/s and 50 m/s, respectively, and the inlet and the
outlet radii are 14 cm and 7 cm, respectively. Find the torque per unit mass flow rate.
Solution:
Here,
r1=0.14 m
Cw1=340 m/s,
r2=0.07 m
Cw2=50 m/s
Torque is given by:

T=r1Cw1−r2Cw2
=(0.14×340−0.07×50)
=(47.6–3.5)=44.1 N-m per kg/s
PROBLEMS
1.1 Show that the power developed by a pump is given by
P=kwQH
where k=constant, w=specific weight of liquid, Q=rate of discharge, and H=head dimension.
1.2 Develop an expression for the drag force on a smooth sphere of diameter D immersed in a
liquid (of density ρ and dynamic viscosity µ) moving with velocity V.
1.3 The resisting force F of a supersonic plane in flight is given by:
F=f(L,V,ρ,µ,k)
where L=the length of the aircraft, V=velocity, ρ=air density, µ=air viscosity, and k=the bulk
modulus of air.
1.4 Show that the resisting force is a function of Reynolds number and Mach number.
1.5 The torque of a turbine is a function of the rate of flow Q, head H, angular velocity ω, specific
weight w of water, and efficiency. Determine the torque equation.
1.6 The efficiency of a fan depends on density ρ, dynamic viscosity µ of the fluid, angular velocity
ω, diameter D of the rotor and discharge Q. Express efficiency in terms of dimensionless
parameters.
1.7 The specific speed of a Kaplan turbine is 450 when working under a head of 12 m at 150 rpm.
If under this head, 30,000 kW of energy is generated, estimate how many turbines should be
used.
(7 turbines).
1.8 By using Buckingham’s Π theorem, show that dimensionless expression ∆P is given by:
where ∆P=pressure drop in a pipe, V=mean velocity of the flow, l=length of the pipe,
D=diameter of the pipe, µ=viscosity of the fluid, k=average roughness of the pipe, and
ρ=density of the fluid.
1.9 If Hf is the head loss due to friction (∆P/w) and w is the specific weight of the fluid, show
that
(other symbols have their usual meaning).

1.10 Determine the dimensions of the following in M.L.T and F.L.T systems: (1) mass, (2)
dynamic viscosity, and (3) shear stress.
NOTATION
Ar area ratio
a sonic velocity
Turbomachinery 44
Br breadth of prototype
C velocity of gas, absolute velocity of turbo machinery
D diameter of pipe, turbine runner, or pump
Dp depth of the prototype
E energy transfer by a rotor or absorbed by the rotor
F force
Fr force ratio
g local acceleration due to gravity
H head
h specific enthalpy
h0 stagnation enthalpy
K.E. kinetic energy
L length
Lp length of prototype
Lr scale ratio
M Mach number
m mass rate of flow
N speed
Ns specific speed
P power
Ph hydraulic power
Pm power loss due to mechanical friction at the bearing
Ps shaft power
P.E. potential energy
p fluid pressure
p0 stagnation pressure
Q volume rate of flow, heat transfer
R gas constant
Re Reynolds number
r radius of rotor
s specific entropy
sp. gr specific gravity of fluid
T temperature, time
T0 stagnation temperature
t time
U rotor speed
V relative velocity, mean velocity

W work
Vr volume ratio, velocity ratio
Wt actual turbine work output
isentropic turbine work output
a absolute air angle
β relative air angle
γ specific weight, specific heat ratio
η efficiency
polytropic efficiency of compressor
polytropic efficiency of turbine
ηc compressor efficiency
ηd diffuser efficiency
ηh hydraulic efficiency
ηj jet pipe or nozzle efficiency
ηm mechanical efficiency
ηo overall efficiency
ηp prototype efficiency
ηs isentropic efficiency
ηt turbine efficiency
ηts total-to-static efficiency
ηtt total-to-total efficiency
ηv volumetric efficiency
µ absolute or dynamic viscosity
ν kinematic viscosity
Π dimensionless parameter
ρ mass density
τ shear stress, torque exerted by or acting on the rotor
ω angular velocity
SUFFIXES
0 stagnation conditions
1 inlet to rotor
2 outlet from the rotor
3 outlet from the diffuser
a axial
Turbomachinery 46
h hub
r radial
t tip
w whirl or tangential
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Turbomachinery

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