WCL Record
WCL Record
WCL Record
NO : DATE:
AIM:
To analyze the magnitude and phase response of the following microwave circuits and
obtain their relevant parameters using Vector Network Analyzer.
i. Low Pass Filter
ii. Band Pass Filter
SPECIFICATIONS:
THEORY:
NETWORK ANALYSER:
Vector Network Analyzers are used to test component specifications and verify design
simulations to make sure systems and their components work properly together. Today, the
term “network analyzer”, is used to describe tools for a variety of “networks”. For instance,
most people today have a cellular or mobile phone that runs on a 3G or 4G network. In addition,
most of our homes, offices and commercial venues all have Wi-Fi, or wireless LAN
“networks”. Furthermore, many computers and servers are setup in “networks” that are all
linked together to the cloud. For each of these “networks”, there exists a certain network
analyzer tool used to verify performance, map coverage zones and identify problem areas.
INTERNAL BLOCK OF THE VECTOR NETWORK ANALYZER:
From mobile phone networks, to Wi-Fi networks, to computer networks and the to the
cloud, all of the most common technological networks of today were made possible using the
Vector Network Analyzer that was first invented over 60 years ago. R&D engineers and
manufacturing test engineers commonly use VNAs at various stages of product development.
Component designers need to verify the performance of their components such as amplifiers,
filters, antennas, cables, mixers, etc. The system designer needs to verify their component specs
to ensure that the system performance they're counting on meets their subsystem and system
specifications. Manufacturing lines use Vector Network Analyzers to make sure that all
products meet specifications before they're shipped out for use by their customers. In some
cases, Vector Network Analyzers are even used in field operations to verify and troubleshoot
deployed RF and microwave systems.
A Vector Network Analyzer contains both a source, used to generate a known stimulus
signal, and a set of receivers, used to determine changes to this stimulus caused by the device-
under-test or DUT. The stimulus signal is injected into the DUT and the Vector Network
Analyzer measures both the signal that's reflected from the input side, as well as the signal that
passes through to the output side of the DUT. The Vector Network Analyzer receivers measure
the resulting signals and compare them to the known stimulus signal. The measured results are
then processed by either an internal or external PC and sent to a display.
What is a Vector Network Analyzer used for?
LPF BPF
RESULT:
Thus the magnitude and phase response of the following microwave circuits were plotted
and their frequency parameters were obtained using Vector Network Analyzer.
i) GSM Network
ii) CDMA Network
iii) Zigbee based PAN
SOFTWARE REQUIRED :
TetCos NetSim
THEORY:
GSM:
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850
MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA. This
article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works.
GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :
Supports international
roaming Clear voice clarity
Ability to support multiple handheld
devices. Spectral / frequency efficiency
Low powered handheld devices.
Case of accessing network
International ISDN compatibility.
GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.
BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a
mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two components BTS and BSC.
GSM:
CDMA:
NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is to core network of GSM.
That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in network.
NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.
OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS.
CDMA:
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is basically a channel access method
and is also an example of multiple access. Multiple access basically means that information by
several transmitters can be sent simultaneously onto a single communication channel.
There are multiple users which are provided or assigned variant CDMA codes and thus
the users can access the entire band of frequencies or the whole bandwidth. This method does
not limit the frequency range of the user. Hence, with the help of CDMA, multiple users can
share a band of frequencies without any kind of undue interference between them. CDMA makes
the use of spectrum technology along with analog to digital conversion(ADC). It is thus used by
various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it is used for mobile communication.
Characteristics of CDMA
It allows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides improved data and
voice communication capacity.
A full spectrum is used by all the channels in CDMA.
CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the interference and noise
and to thus improve the network quality.
CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique codes in order to secure
its signals.
In CDMA systems all the cells can thus use the same frequency.
CDMA systems have a soft capacity.Thus there is no particular limit to the number of
users in a CDMA system but with increase in the number of users the performance
degrades.
Advantages
Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports a lot more users in
comparison to TDMA or FDMA.
CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the noise floor making
the intrusion of the spectrum difficult.
CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM. Thus, it can also be
used in rural areas.
The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in GSM.
CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during the calls.
ZigBee PAN:
Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
CDMA has a very low power requirement.
Disadvantages:
ZigBee:
ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology of
home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensor the
network. As we know that ZigBee is Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based on
IEEE 802.14.4 and it is created by Zigbee Alliance.
Architecture of Zigbee:
Application Layer
Application Interface
Layer Security Layer
Network Layer
Medium Access Control
Layer Physical Layer
The Application layer is present at the user level.
The Application Interface Layer, Security Layer and Network Layer are the Zigbee Alliance
and they are used to sore data and they uses stack.
Medium Access control and the Physical layer are the IEEE 802.15.4 and they are hardware
which are silicon means they accept only 0 and 1.
Types of ZigBee Devices:
Zigbee Coordinator Device – It communicate with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
Zigbee Router – It used for passing the data between devices.
Zigbee End Device – It is the device which is going to be controlled
PROCEDURE:
GSM:
1) Create Scenario: “Help_NetSim Help_Running Simulation via GUI_Cellular
Networks_Create Scenario”.
2) To view the output by using Netsim sample experiments need to be added onto the
Analytics interface. Give below is the navigation for analytics – “Simulation_Analytics”.
3) Select the experiments by selecting Cellular Networks.
4) Select the experiments(Note: Click one experiment after another to compare experiments
in the analytics interface)
5) Select the metric: Call Blocking Probability.
CDMA:
1) Create Scenario: “Help_NetSim Help_Running Simulation via GUI_Cellular
Networks_Create Scenario”.
2) To view the output by using Netsim sample experiments need to be added onto the
Analytics interface. Give below is the navigation for analytics – “Simulation_Analytics”.
3) Select the experiments by selecting Cellular Networks.
4) Select the experiments(Note: Click one experiment after another to compare experiments
in the analytics interface)
5) Select the metric: Call Blocking Probability & Number of channels.
ZigBee:
1) Create Scenario: “Help_NetSim Help_Running Simulation via GUI_Cellular
Networks_Create Scenario”.
2) Node properties, PAN coordinator properties and Environment properties are given as per
manual.
3) Throughput and mean delay readings are noted.
INFERENCE:
GSM:
If the number of mobile station increases, the call blocking probability also increases.
CDMA:
If the packet inter arrival time increases then the throughput decreases.
RESULT:
The performance of wireless networks such as GSM, CDMA, ZigBee Based PAN
networks are studied and analysed using NETSIM.
EXP. NO: DATE:
AIM:
To design and construct a GMSK modulator and observe its waveform and spectrum.
2 IC XR2206 1
200Ω,5kΩ,1kΩ
6 Potentiometer 50kΩ 1
FORMULAE:
1. fmark=1/R2C
2. fspace=1/R1C
3. fcut-off=1/2πRC
4. fc=Bit rate*BTb
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
SPECIFICATIONS:
XR2206:
Voltage supply:9-18 VDC input
Waveforms:Sine,square, triangular
Impedance:600Ω+10%
Frequency:0.5-1MHz
Sweep range:2000:1
Temperature Stability:20ppm/ oC
SPECTRUM ANALYZER VNA MASTER MS2034B:
THEORY:
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, or to give it its full title Gaussian filtered Minimum
Shift Keying, GMSK, is a form of frequency modulation that is used in radio communications
systems. GMSK is probably most widely associated wit the 2G GSM mobile communications
system where it proved to be an effective form of modulation. It was one of the reasons that
GSM cellphones had a long battery life in view of the high efficiency that could be obtained
from the RF power amplifiers. GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of
continuous-phase frequencyshift keying, CPFSK. One of the problems with standard forms of
PSK is that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and its derivative
GMSK can be used. MSK and also GMSK modulation are what is known as a continuous phase
scheme. Here there are no phase discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the
carrier zero crossing points. This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that the frequency
difference between the logical one and logical zero states is always equal to half the data rate.
This can be expressed in terms of the modulation index, and it is always equal to 0.5.
TABULATION:
Vin =
Advantages of GMSK:
GMSK spectrum is less affected by noise and hence leads to good SNR. This helps in
achieving very stable and long distance communication. Due to this fact, the GMSK
modulation technique is being employed in GSM technology.
Spectral efficiency is better and higher while demodulator is less complex.
GMSK provides constant envelope over the entire bandwidth. Hence it offers excellent
power efficiency.
It provides good BER performance.
GMSK offers self synchronizing capabilities.
GMSK is good choice for voice modulation.
Application of GMSK:
Used in GSM
Used in remote controlled devices.
Used in GPRS and EDGE system
PROCEDURE:
1. The MSK modulator circuit is constructed as per the circuit diagram.
2. The supply is switched ON and the carrier is observed. The amplitude and frequency are
noted.
3. Square wave modulating input of amplitude 0 to 5V is applied and the MSK waveform
observed and noted.
4. The fourth order low pass filter is constructed with appropriate center frequency.
5. Frequency response of the filter is verified.
6. The square wave input is applied to the filter and the filtered output is applied as modulating
signal to the MSK modulator.
7. GMSK output waveform and spectrum are observed and traced.
TABULATION:
AIM:
To study the error performance of a Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11b) network as the
function of distance between the Access Point and the wireless nodes.
THEORY:
A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless distribution method for two or more
devices that use high-frequency radio waves and often include an access point to the Internet. A
WLAN allows users to move around the coverage area, often a home or small office, while
maintaining a network connection.
In most of the WLAN products on the market based on the IEEE 802.11b technology the
transmitter is designed as a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Phase Shift Keying (DSSS PSK)
modulator, which is capable of handling data rates f up to 11 Mbps. The system implements
various modulation modes for every transmission rate, which are Different Binary Phase Shift
Keying (DPSK) for 1 Mbps, Different Quaternary Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK) for 2 Mbps and
Complementary Code Keying (CCK) for 5.5 Mbps and 11Mbps.
Large Scale Fading represents Receiver Signal Strength or path loss over a large area as
a function of distance. The statistics of large scale fading provides a way of computing estimated
signal power or path loss as a function of distance and modulation modes vary depends on the
Receiver Signal Strength.
PROCEDURE:
1) Create Scenario: "Help NetSim Help Running Simulation via GUI_Internetworks Create
Scenario".
2) Select the appropriate properties and set the distance between each node accordingly.
3) To view the output by using NetSim, sample experiments need to be added onto the
Analytics interface, "Simulation Analytics".
4) Select the Experiments (Note: Click one experiment after another to compare the
experiments in the Analytics interface).
5) Select the Metric: Packets Errored and export the result to MS-Excel.
6) Plot the Packets errored Vs Distance graph.
SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT:
Access Point Properties AP 1
Protocol IEEE802.11b
Buffer Size(MB) 5
RTS Threshold 2347
Retry Limit 7
Transmission Type DSSS
Standard Channel 1_2412
Transmitter Power (Milli Watts) 100
SIFS 10
Slot Time 20
CW Minimum 31
Protocol IEEE802.11b
RESULT:
The error performance of a wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11b) network as the function of
distance between the Access Point and the wireless nodes are simulated and studied using
NETSIM.
EXP.NO: DATE:
AIM:
To design a Yagi Uda antenna for the given centre frequency and test its impedance and
VSWR characteristics using VNA.
FORMULA:
SPACING BETWEEN
FEATURES:
DESCRIPTION:
The vector network analyzer allows you to measure insertion loss gain, return loss, SWR
and power quickly, accurately. With high performance detectors and directional bridges and a
companion source and printer, this analyzer become basics of a complete measurement system
with basic performance.
Set up time is reduced by external time disc measurement data can be sent directly into a
printer while you proceed to the next measurement you can configure your system using PSG
signal generator with the sample sweep capability. The dynamic range can be extended from
27db to 83db using PSG power option.
Accurate measurement of transmission and reflection characteristics is a key requirement
in year selection of a scalar network analyser to keep you achieve these goods. Anristu
technologies offers you the choice of microwave scalar measurement selection which provide an
excellent balance of cost system ability and measurement precision.
FOLED DIPOLE
PROCEDURE:
1) The length of elements of the Yagi-Uda antenna is designed for given frequency.
2) Folded dipole antenna is connected to port-1 of the VNA and port-2 is terminated with
50Ω impedance.
3) The return loss, VSWR and impedance response were observed in the VNA, noted and
tabulated.
4) Steps 3 and 4 are repeated for Yagi-antenna with three elements and five elements.
5) The characteristics are plotted and compared.
TABULATION:
Thus, Yagi Uda Antenna with folded and 5 elements have been designed for the given
centre frequency, their impedance and VSWR characteristics have been observed using VNA
and plotted.
EXPT. NO: DATE:
AIM:
To establish a microwave communication link using reflex klystron and determine the
frequency response of the link for sine and square wave inputs.
3. Isolator
4. Attenuator
5. Frequency meter
6. Detector
7. VSWR meter
FORMULA:
1. Wavelength, λ =c/f.
c= velocity of light.
f= frequency of microwave.
THEORY:
The transmission of data through microwave in telecommunication involves the sending and
receiving of microwave signals over a microwave link. This microwave link is made up of a
string of microwave radio antennas. They're located at the top of towers at various microwave
sites.A Microwave link is a communication system, that bridges radio signals, to transmit data
between two or more fixed locations. Multiple microwave links make up a microwave network.
Microwave links are used for point-to-point communications. The small length of their waves
allows for antennas to direct them in narrow beams. The beams can be pointed directly at the
microwave receiving antenna.
This allows nearby microwave gear to use the same frequencies without interfering with
each other, as lower frequency radio waves do. Another benefit of microwave links is that the
higher frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large information-carrying
capacity.
Microwave transmission - although long-distance - is limited by this need for a clear line
of sight. Radio transmission can also be interfered with by the atmosphere and rain fade. For
these reasons, microwave transmission is usually only used in areas without LAN or other
transport methods.To make sure that any new microwave site will work properly, you need to
prepare. Conduct a microwave line-of-site survey to verify whether open space is available
between your two locations.
Microwave gear can be used to transmit both analog and digital microwave signals.
Analog microwave transmission often saves money for microwave site staff. It doesn't require
the purchase of any new equipment.
You also don't have to train your staff on new transport systems. An extra benefit of familiar
analog microwave transmission is that your operators know its exact transport capacity.
Users of digital microwave transmission find it easier to obtain support and gear for their
systems. That's because digital transmission is the newer, more advanced form of microwave
communication. Increased microwave transmission speed will also allow for more traffic -
including remote monitoring data.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the setup as shown in the block diagram.
2. Set the repeller voltage knob to maximum position and beam current to minimum
position and then switch on the power supply.
3. Adjust the beam voltage and set a beam current of 20mA.
4. Select AM modulation.
5. Adjust the repeller voltage for maximum possible output power. Note the
corresponding frequency and output power from the VSWR meter.
6. Select external modulation and provide a sine wave signal of frequency 1 kHz and 2Vpp
from the external signal generator.
7. Place the receiver at a distance of R. Vary the modulating frequency from 200 Hz to 20
kHz in steps and note down the corresponding received power in dB.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 with square wave signal input.
9. First reduce the beam voltage to minimum and then repeller voltage. Switch off the
power supply.
10. Plot the frequency response characteristics and determine the modulation bandwidth.
RESULT:
Thus a microwave communication link using reflex klystron is established and the
frequency response of the link for sine and square wave modulating signal inputs are determined.
Bandwidth of the link for square wave modulating input: _________________.
EXPT. NO: DATE:
AIM:
a) To develop the simulation model of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) link and to
study the effect of noise in terms of symbol error rate and bit error rate.
b) To develop simulation model of QAM link and study the effect of noise in terms of
BER.
REQUIREMENTS:
MATLAB Simulink
THEORY:
In digital transmission, the number of bit errors is the number of received bits of a data
stream over a communication channel that have been altered due to noise, interference,
distortion or bit synchronization errors.
The bit error rate (BER) is the number of bit errors per unit time. The bit error ratio
(also BER) is the number of bit errors divided by the total number of transferred bits during a
studied time interval. Bit error ratio is a unitless performance measure, often expressed as a
percentage.[1]
The bit error probability pe is the expected value of the bit error ratio. The bit error
ratio can be considered as an approximate estimate of the bit error probability. This estimate is
accurate for a long time interval and a high number of bit errors.
QPSK:
The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a
Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, which sends two bits of
digital information at a time, called as bigits. Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a
series of digital stream, it converts them into bit pairs. This decreases the data bit rate to half,
which allows space for the other users.
The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit
serial to parallel converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.
At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2nd bit, 4th bit, 6th bit, etc.)
and odd bits (i.e., 1st bit, 3rd bit, 5th bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied
with the same carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSKI) and even BPSK (called as
PSKQ).
The PSKQ signal is anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated. The QPSK
waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for different
instances of binary inputs.
The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local oscillator,
two band pass filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter. Following
is the diagram for the same.
The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously demodulate the
two BPSK signals. The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data. These signals
after processing, are passed to the parallel to serial converter.
QAM:
It conveys two analog message signals, or two digital bit streams, by changing
(modulating) the amplitudes of two carrier waves, using the amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
digital modulation scheme or amplitude modulation (AM) analog modulation scheme. The two
carrier waves are of the same frequency and are out of phase with each other by 90°, a
condition known as orthogonality or quadrature.
The transmitted signal is created by adding the two carrier waves together. At the
receiver, the two waves can be coherently separated (demodulated) because of their
orthogonality property. Another key property is that the modulations are low-frequency/low-
bandwidth waveforms compared to the carrier frequency, which is known as the narrowband
assumption.
Phase modulation (analog PM) and phase-shift keying (digital PSK) can be regarded as
a special case of QAM, where the amplitude of the transmitted signal is a constant, but its
phase varies. This can also be extended to frequency modulation (FM) and frequency-shift
keying (FSK), for these can be regarded as a special case of phase modulation.
PROCEDURE:
QPSK:
QAM: