5370 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO.

10, OCTOBER 2014

Unified Synthesis of Tapped-Inductor

DC-to-DC Converters
Barry W. Williams

Abstract—Tapped-inductor variations of single-switch, single- wide-input, wide-output dc-to-dc converters [1]–[6] and high or
diode, dc-to-dc converters are categorized based on a new uni- low voltage gains [7]–[10]. A transformer approach can achieve
fied sequential circuit topology and mathematical transformation the same semiconductor utilization effect and additionally of-
approach, all seeded from a basic buck–boost converter and its
transfer function. Classification focuses on identifying two differ- fers isolation between the input energy source and the output
ent ac circuit coupled inductor arrangements of the basic buck– load. A coupled inductor approach to realize extreme transfer
boost dc-to-dc converter. Subsequent dc circuit sequential manip- gains has penalties [11]. Stepped inductor current changes oc-
ulation yields all 11 known, documented, in theory, in simulation cur when current is diverted between tapped windings, which
and practically, tapped-inductor dc-to-dc converter topologies. The in conjunction with inevitable inductor leakage and stray in-
procedure not only generates sequences of topologies, but also gen-
erates the voltage transfer functions without recourse to analysis ductance, causes high circuit voltage stresses, c.f. v = Ldi/dt.
of the circuit internal operating mechanisms. Consequently, two Because the coupled inductor has a dc current component, a dc
converter classes group the 11 known tapped-inductor topologies, flux bias occurs in the core. An air gap is introduced to increase
which is at least one fewer topology classes than universally ac- the dc current saturation level, detrimentally at the expense of
cepted. The methodology yields two new classes of three and ten increased core volume, decreased inductance per turn squared
coupled inductor converter topologies, all with new transfer func-
tions. The new analysis approach is adaptable to the analysis of all and decreased coupling factor, whence increased leakage in-
single-switch, single-diode, (noncoupled inductor), dc-to-dc con- ductance. Another adverse feature can be reverse source current
verters (single and two inductor topologies), formulated from the which is undesirable in renewable energy PV [12], [13], thermo-
basic buck–boost converter. electric generator [14], and fuel cell applications, where contin-
Index Terms—DC-to-DC converters, dc-to-dc power conversion, uous unidirectional source current is mandatory for maximum
switch mode power supplies. power extraction and source survival. This can be mitigated by
input filtering. Another limiting feature in some topologies is
I. INTRODUCTION not just discontinuous output current, but reverse output current
ONISOLATED tapped-inductor or autotransformer cou- during part of the operating cycle. Consequently, practically, the
N pled, dc-to-dc converters are derived from circuit varia-
tions of the three basic converter topologies, specifically buck,
input and output may need to be capacitively shunt decoupled.
Nonetheless, such converters are used in many applications,
boost, and buck–boost dc-to-dc converters. These three funda- like ac–dc LED drivers replacing incandescent lamps [15], and
mental converter topologies are based on the three viable orien- gas discharge lamps, and has been adapted to the Z-source
tations of a switch, diode, and inductor, which form a two-state, inverter [16], automotive ac supplies [17], UPF [18], and soft-
three-port, canonical cell. The energy source input port and load switching areas [6], [7], [17]–[20].
output port share a common terminal (and potential), usually the Different classification schemes have been used to catego-
ground reference. Tapping the cell inductor creates 11 known rize tapped-inductor converters, referenced to the basic dc-to-dc
viable converter topologies, which offer a variety of adjustable converter category, termed the A sequence (comprising the buck
nonlinear transfer functions, usually involving very high or low A1, boost A2, buck–boost A3 converters) [21], [22]. The classi-
voltage gains with high or low sensitivity at duty cycle extremes, fication procedure to be proposed yields only two categories to
when exploiting the autotransformer mechanism. encompass the eleven pre-existing coupled inductor converters,
The key features of the range of tapped-inductor converters in addition to the basic nontapped converter A category. The
include better semiconductor device utilization at very low or categorization outcome within this paper is consistent with that
high duty cycles than in convention converters, since the turns used to classify the standard single-switch, single-diode convert-
ratio is adjusted to avoid duty cycle extremes. The result is ers that do not involved tapped inductors, with up to six different
topologies in each matrix column, viz., category sequences A,
C, D, E, F, G, and P [23]. This standard classification range in-
cludes the sepic (G5), zeta (G6), Cuk (C5), Landsman #2 (D2),
Manuscript received July 15, 2013; revised September 16, 2013 and October –ve Luo (F6), CSC (D1), etc., converters, which may exploit
22, 2013; accepted October 28, 2013. Date of current version May 30, 2014. coupled inductors (for input or output ripple current reduction),
Recommended for publication by Associate Editor C. R. Sullivan. but not a coupled inductor that modifies the transfer function.
The author is with the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engi-
neering, The University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1WX, U.K. (e-mail: This paper adopts the traditional converter letter categorization
Barry.Williams@strath.ac.uk). (A, C, D, etc.).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online The conventional categorization approach [21], [24], [25] for
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPEL.2013.2291561 tapped-inductor converters also uses a matrix visual presentation

0885-8993 © 2013 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5371

with columns based on the component connected to the inductor

tap, viz., the switch, the diode, the energy source, the load out-
put, and the reference ground. The rows classify the topologies
into generically buck, boost, and buck–boost features. A total
enumeration approach generates numerous topologies, paradox-
ically overlooks possibilities, while many of the topologies sys-
tematically generated are found not to be viable, but only after
circuit analysis [21].
The proposed approach uses only two viable different seed- Fig. 1. Basic converter functional block shown as a three-port block with two
ing canonical cells, both with a buck–boost transfer function, outputs P o and P 1 shown.
to generate other topologies in the group that are always viable
topologies, with mathematically preordained transfer functions.
One seeding canonical cell has either the diode or the switch Buck: When the switch is ON, energy flows from the source
connected to the tap (more specifically the common connec- to the load, via the inductor.
tion of the two coupled windings). The second seeding cell has When the switch is OFF, no energy flows from the source and
the external common ground reference connected to the induc- stored inductor energy flows into the load.
tor tap. These two buck–boost seeds are modified by changing Flyback: When the switch is ON, energy flows into the in-
the coupled inductor from a cumulative (tapped) to a differen- ductor, but not between the source and the load.
tial connection, both seeds then yielding previously unidentified When the switch is off:
topology sequences. The approach is not restrictive as to spec- Boost—energy flows between the load and the source via the
ify the tap connected node, as all other viable possibilities are previously energized inductor.
sequentially generated from any viable seed. The simplest justi- Buck–boost—energy flows into the load from the energized
fication of the proposed approach stems from the fact that in the inductor, but not via the source.
case of connecting an external node to the tap, each external dc All two-state converters (switch-ON and switch-OFF states)
connection results in an identical ac equivalent circuit. There- exhibit two key circuit operational properties.
fore, which specific external dc node is connected to the tap 1) To ensure a complete electrical operational range, two
is inconsequential since the proposed approach elicits different switch/diode pairs (or two bidirectional voltage support-
dc topologies that have the same ac equivalent circuit, from the ing and conducting switches, that is, ideal switches which
one seeding cell. Effectively, the approach dc rotates between are controlled to conduct current or block voltage in both
all possible component arrangements within the canonical cell, directions) are used as opposed to one switch and one
but uniquely by starting with a viable topology, only viable pos- diode. Such extra semiconductor components ensure a
sibilities are generated. Also, the sequential cell generation ap- continuous inductor conduction mode CCM down to zero
proach intrinsically maintains a consistent turns number n1 , n2 , output current and also facilitate reverse or inverse oper-
tap orientation of the two inductor windings with respect to ation. Inverse operation is when the input and output port
each sequencing topology and its transfer function. The inher- functions are interchanged, after accounting for relative
ently generated sequence topologies yield the Watkins-Johnson voltage polarities. Importantly, if the dc-to-dc converter is
converter [26], [27] and its inverse [28]. The new topologies operational, viable, in one direction (port Ei to port Po ),
derived mathematically are validated for continuous inductor its inverse (port Po to port Ei ) is always viable. The buck
current conduction in Sections IV–VII by simulation and exper- and boost functions are mutual inverses, while the inverse
imentation in Section VIII. Sequencing properties are summa- of a buck–boost circuit remains a buck–boost circuit.
rized in Section IX, with general paper conclusions presented 2) A dc-to-dc converter cell is a three terminal (nodes 0, 1,
in the final section, Section X. 2), three-port (Ei , Po , P1 ) circuit. One port is the input,
(voltage Ei nodes 1–0), another is the output port Po
(nodes 2–0) sharing the ground in common with input
port, while the third port P1 (nodes 1–2) is between the
II. CONVERTER DC AND AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS PROPERTIES
input and output, not involving the ground, as shown in
The three basic dc-to-dc converters have a canonical cell (Tee Fig. 1. By Kirchhoff’s voltage loop law, the sum of the
connected switch/diode/inductor) between an input electromo- three port voltages is zero. That is, the voltage output
tive force source Ei and load with voltage Vo , as shown in (hence transfer function) at the third port (second output)
Fig. 1. The load has the switching current harmonics filtered P1 , is the input Ei minus the output Vo , as shown in Fig. 1.
by a shunt capacitor Co outwith the basic canonical cell. The Thus, the transfer function of the third port (second output
primitive canonical cell comprises a switch, a diode, and an in- P1 ) is unique [29], [30], namely
ductor, while higher order cells contain an additional inductor
and capacitor, to which the proposed concepts equally apply.
V 1 = Ei − V o
Generally converters (tapped and untapped) are classified as
buck, boost or buck–boost according to the following criteria V1 Vo
=1− = 1 − f (δ) . (1)
(which is qualified for tapped inductors in Section IX): Ei Ei
5372 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

The second port, P1 (nodes 1–2), may only be conditionally Fig. 2 and Table I. Different viable seeding topologies can gen-
viable with one switch and one diode. But with two bidirec- erate other sequences of different viable converter topologies,
tional switches, if the first output port Po is viable, then the by repeated flip and inverse operations, eventually cycling back
second output port P1 is unconditionally viable, and both ports to the original topology. The two key flip/inverse sequencing
(Po and P1 ) can be individually or simultaneously loaded. Ad- processes are summarized mathematically as follows:
ditionally the circuit can be topologically rearranged such that 1) Equation (1) gives the flip transfer function, viz., unity
the second nonground referenced port P1 is configured to be at minus the transfer function.
the ground reference level, 0. But both topologies are viable, 2) The transfer function for an inverse operation can also be
whether source ground 0 referenced or source positive input 1 defined mathematically. The inverse transfer function is
referenced. This output port topology interchange translation derived by interchanging δ and δ  , then invert the func-
process is termed circuit flipping. The flipping process is equiv- tion. Interchanging the on-state and off-state duty cycles
alent to interchanging the series order of two series connected reflects the switch and diode interchange, while inverting
elements, so that either element can be monitored with respect reflects the reversing of the input and output ports of the
to reference ground, without affecting the circuit external con- converter (that is Vo /Ei becomes Ei /Vo ). This commuta-
ditions or the absolute voltages or currents associated with each tive mathematical transformation is applicable to inductor
element. tapped circuits, provided the tap connected element is an
For the analysis to follow, the switch on-state duty cycle δ is internal canonical cell component, specifically the diode
defined as or the switch. The canonical cell derivation assumes a Tee
ton cell arrangement [30]. The inductor tap connected to an ex-
δ= = ton fs (2) ternal cell dc voltage bias (not the common input to output
τ
reference, node 0) inhibits internal cell element rotation,
where fs = 1/τ is the switching frequency and ton is the switch
and this restriction is accounted for by interchanging N
on time.
and N , in addition to δ and δ  , whilst inverting the function
The diode conduction duty cycle, assuming CCM, is
to give the inverse transfer function.
toff τ − ton Flipping a topology may results in a configuration requiring
δ = 1 − δ = = = toff fs . (3)
τ τ interchange of the diode D and switch S, whence δ and δ  are also
The topologies to be considered incorporate an inductor with interchanged (effectively necessitating two switch/diode pairs,
a tap (the common connection of the two coupled windings) re- which guarantees CCM). Such interchanging of the switch and
sulting in turns n1 and n2 . The cumulative turns ratio percentage diode in any sequence is always avoided if a pair of bidirectional
is defined by switches (controlled to conduct current or block voltage in both
n1 n2 directions) is employed.
N= whence N  = = 1 − N. (4) The columns in Fig. 2 show numerous inductor tapped topolo-
n1 + n2 n1 + n2
gies and their vertical sequence flip/inverse order, while Table I
If the coupled windings are differentially connected, the turns shows the corresponding voltage transfer functions (assuming
ratio percentage is defined by ideal components and CCM) and the associated sequence or-
n1 der, for five sequence groups. All previous publications have
N= where n1 = n2 (5)
n1 − n2 assumed the coupled inductor is cumulatively winding con-
nected which gives two major classes of topologies viz., columns
where if n2 > n1 , N < 0.
headed Scum and Tcum in Fig. 2, (where the subscript “cum”
indicates the two coupled windings are cumulatively connected,
III. FLIPPING AND INVERSING APPLIED TO A MAGNETIC effectively forming a tapped inductor). This paper incorporates
CIRCUIT WITH INTERCONNECTED WINDINGS into a general matrix of topologies and transfer functions, two
Repeated flipping (Section II-2) and inverse (Section II-1) mirroring classes when the coupled inductor windings are dif-
processing of a viable cell creates a sequence of viable cells. ferentially connected viz., columns Sdiff and Tdiff in Fig. 2,
Consider a basic buck–boost converter (in the A sequence, (where the subscript “diff” indicates the two coupled windings
specifically topology A3), being symmetrical, its inverse is itself are differentially connected).
A3p, hence has the same transfer function. The letter p (indi-
cating pair) in A3p indicates that the inverse A3 is inherently
attained if two switch/diode pairs are used. For the same buck– IV. Tcum (TERMINAL, CUMULATIVE COUPLING) SEQUENCE
COUPLED INDUCTOR CONVERTERS
boost converter A3, the second port (the flip port) is a boost con-
verter A2, by Kirchhoff’s voltage law, (1), the transfer function Five topologies have been proposed where the inductor tap is
is unity minus the buck–boost transfer function, 1– (–δ/ δ  ) = 1/ connected to a dc potential, viz., Ei , Vo or zero volts [21], [25].
δ  . But the inverse of the boost function 1/ δ  is the buck function Fig. 3(a) shows the selected seed topology, T3+, which is the
δ. Thus, the basic buck–boost converter can be used to generate magnetic circuit coupled isolated version of the basic symmetri-
any of the basic converters by repeated inversing and flipping cal buck–boost converter A3, with the secondary grounded. The
the topology. This basic converter sequence of topologies, the isolation aspect is not relevant to the operating mechanisms and
A sequence topologies A1–A3, is shown in the first column of this ground tapped seeding converter is shown as configuration
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5373

Fig. 2. Classification of coupled inductor converters. subscript p denotes diode/switch antiparallel connected pairs. Subscript d denotes bidirectional conducting
and blocking switches. Subscript cum and “+” denote cumulatively connected windings. Subscript diff and “−“ denote differentially connected windings.
5374 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

TABLE I
VOLTAGE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF CONVERTERS, INCLUDING INDUCTOR TAPPED CONVERTERS

T3+ in Fig. 2, column Tcum . By sequentially flipping and in- balance between the switch-on and switch-off states, therefore
versing T3+, five ground referenced topology cells are gener- for average input and output currents Ii and Io , respectively
ated in forming the cycling Tcum sequence. [Additionally, not
shown, five common positive source to output topologies can Ii Io
also be generated, seeded with the buck–boost topology Tcum + × n1 = +  n2 .
δ δ
in Fig. 3(e)].
For the seeding buck–boost topology T3+ [Fig. 3(a)], the The positive signs arise because the current direction is
CCM inductor must maintain an amp-turn, n × I, (flux) the same in the winding terminal common to both periods.
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5375

Fig. 3. Coupled inductor seeding buck–boost converters: (a) terminal inductor tap connection converter T3 +, (b) differentially connected inductor tap converter
T3−, (c) diode connected, cumulative inductor tap converter S3 ±, (d) diode connected, differentially inductor tap converter S3−, and (e), (f), (g), and (h) positive
rail reference versions of (a), (b), (c), and (d).

Rearranging and using power conservation and invariance gives function for the seeding buck–boost topology T3+/p+ has a
common factor (with the remaining factor independent of δ) of
Ii n2 δ N δ Vo
= = = . (6) any of the three basic A sequence converters (δ, 1/δ  or δ/δ  ).
Io n1 δ  N 1−δ Ei When N = 12 , the sequence Tcum degenerates to the G se-
The inverse of (6) is a buck–boost function, where because quence of transfer functions (but different topologies). When N
the common reference, 0 V, is connected to the tap, δ ⇔ δ  but N = 0 or 1, viz., n1 = 0 or n2 = 0, the Tcum topologies are not
and N are not interchange during the inversing process, whence viable.
T3p+ is
  −1 V. Tdiff (TERMINAL, DIFFERENTIAL COUPLING) SEQUENCE
Vo N δ N δ
= =  . (7) COUPLED INDUCTOR CONVERTERS
Ei N 1 − δ N 1−δ
Fig. 3(b) shows a reverse (differential) inductor winding
Repeated flipping and inversing of these buck–boost transfer arrangement for the basic buck–boost converter, T3−. The
functions T3+ or T3p+ generates the previously known [21] flip/inverse generated sequence, previously unidentified, is
transfer functions shown in Table I, in the column headed Tcum . termed the Tdiff sequence, where the common connection of
The term δ  N–δN appears in the transfer function equations for the windings is connected externally sequentially to the output,
topologies other than seeds T3+/p+, which inadvisably simpli- the source, and then the ground. Therefore three topologies,
fies to N–δ. This simplification should not be executed before referenced to ground, are generated, similar and in the same
performing the mathematical inverting process of interchanging sequence as the Tcum sequence T1+, T2+, T3+, but because
δ and δ  , then inversion of the function. That is, the term δ  N–δN of the reverse winding connection, the seed topology diode po-
is not necessarily commutable. larity is reversed, resulting in only three different topologies
Converters with the transfer function term δ  N–δN have an generated.
output voltage polarity change about δ=N , (horizontal or ver- For seeding topology T3−, Fig. 3(b), the CCM inductor
tical asymptote) requiring two bidirectional (controlled voltage must maintain an amp-turn balance between the switch-on and
blocking and current conduction in both direction) switches switch-off states, therefore
for operation over the full duty cycle range for pair T1+/b+
Ii Io
(namely T1+ and T1b+), while switch/diodes pairs suffice for + × n1 = −  n2 .
pairs T2+/p+ and T3+/p+. δ δ
The buck input rail tapped converter T2p+ is the Watkins- The negative sign arises because the current direction reverses
Johnson converter [26], which is in fact the second output port in the winding terminal common to both periods. Rearranging
of a variation of the standard magnetic circuit coupled buck– and using power invariance gives the buck–boost function T3−
boost converter, when interchanging the switch and diode. The
Ii n2 δ N δ Vo
so-called Watkins-Johnson inverse [28] is topology T1b+. Gen- =− = − = . (8)
erally, the basic voltage transfer properties of the Tcum sequence Io n1 δ  N 1−δ Ei
are disguised by the autotransformer turns ratio N . It is not Its inverse, T3p−, (δ ⇔ δ  but N and N are not interchange
meaningful to assign a basic transfer function property, such during the mathematical inverse process), is
as a “buck” converter, to these topologies based on the transfer  −1
function. Such properties can be assigned based on the two cur- Vo N  δ N δ
= − =−  . (9)
rent conduction paths, as defined in Section II. Only the transfer Ei N 1 − δ N 1−δ
5376 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

The flip of T3−, (8), gives T2−

T 3− ⇒ T 2− boost
flip

    N δ N δ + N δ
f T 2− = 1 − f T 3− = 1 − − 
= . (10)
N δ N δ
Inversing (interchange N ⇔N , δ⇔δ  , then invert) the boost
function T2− gives T1−
T 2− ⇒ T 1− buck
inverse
 −1
   −1 N δ + N δ N δ
f T 1− = f T 2− = = .
N δ N δ+ N δ
(11)
The flip of T1− gives the same function, that is T1−, but
practically the diode and switch need interchanging if two
switch/diode pairs are not used.
The differential inductor connection enables the production
of extremely high or low voltages for a given total number of
turns, n1 + n2 . This is because in each case energy only flows
from the source (with no reversal) and always into the load (with
no current reversal). Also no duty cycle related voltage output
discontinuity (vertical asymptote) conditions occur, that is, the
term Nδ  +N δ is always positive.
When N = 12 , n1 =n2 , the A sequence of transfer functions
results, but not with the A sequence topologies. Additionally,
each converter correspondingly complies with the classifica-
tion method presented in Section II, in terms of switch-on and
-off current conduction paths. Therefore, classifying these con-
verters in terms of buck, boost, and buck–boost topologies is
internally consistent, as supported in Fig. 4, where the transfer
functions in (9)–(11) are plotted.
Additionally, not shown, three common positive source to
output topologies can also be generated, seeded on the buck–
boost seeding topology Tdiff in Fig. 3(f). Such positive rail
referenced buck–boost topologies are applicable to all topology
sequences.
Fig. 4. Duty cycle dependant voltage transfer function characteristics of the
The critical load resistance, defining the CCM-DCM bound- three T d iff sequence converters.
ary, for each of the three Tdiff (and five Tcum ) topologies, in
terms of the voltage transfer function TF is given by the uni- is seen in the transfer functions of the step-up and step-down
fied equation (which with N = N = 12 is also valid for the A buck–boost converter T3p± (14) and T3± (13), respectively,
sequence topologies) which because of being mutually symmetrical inverses, only
 2 differ by reciprocation of N .
N 2L1 L1 n21 N
Ro crit = |T Fv | × × where α = . For seed topology S3±, Fig. 3(c), the CCM inductor must
N δτ δ  L2 n22 N
(12) maintain an amp-turn balance between the switch-on and
switch-off states, therefore
VI. Scum (SERIES CUMULATIVE COUPLING) SEQUENCE Ii Io
+ × (n1 + n2 ) = −  × n1 .
COUPLED INDUCTOR CONVERTERS δ δ
The six topologies in the Scum sequence are documented Rearranging and using power invariance gives
topologies [21], [25]. The step-down voltage buck–boost con- Ii n1 δ δ Vo
=− 
= −N = (13)
verter S3± shown in Fig. 3(c) is a suitable seed. Repeated flip- Io n1 + n2 δ 1−δ Ei
ping and inversing sequentially continues to generate the unique
and its inverse S3p± is
topologies S1± to S5±. Although the reversing process involves  −1
interchange of δ and δ  , before inverting, the turns operator N Vo δ 1 δ
= −N =− . (14)
is not changed. The transfer functions do not involve N . This Ei 1 − δ N 1−δ
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5377

Repeated flipping/inversing of (13) generates the Scum se- function S3b−

quence, with six of the same expressions (but not topologies)  −1
Vo δ 1 δ
as generated for a differential inductor connection, provided = −N =− . (16)
N > 0, as shown in the next section. All the topologies can be Ei 1 − δ N 1−δ
realized with two switch/diode pairs, without recourse to two Successive flipping (subtraction from one), then inversing
bidirectional switches. Although the six generated topologies (interchanging δ and δ  then inverting), yields a sequence of
S1± to S5± are documented topologies, they have not previ- transfer functions involving N and δ, which for N = −1 reduces
ously been classified and linked together as in Fig. 2, in a single to the G sequence transfer functions. The first flip, on (15), gives
column.
S3− ⇒ S2−
Additionally, not shown, six common positive source to out- flip
put topologies can also be generated, seeded on the buck–boost  
 −  − δ δ + N δ
seed topology Scum in Fig. 3(g). f S2 = 1 − f S3 = 1 − −N  =
δ δ
When n2 = 0, N = 1, and N = 0, the Scum sequence convert-
ers (diode/switch tap converters) degenerate topologically to the S3p− ⇒ S4−
flip
corresponding basic converter in sequence A. Therefore, classi-  
fying these converters in terms of buck, boost, and buck–boost     1 δ N δ + δ
f S4− = 1 − f S3p− = 1 − − 
= .
topologies is internally consistent. Nδ N δ
(17)
VII. Sdiff (SERIES DIFFERENTIAL COUPLING) SEQUENCE
COUPLED INDUCTOR CONVERTERS Inverting S2− and S4− gives
The coupled circuit windings can be series connect either cu- S2− ⇒ S1−
inverse
mulatively (as for the Scum sequence) or differentially, Sdiff .  −1
Successive flipping and inverse processing of a buck–boost  −
  −1 δ + N δ δ
f S1 = f S2− = =
topology S3−, Fig. 3(d), generates the same six topologies as δ δ + N δ
the Scum sequence, except for the winding connection. For this
S4− ⇒ S5−
reason, the coupled winding dot convention is not shown in the inverse
Scum topologies in Fig. 2 and the converters are labeled S±.  −1
 −
  −1 N δ + δ Nδ
The Scum sequence transfer functions in Table I remain the f S5 = f S4− = = .
same if the turns ratio defined by (5) is positive, n1 > n2 . If Nδ N δ + δ
the condition n1 < n2 holds and the diode is reverse connected, (18)
viable topologies are produced with the output voltage reversed
Flipping
as shown in Fig. 2, Sdiff , and the associated transfer functions
are not necessarily continuous. S1− ⇒ S5b−
flip
For N < 0, that is n1 < n2 , operation is characterization by a
step reversal of winding current (in the winding with the lower     δ N δ
f S5b− = 1 − f S1− = 1 − =
turns, n1 ), which reverses the output voltage polarity, while the δ + N δ δ + N δ
current in the other winding, with the larger number of turns, n2 , S5− ⇒ S1b−
is zero during either period δ or δ  . This means a positive buck– flip
boost transfer function can be produce, like the Zeta G6 and     Nδ δ
Sepic G5 converters, but without recourse to two extra passive f S1b− = 1 − f S5− = 1 − = .
N δ + δ N δ + δ
reactive components.
The buck–boost converter S3−, Fig. 3(d), can be used to seed (19)
the mathematical approach to derive the Sdiff sequence transfer Then, the inverse is
functions. For topology S3−, the CCM inductor must main-
tain an amp-turn balance between the switch-on and switch-off S5b− ⇒ S4p−
inverse
states, therefore  −1
   −1 Nδ δ + N δ
Ii Io f S4p− = f S5b− = 
=
+ × (n1 − n2 ) = −  n1 . δ + Nδ Nδ
δ δ
S1b− ⇒ S2p−
Rearranging and using power invariance gives the transfer inverse
 −1
function for S3−  −
  −1 δ N δ + δ
f S2p = f S1b− = 
= .
Ii n1 δ δ Vo Nδ + δ δ
=− = −N = . (15)
Io n1 − n2 δ  1−δ Ei (20)
The inverse processing of S3− involves interchanging δ The ten transfer functions in (15)–(20) are plotted in Fig. 6.
and δ  , then inverting the result, which yields the buck–boost Similar to the other sequences, ten common positive source to
5378 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

3 1
Fig. 5. Experimental (open loop) and simulation results (for E i = 20 V, Ii , ave = 4 A, 80-W input) for δ = 4 ,N = 2 tapped converters T d iff : (a) buck T1−,
(b) boost T2−, and (c) buck–boost T3− converters.

output topologies can also be generated, seeded on the buck– The analysis assumes a losses circuit, where the output power
boost seed topology Scum in Fig. 2(h). is equal to the input power, Ei Ii = vo Io , whence impedance
If bidirectional switches are used, the flip of S2b− is S3−, transfers in the ratio of the voltage transfer function TF, squared,
(15), and the flip of S4b− is S3b−, (16), which completes Ro = Ri × TF2 . The critical load resistance, defining the CCM-
the cyclic sequence. To obtain the full duty cycle range for DCM boundary, for each of the Sdiff (and the six Scum ) topolo-
each converter, bidirectional switches are needed for topologies gies, in terms of the voltage transfer function TF is given by
S1/b− and S5/b− and switch diode pairs for topologies S2/p−, (which with |N | = 1 is also valid for the A and G sequences)
S3/p−, and S4/p−.
Like the Tcum sequence, for N = −1 (that is n1 : n2 = 1:
2) all the Sdiff equations reduce to the sequence G transfer  2
1 2L1 L1 n21 N
functions, while for N = 1, the standard three converter A Ro crit = |T Fv | × × where α = .
sequence functions result, provided the diodes are reversed. N δτ δ  L2 n22 N
(21)
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5379

Fig. 6. Duty cycle dependant voltage transfer function characteristics of the ten S d iff sequence converters.
5380 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

TABLE II topologies in Fig. 2. Although all topologies are viable, as shown

COMPONENT VALUES AND CIRCUIT CONDITIONS
in Fig. 7, with a single switch and diode, the operating duty cycle
is limited, the limit being dependant on N , as shown in Table I.
The buck and boost topologies S2−/S2p− and S4−/S4p− are
inefficient because when the switch is OFF, the series circuit
is such that energy is transfer to the load in conjunction with
energy returned to the source.

IX. SEQUENCE PROPERTIES

Table I and Fig. 2 summarize the four different coupled in-
VIII. Sdiff AND Tdiff SEQUENCE COUPLED INDUCTOR ductor closed sequences, which appear in four vertical columns.
CONVERTER CHARACTERISTICS
The horizontal row order reflects general buck–boost, boost and
The Scum and Tcum topologies in the matrix have previously buck type characteristics, applicable to the possibly restricted
been researched and experimentally verified, therefore further operational δ range when only a single diode and switch are uti-
experimentation of these known converters offers no academic lized. The transfer functions in each row of Table I have a similar
or practical advancement. The voltage transfer function versus form and for a specific turn ratio N , degenerate to the same A or
duty cycle characteristics for the Scum and Tcum topology se- G sequence transfer function. Topology wise, the row configu-
quences can be found in references [21], [25]. Both Tdiff and rations in Fig. 2 differ in coupling winding connection polarity,
Sdiff , respectively, (the new topologies) produce the same range with the diode reversed. Additionally, horizontal rows are also
of transfer functions, but with different topologies and a differ- grouped as buck, boost, and buck–boost operational functions,
ent number of topologies. in terms of continuous/discontinuous input/output currents, as
Tdiff sequence: Fig. 4 shows the characteristics for the three defined in Section II. The definition of continuous inductor cur-
topologies in the Tdiff sequence, for three turns ratios, specif- rent has to be qualified as continuous in either direction, but
ically N equals 14 , 12 , and 34 . When N = N = 12 , the Tdiff always nonzero. For example, topology T2p+ is classified as a
sequence converter transfer functions degenerate to those of the boost converter, where the output current is discontinuous, while
corresponding three basic converters, viz., the A sequence con- the input current is continuous although it actually reverses for
verters. When N > 12 , the transfer function is less sensitive at each switch state, but is nonzero.
lower duty cycles, relative to the equivalent A sequence con- Although two switch/diode pairs may offer an extended oper-
verter at N = 12 , and exhibit identical characteristics as the ating range, two bidirectional switches (controlled bidirectional
diode-to-tap topologies S2+, S3+, and S5+. For N < 12 , the voltage blocking and current conduction) will always ensure
transfer functions are less sensitive at higher duty cycles, rela- a full duty cycle range, CCM, reverse mode, and both ports
tive to the equivalent A sequence converter at N = 12 , and the operation.
characteristics are the same as the switch-to-tap topologies S1+, The common seed for each of the four sequences is a buck–
S3p+, and S5+. That is, the Tdiff sequence of three topologies boost converter, with a voltage transfer function |δ/δ  |, based
mimic the characteristics of the six Scum sequence topologies, on sequence A converter A3 and its coupled circuit isolated
with a turns ratio N change (as with an autotransformer, ac- variations. But equally, any viable topology can be a seed. Se-
wise), rather than a tap element change. quential flip/inverse conversion (mathematical and topological)
Fig. 5 shows the agreement between the simulation and corre- rules for single-switch, single-diode cumulatively and differen-
sponding open-loop experimental time domain results for each tially connected coupled winding dc-to-dc converters generate
off the new three Tdiff sequence topologies, for N = 12 and δ = four transfer function related sequences, viz., Sdiff is related to
3
4 . The circuit and test conditions, common to both simulation Tcum , and Scum is related to Tdiff .
and experimentation, are summarized in Table II and Fig. 5. The The topologies and sequences in Fig. 2 and Table I can be
simulations use unity-coupled inductor coupling, with lossless summarized as follows:
windings along with a lossless switch, so as to elicit simulation The A sequence, comprising the three basic converter topolo-
results compliant with the presented theory. gies and transfer functions, is linear cyclic, that is backtracks
The switch turn-OFF overshoot voltage in the practical results itself by repeated flip/inverse operations. Two diode/switch pairs
highlight the importance of minimizing stray inductance and the ensure all modes of operation, including full duty cycle range,
need for a tightly coupled bifilar-wound inductor. The practical inverse operation, operation of either or both ports, and avoids
circuits incorporated an RCD snubber (C = 12 nF) across the DCM.
switch, (only to contain the peak overshoot to within the de- The Tcum (terminal) sequence of five converters and transfer
vice voltage rating), which accounts for 1/3 W losses under the functions is circular cyclic and produce similar transfer func-
conditions for the 80-W boost and buck–boost converters in tions as the ten Sdiff topologies (with a fewer number of topolo-
Fig. 5. gies). Two bidirectional switches ensure all modes of operation,
Sdiff sequence: Fig. 6 shows the voltage transfer function duty reducing the number of different topologies from five to three.
cycle dependent characteristics for the ten topologies, while Two of the three topologies can use diode switch pairs and retain
Fig. 7 shows time domain simulations for the same ten Sdiff all operational modes and properties.
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5381

Fig. 7. Experimental open-loop results for ten differentially coupled inductor converters with n 2 = 2 ×n 1 .
5382 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 29, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2014

TABLE III
TOPOLOGY CONSTRAINTS AND SIMPLIFICATIONS

The Tdiff sequence of three converter topologies and transfer converters. That is, the concepts involved of successive flip
functions, is linearly cyclic, back tracking itself as with the and inverse operations, are applicable to all know topology se-
basic A sequence. Although a single switch and diode offers quences, viz., A, C, D, E, F, G, and P, which include the basic
normal operation, two switch diode pairs additionally afford three dc-to-dc converters and the Cuk, Sepic, Zeta, ±Luo, CSC,
CCM and reverse operation. A pair of bidirectional switches is etc., converters.
not necessary. The approach uses only one seeding converter topology (a
The Scum sequence of six converters and transfer functions buck–boost converter) and its readily derivable voltage transfer
is circular cyclic and produce the same transfer functions as the function to generate the unique topologies and transfer functions
three Tdiff topologies. Two switch diode pairs are sufficient to of up to ten viable converters in that family. The transfer function
ensure all modes of operation under all conditions. of a buck–boost seeding converter in all sequences can be readily
The ten Sdiff topologies also comply with the flip/inverse derived from an Amp-turns balance equation. The sequential
conversion rules. The Sdiff cycle is a figure eight shape with transfer function determination method only relies on a linear
two buck–boost topologies overlapping at the crossover. Bidi- operation (subtraction) and manipulation of reciprocals.
rectional switches halve the number of topologies, from ten Based on the classification methods generally accepted for
to five although three of the five can utilize two switch/diode dc-to-dc converters, the 11 previously known inductor tapped
pairs rather than bidirectional switches. The five reduced topolo- (cumulatively connected coupled windings) converters can be
gies produce the Tcum five transfer functions but with different grouped into two classification groups, viz., internally tap con-
topologies. nected (sequence Scum ) and external terminal tap connection
Both the Scum and Tdiff topologies have continuous transfer (sequence Tcum ), with six and five different topology mem-
functions that cater for the same transfer function operating bers, respectively. New sequences of three and ten topologies
range, related to the A sequence of transfer functions. But as and associated transfer functions, based on differentially con-
shown in Table III, six Scum topologies are require whereas nected coupled windings, were validated theoretically, in simu-
three Tdiff topologies suffice. Switch/diode pairs are sufficient lation, and experimentally. Further justification of the topology
to ensure CMM, reverse operation for the full duty cycle range, sequence grouping was provided by the fact that a common gen-
dual port operation. eral equation defines the continuous inductor current boundary
Similarly for the Sdiff and Tcum topologies. Five Tcum topolo- condition for a given sequencing group.
gies cover the same transfer function range as the ten Sdiff Circuit exploitation may be limited because some topologies
topologies, and are related to the G sequence of transfer func- have input and output currents that reverse during part of the op-
tions. In four cases, switch/diode pairs are insufficient to ensure erational cycle. Although input and/or output capacitive filtering
a full duty cycle range of operation, otherwise bidirectional mitigates the problem, circuit efficiency is reduced because of
switches are necessary, as indicated in Table III. the unnecessary transfer of energy back into the source and/or
extraction of output energy temporarily back into the canonical
X. CONCLUSION cell.
This paper has presented a generalized systematic unified A practical feature common to all coupled circuit dc-to-dc
approach to the generation and transfer function analysis of converters is nonunity coupling factor and leakage inductance,
not only inductor tapped dc-to-dc converters but the basic where the stored energy at switch (and diode) turn-OFF results
three dc-to-dc converters and other single-switch single-diode in semiconductor voltage stressing.
WILLIAMS: UNIFIED SYNTHESIS OF TAPPED-INDUCTOR DC-TO-DC CONVERTERS 5383

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Barry W. Williams received the M.Eng.Sc. degree
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from the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Aus-
[15] D. G. Lamar, M. Fernandez, M. Arias, M. M. Hernando, and J. Sebastián, tralia, in 1978, and the Ph.D. degree from the Cam-
“Tapped-Inductor buck HB-LED AC–DC driver operating in boundary
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For seven years, he was a Lecturer at Imperial Col-
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lege, University of London, London, U.K. In 1986, he
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was appointed as the Chair of Electrical Engineering
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at Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, U.K. He is cur-
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2013. U.K., where he is engaged in teaching power elec-
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tronics (in which he has a free internet text) and drive
filter-assisted soft-switching PWM DC-DC power converter with high
systems. His current research interests include power semiconductor modeling
frequency transformer link for automotive AC power supply,” in Proc.
and protection, converter topologies, soft-switching techniques, and application
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