1 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

Thanks to electronics, scientific discoveries were carried out that had immediate practical
application and vice versa, practical applications promoted scientific research to solve different
problems, which in turn opened new scientific horizons.
The scientific curiosity that man has had since time immemorial about the properties of electricity is
reviewed.
Scientific knowledge of electricity immediately gave rise to important technological applications.
These include the telegraph, with which man was able to communicate by electrical means, and
electrical machines, that is, electric motors and electricity generators. In this way, man had at his
disposal sources of high intensity electric current, a fact that drastically changed life, giving rise to a
revolution in the way of life of humanity, the consequences of which were electric lighting and the
telephone, among others. others.

Primitive men already assigned the divine quality to electrical storms, and if a person was struck by
lightning, they became a sacred individual, with powers, of course, if they survived.
Before moving on to see the use of electricity and its possibilities on a large scale, we will delve
into the different types of electricity.
Analog electricity.
Analog electronics is a part of electronics that studies systems in which their variables; voltage,
current,..., vary continuously over time, and can take on infinite values (theoretically at least). In
contrast, there is digital electronics where variables can only take discrete values, always having a
perfectly defined state.
Digital electronic.
Digital electronics is a part of electronics that is responsible for electronic systems in which the
information is encoded in only two states. Such states can be called & quot; true & quot; or & quot;
"false", or more commonly 1 and 0, referring to the fact that in a digital electronic circuit there are
two voltage levels.
It differs from analog electronics in that, for digital electronics, a voltage value encodes one of these
two states, while for analog electronics there are an infinite number of information states to encode
according to the voltage value.

Industrial electronics is called the branch of electrical engineering that manages to adapt and
transform electricity, with the purpose of powering other equipment, transporting energy,
controlling the operation of electrical machines, etc.
It refers to the application of electronic devices, mainly semiconductors, to the control and
transformation of electrical power. This includes both applications in control systems and electrical
supply to industrial consumption or even the interconnection of electrical power systems.
Electronic engineering deals with solid-state devices to control and convert energy.
Power electronics or industrial electronics can be defined as the application of solid-state
electronics for the conversion of electrical energy.
Industrial electronics are used in lighting controls, heating systems, power supplies, etc.
Power semiconductor devices are:
• Power Diodes
• Thyristors
• Bipolar junction power transistors
• Power field effect transistors
• Insulated gate bipolar transistors
• Static induction transistors

1.1 HISTORY

As towards the end of the 19th century, the microphone had already been invented, which
transforms an acoustic signal into an electrical one. On the other hand, the hearing aid had already
been invented, a device that transforms an electrical signal into an acoustic one. In this system the
voices were greatly distorted, the energy with which the wave was emitted was very small.
Furthermore, the fact that the fraction of energy that reached the receiver was very small, made it
difficult to operate over long distances. The most satisfactory solution was achieved once the
vacuum tube was invented.
Since the 18th century, some researchers had discovered that if a metal surface is heated, it emits
electrical charges. However, it was Thomas A. Edison who "unearthed" this effect again in 1883,
when trying to improve his incandescent lamp. This effect, which was called the "Edison effect", is
also called thermionic. It was Edison himself who invented a device in which the electric charge
emitted by the hot metal surface (called the cathode) is collected by another cold surface (called the
anode), thus achieving an electric current. Figure 1 shows how Edison built his device. Edison
enclosed the two electrodes, the anode and the cathode, inside a vacuum glass tube that he also used
to make his lighting lamps.
On the other hand, in 1897 the English physicist J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) discovered the
existence of an electrically charged particle, the electron. Thomson experimentally demonstrated
that the electron had a negative electrical charge. In 1906 Thomson received the Nobel Prize in
Physics for his discovery.
In 1899 J.J. Thomson established that the charges released when heating the metal surface were
electrons.
In 1903, the British physicist John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945) was the first to find a practical
application of the Edison effect. Fleming was a consultant for a telegraph company and had been
given the task of finding a better detector of electromagnetic waves. The company used a coherer as
a wave detector, which was not very effective. Starting in 1900, in some receiver designs, galena or
iron pyrite crystals were used as detectors, which were the first solid-state components used in
electronics. Fleming remembered his previous work on the Edison effect, and found a solution in
this type of electric lamp.
 The most important advance in the development of electronics was made by the American physicist
Lee de Forest (1873-1961), in 1906, when he introduced a third cross-linked electrode, called a
grid, into the vacuum tube, which allows the passage of electrons. This grid is placed between the
cathode and the anode, as seen in figure 2. De Forest called his device an audion, although it was
later called a triode. He had to work with different devices before getting the triode. The triode does
incorporate the signal and amplify its intensity.
From 1907 to 1912, De Forest worked on the design of a very rustic radio system, which he tried to
sell to radio amateurs and the armed forces. He also formed a company to compete with ATT in
long-distance communications. Its radio could transmit and receive voices, but it couldn't get its
triodes to amplify reliably.
By 1912 De Forest had achieved some control over the behavior of the triode. Reduced
amplification (anode battery voltage). This reduction was compensated by connecting several
triodes.
Thus he built an amplifier, De Forest proposed its sale to ATT. When De Forest demonstrated his
amplifier to the ATT in October 1912, the company's physicists, Harold D. Arnold, Frank Jewett
and Edwin Colpitts immediately realized that this system was what they were looking for.
Led by Arnold, the ATT began a research project to understand and master the physical principles
of triode operation so that it could be built effectively. Over the course of two years Arnold and a
group of 25 ATT researchers and assistants transformed the weak and not very reliable audion into
a very powerful and safe amplifier. The improved triode made it possible for telephone service to
extend from coast to coast to the United States.
Other companies made significant progress and vacuum tube electronics developed impressively
from 1912 to 1932.
During the First World War radio was widely used and vacuum tubes were built in large quantities.
They were used in 1915, in transatlantic radiotelephony, to communicate with France and the
United States.
In the early 1930s, vacuum tubes were built with more elements between the cathode and anode;
these were the tetrode, the pentode.
 Development of Radio.
A crucial element for the development of the radio was the oscillator. This circuit was invented in
1913 by the American physicist Edwin Howard Armstrong (1890-1954). It is a circuit based on a
triode, from whose output a part of the current is taken and fed back to the input of the triode,
forming a feedback circuit. The first public radio program was broadcast in England on February
23, 1920. This is how radio was born.
In 1933 Armstrong invented another type of radio signal emission: frequency modulated (FM).
FM transmission, introduced commercially in the United States in February 1941, compared to
amplitude modulated (AM), has the advantage that its transmissions are not altered by disturbances,
whether atmospheric or man-made, that affect the amplitude of the wave but not its frequency. The
so-called "static" phenomenon, which is a systematic noise heard in AM broadcasts, does not occur
in the FM system.
Radio as we know it today was the creation of three men: Lee de Forest, self-proclaimed "father of
radio", whose invention of the triode made possible the birth of modern electronics; Edwin Howard
Armstrong, inventor of the feedback circuit (and oscillator) as well as frequency modulation, which
form the basis of the transmission and reception of today's radio (and television) systems; finally,
David Sarnoff, who headed the Radio Corporation of America (RCA).
 Television Development.
About a century ago, several people began to consider the possibility of sending images by
electrical means (that is, what television does today). In 1884, the German Paul Nipkow applied for
a patent for a television system that he called an "electric telescope." This rustic device was an
electromechanical device that used a photocell to transform light into electric current. The image
did not reproduce fine details. Variations of this were designed until 1930 without really being
successful.
At a meeting of the Roentgen Society, held in England in 1911, the electrical engineer A. TO.
Campbell Swinton presented a diagram of a television system, which is the one in use today. The
scene to be transmitted would be focused on a plate made of non-electrically conductive material,
for example mica, which is inside a cathode ray tube. This tube was invented in the mid-19th
century by William Crookes to study the properties of electrical currents through gases. For the
receiver, Campbell Swinton chose a cathode ray tube designed in 1897 by Ferdinand Braun of the
University of Strasbourg, then part of Germany. This tube, called a kinescope, is made of vacuum
glass and has at its bottom a screen of fluorescent material, such as a phosphor, which emits light
when a beam of electrons falls on it.
As the electron beam sweeps across the surface of the screen, it illuminates point by point. This was
an idea by Campbell Swinton that almost describes current television technology.
Campbell Swinton created the conceptual design on which people would work. It was Vladimir
Zworykin (1889-1982), a Russian engineer who immigrated to the United States in 1919, who built
the first practical camera. In 1924 he showed the Westinghouse company a primitive version, but
one that worked. The images were faint and vague, almost shadows. Company officials were also
unimpressed when Zworykin showed them an improved version in 1929.
Who Zworykin did impress was David Sarnoff, director of another company, RCA Victor, who
believed in the commercial promise of television.
Zworykin was hired in 1930 by the RCA as director of electronic research and in 1933 he finally
convinced Sarnoff that his camera, which he called the iconoscope (from the Greek iekon, image,
and skopon, to see), and his kinescope were satisfactory. Campbell Swinton had proposed that they
be made of rubidium, but Zworykin discovered that it was better to cover silver with cesium oxide.
RCA first tested a complete system in 1933. It transmitted images of 240 lines over a distance of
seven kilometers in Colligswood, New Jersey. They increased the number of lines; currently 525
are used. In 1938 RCA had a functioning television system ready. Due to bureaucratic problems, the
government did not approve the operating license until July 1941. During the years of World War
II, scientists and engineers led by Zworykin developed a camera 100 times more sensitive than the
iconoscope. After the war, the RCA restarted its work in the field of television.
 Radar and the Battle of Britain.
Since the early 1980s, both Britain and France were continuing a major disarmament program that
they had begun the previous decade. Germany, contravening the provisions of the Treaty of
Versailles, began, with the advent of the Nazi regime, an extensive rearmament program. In a few
years, a very powerful weapon for its time was developed, aerial bombardment. Either each country
developed an aerial bomber corps, or general disarmament was carried out. Britain opted for the
latter, but not Germany.
In the 1930s the concept of the death ray was very popular: it could cause physical and mental
disability and even death. During this decade there were a good number of people who claimed to
have invented and built devices that produced different types of lightning. Analysis showed that
there was always some trick.
A small acoustic system was built, which would give a signal when it received the sounds produced
by the planes, it was not functional since it did not distinguish between the noise produced by the
attacker and other sounds, cars, animals.
H. AND. Wimperis, head of Scientific and Industrial Research at the Ministry, called Dr. Robert
Watson Watt, physicist and director of the Radio Research Laboratory, and asked him about the
prospect of developing a death ray. Watson Watt returned to his laboratory and proposed the
following to Dr. Arnold Wilkins, his physicist and assistant: calculate the amount of radio
frequency power necessary to raise the temperature of 4 liters of water from 35.5º C to 41ºC at a
distance of 5 km and a height of 1 kilometer. His calculation showed that enormous power needed
to be generated; it was clear that a death ray via radio was not feasible.
Wilkins told Watson that Post Office engineers had noticed disturbances in the reception of very
high frequencies when aircraft flew in the vicinity of their receivers. This observation (January
1935) gave rise to the beginning of a series of events that culminated in the invention of radar.
The experimental verification began, which was entrusted to Wilkins, who with his rudimentary
equipment was able to detect and give the trajectory that an airplane had followed.
The first aspects they resolved was the visual presentation of the information received, they used a
cathode ray tube.
Many modifications were made to it so that it could detect both the distance at which a plane was,
but also its height. Most of the system was complete by September 1938, when the Munich crisis
occurred.
Electronic devices were installed on English planes that, upon receiving the wave sent from the
ground, would in turn emit a special signal that identified them as friends.
In August 1939, three weeks before the start of World War II, Britain had an aircraft detection
system. With the help of radar, the British could detect the departure of German planes from their
bases located in conquered countries, such as France and Belgium.

1.2 SWITCHING DEVICES

A switch is an electrical or electronic device that allows you to modify the path that electrons must
follow. Manual ones are typical, such as those used in homes and in electrical devices, and those
that have some electrical or electronic components such as relays. They resemble switches in their
external form, but switches disconnect one circuit and connect another. The most common types of
switches are described below.
Alternative switch
Also called hotel or two-way switch without neutral point. They are used whenever a device has to
be activated or deactivated from two different places, such as a lamp. In homes it is typical to find
them in living rooms or hallways.
crossover switch

Application example: light point switched from three different points.

Also known as an inverter switch, this element is never installed isolated; it must always be
accompanied by alternative switches. For example, they are used to turn a lamp on or off from three
different points, for which two alternative switches and a crossover switch are used as shown in the
figure. If the number of on/off points is greater than three, as many crossover switches as there are
points will be interspersed, always between two alternative switches.
Triac:
The Triac can be considered as the integration of 2 SCR's in inverted parallel.
The electrical symbol of the TRIAC, as well as its current voltage characteristics, are shown in the
figure. When terminal T1 is positive with respect to terminal T2, and the device is triggered by a
positive current in the “gate” terminal (+ig), it turns on. Similarly, when terminal T2 is positive with
respect to terminal T1 and the device is triggered by a negative current in the gate terminal, the
device also turns on.
It is a symmetrical component in terms of conduction and blocking state, since the characteristic in
quadrant I of the UT2-T1 -T2 curve is equal to that of quadrant III. It has blocking leakage and a
conduction voltage drop practically equal to that of a thyristor and the fact that it enters conduction,
if the breakdown voltage is exceeded in any direction, makes it immune to destruction due to
overvoltage.
The mode of operation of the Triac is described below:
The TRIAC can be triggered in any of the two quadrants I and III by applying a positive or negative
impulse between the gate terminals and T1. This makes it very easy to use and greatly simplifies the
firing circuit. Below you will see the internal phenomena that take place in the four possible
shooting modes.
Mode I+: Terminal T2 positive with respect to T1.
Incoming door intensity.
The P1N1P2N2 layers function as a thyristor with a short-circuited emitter, since the metallization
of the cathode terminal partially shorts the emitter layer N2 with the P2.
The gate current flows internally to T1, partly through junction P2N2 and partly through region P2.
The natural injection of electrons from N2 to P2 occurs, which is favored in the area close to the
gate by the voltage drop produced in P2 by the lateral circulation of gate current. Part of the injected
electrons reach the P2N1 junction by diffusion, which blocks the external potential, and are
accelerated by it, initiating conduction.
Mode I -: Terminal T2 positive with respect to T1.
Outgoing door intensity.
Firing is similar to that of junction gate thyristors. Initially it drives the auxiliary structure
P1N1P2N3 and then the main one.
The firing of the first occurs like a normal thyristor actuated T1 for gate and P for cathode. The
entire auxiliary structure is put at the positive voltage of T2 and strongly polarizes the P2N2
junction which injects electrons into the positive potential area. The P2N1 junction of the main
structure that supports the external tension is invaded by electrons in the vicinity of the auxiliary
structure, entering into conduction.
Mode III +: Terminal T2 negative with respect to T1.
Incoming door intensity.
The triggering takes place by the so-called remote door procedure. The P2N1P1N4 structure comes
into conduction.
 The injection of electrons from N2 to P2 is the same as that described in the I+ mode. Those that
reach the P2N1 junction by diffusion are absorbed by their binding potential, becoming more
conductive. The positive gate potential polarizes the area of the P2N1 junction next to it more
positively than the one next to T1, causing an injection of holes from P2 to N1 that partially reaches
the N1P1 junction responsible for blocking the external voltage and the entry occurs. in driving.
Mode III -: Terminal T2 negative with respect to T1.
Outgoing door intensity.
It is also triggered by the remote gate procedure, driving the P2N1P1N4 layers.
The N3 layer injects electrons into P2 that make the P2N1 junction more conductive. The positive
T1 voltage polarizes the area proximal to the P2N1 junction more positively than that proximal to
the gate. This polarization injects holes from P2 to N1 that partially reach the N1P1 junction and
make it switch to conduction.
The four shooting modes described have different sensitivity. Modes I + and III - being the most
sensitive, followed closely by I -. Mode III+ is the most difficult shot and should be avoided if
possible.

The Triac is frequently used in many low power applications such as juice extractors, mixers and
vacuum cleaners. It is economical and easy to control compared to 2 SCRs connected in anti-
parallel. However, the Triac has a low dv/dt capability and a long shutdown time. Its use at high
voltage and current levels is not recommended.
Diac:
Two-terminal semiconductor device with a structure similar to that of the transistor that has a
certain type of bistable conductivity in both directions. When the voltages present at its terminals
are high enough, it is mainly used together with triacs for in-phase control of the circuits.
It is a type of thyristor that can conduct in both directions. It is a two-terminal device that basically
works like two Shockley diodes conducting in opposite directions.
The operating curve clearly reflects the behavior of the diac, which functions as a Shockley diode in
both forward and reverse bias.
Whatever the polarization of the device, for conduction to cease, the current must be reduced below
the holding current IH. The left and right parts of the curve, despite having an analogous shape, do
not have to be symmetrical.

GTO (Gate Turn-off Thyristor)

A GTO thyristor can be turned on by a single positive current pulse at the gate terminal (as in the
thyristor), but can instead be turned off by a negative current pulse at the gate terminal. Both the on
state and the off state of the device are controlled by the current in the gate terminal.
The symbol for the most frequently used GTO thyristor, as well as its switching characteristics, are
shown in the figure.
The ignition process is similar to that of the thyristor. The shutdown features are a little different.
When a negative voltage is applied across the gate and cathode terminals, the current in the gate (ig)
increases. When the current in the gate reaches its maximum IGR value, the anode current begins to
fall and the voltage across the device (VAK) begins to grow. The anode current (IA) decay time is
abrupt, typically less than 1 s. After this, the anode current varies slowly and this portion of the
anode current is known as tail current.
The ratio (IA/IGR) of the anode current IA to the maximum negative gate current (IGR) required
for the voltage is low, commonly between 3 and 5. For example, for a voltage of 2500 V and a
current of 1000 A, a GTO typically requires a negative peak gate current of 250 A for shutdown.

The structure of the GTO is essentially the same as a conventional thyristor. As shown in the figure,
there are 4 layers of silicone (pnpn), 3 junctions and three terminals (anode, cathode and gate). The
difference in operation lies in the fact that a negative signal at the gate can turn off the GTO.
While the GTO is off and there is no signal at the gate, the device is blocked for any polarity at the
anode, but an IA leak exists. With a forward bias voltage the GTO is blocked until a breakdown
voltage VAK = VB0 is reached. At this point there is a dynamic ignition process, VAK = 3V and
the current IA is determined by the load. When the GTO is turned off and with the application of a
reverse voltage, only a small leakage current (IA leak) exists. A reverse bias VAK can be achieved
when a cut occurs. The voltage value of the reverse breakdown voltage depends on the
manufacturing method for creating an internal regeneration to facilitate the shutdown process.
With a forward bias voltage applied to the anode and a positive current pulse applied to the gate, the
GTO turns on and stays that way. For this condition, there are 2 ways to turn it off. One way is to
reduce the anode current IA by external means to a value less than the holding current Ih, at which
the internal regenerative action is not effective. The second way to turn it off is by means of a pulse
on the gate, and this is the most recommended method because it provides better control.
As the GTO has a unidirectional current conduction, and can be turned off at any time, it is applied
in chopper circuits (dc-dc conversions) and inverter circuits (dc-ac conversions) at power levels in
which the MOSFET's, TBJ's and IGBT's cannot be used. At low power levels fast switching
semiconductors are preferable. In AC - DC conversion, GTO's are useful because the switching
strategies they have can be used to regulate power, such as power factor.
IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)
The IGBT is a hybrid power semiconductor device that combines the attributes of the TBJ and the
MOSFET. It has a MOSFET type gate and therefore has a high input impedance. The gate handles
voltage like the MOSFET. The most commonly used symbol is shown in the figure. Like the power
MOSFET, the IGBT does not exhibit the secondary breakdown phenomenon like the TBJ.
The structure of the IGBT is similar to an n-channel MOSFET, a portion of the structure is the
combination of n+, p and n- regions that form the MOSFET between the source S and gate G with
the n- flux region which is the MOSFET drain D. Another part is the combination of 3 layers p+ n-
p, which creates a bipolar junction transistor between drain D and source. The p region acts as the
collector C, the n- region acts as the base B and the p+ region acts as the emitter E of a pnp
transistor. Between the drain and the source there are 4 p+n-pn+ layers that form a thyristor. This
thyristor is parasitic and its effect is minimized by the IGBT manufacturer.

Let's consider that the IBGT is initially blocked. This means that there is no voltage applied to the
gate. If a voltage VGS is applied to the gate, the IGBT turns on immediately, current ID is
conducted and the voltage VDS goes from the blocking value to zero. The current ID persists for
the time tON in which the signal at the gate is applied. To turn on the IGBT, the drain D terminal
must be biased positively with respect to the S terminal. The turn-on signal is a positive voltage VG
that is applied to gate G. This voltage, if applied as a pulse of approximate magnitude 15, can cause
the ignition timing to
MCT (MOS- Controlled Thyristor)
The MCT is another hybrid power semiconductor device that combines the attributes of the
MOSFET and the thyristor. It was recently made available on the market. The symbol of this device
is shown in the figure. It is made up of 2 MOSFETs, one of them turns on the thyristor and the other
turns it off.

There are various types of structures, but they all coincide; there is a pnpn thyristor that determines
the conduction (and blocking) properties. Also, all MCT's have two integrated MOS devices to
control the switching properties.
Between the anode A and the cathode K there is a pnpn structure that, as already mentioned, forms
the thyristor structure of the MCT. The gate - anode region is made up of more than 105 cells. This
large number of cells provides short surfaces with long cross sections for rapid and uniform current
switching. Within the anode - gate region there are two MOSFETs. One of them is a p-channel, pnp
type that is used for power-on and the other is an n-channel, npn-type that is used for power-off.
There are other p-pn+ regions that produce the switching on and off of the MCT.
The structure described here is very general and does not show that only 4 percent of the cells in the
MOSFET are used for ignition.

In its operation, if the cathode K is positive with respect to the anode, regardless of the polarization
of the gate, the MCT will drop to a very low voltage, this situation must be avoided.
If anode A is positive with respect to cathode K, and there is no gate voltage, the MCT remains in
the off state until a breakdown voltage is reached when a breakdown avalanche occurs. In practice a
small leakage current IA leak exists in the blocking state until breakdown occurs and the device
turns on.
If the anode is positive with respect to the cathode and a negative voltage is applied to the gate, the
MCT turns on. The VMCT voltage drop (ON) is very small and varies from 0. 7 V at no load to 1.1
V at full load. The anode current is limited only by the value of the load impedance.
If the MCT is on, applying a positive gate voltage returns the device to the off state until a negative
gate voltage is applied.

1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

 Advantages of the FET

1) They are voltage controlled devices with a very high input impedance (10 7 to 10 12 ohms).
2) FETs generate a lower noise level than BJTs .
3) FETs are more temperature stable than BJTs .
4) FETs are easier to manufacture than BJTs as they require fewer steps and allow more devices
to be integrated into an IC.
5) FETs behave as voltage-controlled resistors for small values of drain-source voltage.
6) The high input impedance of FETs allows them to retain charge long enough to allow their use
as storage elements.
7) Power FETs can dissipate higher power and switch large currents.

Disadvantages that limit the use of FETs

1) FETs have a poor frequency response due to the high input capacitance.
2) FETs have very poor linearity, and are generally less linear than BJTs.
3) FETs can be damaged due to static electricity .
In this section, the characteristics of both devices, mainly aimed at their analog applications, will
be briefly studied.

HUB is the electronic component that allows a physical link in star networks.
Advantages

 If a PC is disconnected or the cable breaks, only that PC is left out of the network.
 Easy to add, reconfigure PC architecture.
 Easy to prevent damage or conflict.
 Network centralization
It doesn't work out how to create a network in star
Disadvantages

 If the central node fails, the entire network stops transmitting.

 It is expensive, since it requires more cable than bus or ring topologies.
 The cable travels separately from the hub to each computer.

1.4 TERMINOLOGY

 ADSL: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

 ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode
 ATU: ADSL termination Unit
 CHA: Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol
 CO: Central Office
 DHCP:DynamicHostConfigurationProtocol
 DNS: Domain Name Service
 DSL: Digital Subscriber Line
 DSLAM: Digital Subscriber Line Access MultiPlexer
 Firmware: Software, in binary form, stored within an EEPROM or flash
 ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
 IPC IP: IP Control Protocol
 ISP: Internet Service Provider
 LCP: Link Control Protocol
 NAP: Network Access Provider
 NAPT: Network Address Port Translation
 NCP: Network-layer Control Protocol
 NSP: Network Service Provider
 OCD: Out of cell Delineation (ATM error condition)
 PAP: Password Authentication Protocol
 POST: Power On Self Test
 PPP: Point to Point Protocol
 PTT: Post telephone and telegraph (European Telco)
 PVC: Permanent Virtual Circuit
 SMTP: Simple Mail Transport Protocol
 SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
 RIP: Routing information Protocol
 RT: Remote Termination

II UNIT

2 INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS DEVICES

For these applications, a number of power semiconductor devices have been developed, all of which
are derived from the diode or transistor. Among these are the following:
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Triac
 IGBT Transistor
 GTO thyristor
 IGCT thyristor
 MCT
Electrical Energy Converters
Power conversion is the process of converting one form of energy into another, this may include
electromechanical or electrochemical processes.
These devices are used in equipment called static power converters, classified as:
-Rectifiers: convert alternating current into direct current
-Inverters: convert direct current into alternating current
-Cycloconverters: convert alternating current into alternating current
-Choppers: convert direct current into direct current
Currently this discipline is gaining more and more importance mainly due to the high efficiency of
electronic converters compared to traditional methods, and their greater versatility. An essential step
for this revolution to occur was the development of devices capable of handling the high powers
necessary for electrical distribution tasks or the management of powerful motors.
Applications
The main applications of electronic power converters are the following:
-Power supplies: Nowadays, a subtype of electronic power supplies, called switching power
supplies, have gained great importance. These sources are characterized by their high performance
and reduction in the necessary volume. The clearest example of application is found in the power
supply of computers.
-Control of electric motors: The use of electronic converters allows controlling parameters such as
position, speed or torque supplied by a motor. This type of control is currently used in air
conditioning systems. This technique, commercially called "inverter", replaces the old on/off
control with speed regulation that saves energy. Likewise, it has been widely used in railway
traction, mainly in vehicles suitable for direct current (DC) during the decades of the 70s and 80s,
since it allows adjusting the energy consumption to the real needs of the traction motor, as opposed
to the consumption of vehicles controlled by starting and braking resistors. Currently, the chopper
system is still valid, but it is no longer used in the manufacture of new vehicles, since equipment
based on the three-phase motor is currently used, much more powerful and reliable than the
collector motor.
-Induction heating: It consists of heating a conductive material through the field generated by an
inductor. The inductor is powered at a high frequency, generally in the kHz range, so electronic
frequency converters are necessary. The most attractive application is found in current induction
cookers.
-Others: As mentioned above, there are countless applications of power electronics. In addition to
those already mentioned, the following stand out: uninterruptible power supply systems, power
factor control systems, electronic ballasts for high-frequency lighting, interface between renewable
energy sources and the electrical grid, etc.
-Current lines of research seek the integration of power and control devices on a single chip,
reducing costs and multiplying their potential applications. However, there are difficulties to
overcome, such as the isolation between areas working at high voltages and control circuitry, as
well as the dissipation of lost power.

2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF FOUR-LAYER DEVICES

1THE SHOCKLEY DIODE

The Shockley diode is a thyristor with two terminals: anode and cathode. It is made up of four
semiconductor layers that form a pnpn structure. It acts like a switch: it is open until the applied
forward voltage reaches a certain value, then it closes and allows conduction. Conduction continues
until the current is reduced below a specific value (IH ) .
 Figure: Basic construction and symbol of the Shockley diode

2 SCR (SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER)

The SCR is a four-layer device very similar to the Shockley diode, with the difference of having
three terminals: anode, cathode and gate. Like the Shockley diode, it has two operating states: open
and closed, as if it were a switch.

Figure: Basic construction and symbol of the SCR

3 GCS (GATE CONTROLLED SWITCH)

This device is similar to the SCR, with the difference that the GCS can interrupt the flow of current
with a signal at the gate terminal.

Like the SCR, it will not allow current to flow until a positive pulse is received at the gate terminal.
The difference is that the GCS can go into the cut-off state using a negative pulse 10 or 20 times
greater than the positive pulse applied to enter conduction.

Figure: GCS symbol

4 SCS (SILICON CONTROLLED SWITCH)

It is similar in construction to the SCR. The difference is that it has two gate terminals, one to enter
conduction and the other to cut off. The SCS is usually used in lower power ranges than the SCR.
 Figure: SCS symbol

5 THE DIAC

It is a type of thyristor that can conduct in both directions. It is a two-terminal device that basically
works like two Shockley diodes conducting in opposite directions.

Figure: Basic construction and symbol of the diac

6 THE TRIAC

This device is similar to the DIAC but with a single gate terminal. It can be triggered by a gate
current pulse and does not require reaching the voltage V BO like the diac.

Figure: Basic construction and symbol of the TRIAC.

 2.2 ANALYSIS OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS WITH DIODES AND
TRANSISTORS

ZENER DIODES
The current in the Zener region has a direction opposite to that of a forward biased diode.
The Zener diode is a diode that has been designed to work in the Zener region.
According to the definition, it can be said that the Zener diode has been designed to work with
negative voltages (with respect to itself).
It is important to mention that the Zener region (in a Zener diode) is controlled or manipulated
by varying the doping levels. An increase in the number of added impurities decreases the
potential or Zener voltage VZ .
Thus, Zener diodes are obtained with Zener potentials or voltages from -1.8 V to -200 V and
powers from 1/4 to 50 W.
The Zener diode can be seen as a device which, when it has reached its VZ potential, behaves
like a short. It is a "switch" or switch that is activated with VZ volts. It is applied in voltage
regulators or in sources.

In the circuit shown, we want to protect the load against overvoltages, the maximum voltage
that the load can withstand is 4.8 volts. If a Zener diode is chosen whose VZ is 4.8 volts, then it
will activate when the voltage at the load is 4.8 volts, protecting it in this way.

THE LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The LED is a diode that produces visible (or invisible, infrared) light when polarized.
The bias voltage of an LED varies from 1.8 V to 2.5 V, and the current necessary for it to emit
light ranges from 8 mA to 20 mA.
Operating principle:
At any forward-biased PN junction, within the structure and mainly near the junction, a
recombination of holes and electrons occurs (with the passage of current). This recombination
requires that the energy possessed by an unbound free electron be transferred to another
state. In all PN junctions, part of this energy is converted into heat and the same into photons.
In Si and Ge the largest percentage is transformed into heat and the light emitted is
insignificant. For this reason, other types of materials are used to manufacture LEDs, such as
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) or Gallium Phosphide (GaP).
 Other diodes are:
 Schottky Diodes (Barrier Diodes).
 Varactor or Varicap diodes.
 Tunnel diodes.
 Photodiodes.
 Infrared light emitting diodes.
 Injection laser diode (ILD).
Light-emitting diodes can be found in colors: green, red, yellow, amber, blue, and a few others.
At this point in the course it is worth taking into account the following comments:
- How valid is it to use approximations?
- How accurate can a calculation and/or measurement made in the laboratory be?
It must be taken into account that the characteristics obtained from the specification sheets
may be different for diodes (e.g. and. 1N4001) even if both were produced in the same batch.
You also have to take into account other types of tolerances such as resistors, one marked
100ð may actually be 98ð or 102ð or perhaps not exact, and a source "set" to 10V may
actually be set to 9.9V or 10.1 V or maybe 10V.
1.6 DC behavior of a diode.
 ANALYSIS BY LOAD STRAIGHT
The load or load resistance ( RL or R ) applied to a circuit will have a major effect on the
operating point region of a device (in this case the diode).

If Kirchoff's voltage law is applied:

V - VD - VL = 0
V = VD + IDRL
If an analysis is carried out on this mesh, in such a way that a straight line can be drawn on the
characteristic curve of the diode, then the intersection of these will represent the operating
point of the network or Q point.

Note that the load line is determined at its ends by RL and V , in such a way that it represents
the characteristics of the network. If the value of V or RL or both is changed, then the load line
will also change.
The ends of the load line are obtained by finding the intersections with the axes ( ID = 0 and
then VD = 0):
If VD = 0:

V = IDRL or ID = V / RL
If ID = 0:

V = VD or VD = V
As shown above, a straight line drawn between these two points defines the loading line.
It is also very valid to use for the diode, instead of the real curve, the curve of the simplified
model . In this case, the Q point will not change or will change very little.

If instead of the simplified model the ideal diode model were used, then the Q point would
change a lot.
 2.3 Description and operating characteristics of Thyristors : SCR, TRIAC,
DIAC, GTO, IGBT'S

SCR
This element was developed by General Electric engineers in the 1960s . Although a more remote
origin of this device is found in the SCR created by William Shockley (Nobel Prize winner in physics
in 1956) in 1950, which was defended and developed at Bell Laboratories in 1956. Gordon Hall led
the development at Morgan Stanley to Its subsequent commercialization by Frank W. "Bill"
Gutzwiller, General Electric.
FUNCTIONING

The thyristor is a bistable switch, that is, it is the electronic equivalent of mechanical switches;
Therefore, it is capable of fully allowing or completely blocking the passage of current without
having any intermediate level, although they are not capable of withstanding large current
overloads. This basic principle can also be observed in the Shockley diode.

The design of the thyristor allows it to quickly turn on when receiving a momentary pulse of current
at its control terminal, called gate (or in English, gate ) when there is a positive voltage between
anode and cathode, that is, the voltage at the anode. is greater than at the cathode. It can only be
turned off by interrupting the voltage source, opening the circuit, or passing a current in reverse
through the device. If it is reverse polarized in the thyristor, there will be a weak reverse leakage
current until the point of maximum reverse voltage is reached, causing the destruction of the
element (due to avalanche at the junction).

For the device to go from the locked state to the active state, a positive latching current must be
generated at the anode, and in addition there must be a small current in the gate capable of causing
an avalanche breakdown at junction J2 to make the device drive. For the device to remain in the
active state, a sustaining current must be induced from the anode, much lower than the turn-on
current, without which the device would stop conducting.

TRIAC

A TRIAC or Triode for Alternating Current is a semiconductor device, from the thyristor family. The
difference with a conventional thyristor is that it is unidirectional and the TRIAC is bidirectional.
Colloquially, it could be said that the TRIAC is a switch capable of switching alternating current.

Its internal structure somewhat resembles the arrangement that two SCRs would form in opposite
directions.

It has three electrodes: A1, A2 (in this case they lose the designation of anode and cathode) and
gate. The TRIAC is triggered by applying a current to the gate electrode.

APPLICATIONS

 Its versatility makes it ideal for controlling alternating currents.

 One of them is its use as a static switch, offering many advantages over conventional
mechanical switches and relays.
 It works as an electronic switch and also on battery.
 Low power TRIACs are used in many applications such as light dimmers, speed controls for
electric motors, and in the computer control systems of many household items. However, when
used with inductive loads such as electric motors, precautions must be taken to ensure that the
TRIAC is properly turned off at the end of each half cycle of the AC wave.
Due to its poor stability, its use is currently very limited.

DIAC
DIACs are a type of thyristor, and are typically used to trigger triacs, another type of thyristor.

It is a semiconductor device with two terminals, called anode and cathode. It acts as a bidirectional
switch which is activated when the voltage between its terminals reaches the breakdown voltage,
said voltage can be between 20 and 36 volts depending on the reference.
Three-layer DIAC

There are two types of DIAC:

 Three-layer DIAC: It is similar to a bipolar transistor with no base connection and with the
collector and emitter regions equal and heavily doped. The device remains locked until the
avalanche voltage is reached at the collector junction. This injects current into the base which
turns the transistor conductive, producing a regenerative effect. Being a symmetrical device, it
works the same in both polarities, the emitter and collector exchanging their functions.
 Four-layer DIAC. It consists of two Shockley diodes connected in antiparallel, which gives it the
bidirectional characteristic.

GTO

A GTO Thyristor or simply GTO ( Gate Turn-Off Thyristor ) is a power electronic device that can be
turned on by a single pulse of positive current at the gate (G) terminal, just like the normal thyristor;
but it can instead be turned off by applying a negative current pulse to the same terminal. Both
states, both the on state and the off state, are controlled by the current in the gate (G).

The ignition process is similar to that of the thyristor. The shutdown features are a little different.
When a negative voltage is applied across the gate (G) and cathode (C or K) terminals, the current
in the gate (ig) increases. When the gate current (G) reaches its maximum value, IGR, the anode
current begins to fall and the voltage across the device (VAK) begins to grow. The anode current
(IA) decay time is abrupt, typically less than 1 us. After this, the anode current varies slowly and this
portion of the anode current is known as tail current.

The ratio (IA/IGR) of the anode current IA to the maximum negative gate current (IGR) required for
the voltage is low, commonly between 3 and 5. For example, for a voltage of 2500 V and a current
of 1000 A, a GTO typically requires a peak negative gate current of 250 A for shutdown.

STRUCTURE AND OPERATION

The structure of the GTO is essentially the same as a conventional thyristor. There are 4 silicon
layers (PNPN), 3 junctions (PN, NP and PN) and three terminals: anode (A), cathode (C or K) and
gate (G). The difference in operation is that a negative signal at gate (G) can turn off the GTO. As
long as the GTO is off and there is no signal at the gate, the device is blocked for any anode
polarity, but an IA leak exists. With a forward bias voltage the GTO is blocked until a breakdown
voltage VAK = VB0 is reached. At this point there is a dynamic ignition process, VAK = 3V and the
current IA is determined by the load. When the GTO is turned off and with the application of a
reverse voltage, only a small leakage current (IA leak) exists. A reverse bias VAK can be achieved
when a cut occurs. The voltage value of the reverse breakdown voltage depends on the
manufacturing method for creating an internal regeneration to facilitate the shutdown process. With
a forward bias voltage applied to the anode and a positive current pulse applied to the G gate, the
GTO turns on and stays that way. For this condition, there are 2 ways to turn it off. One way is to
reduce the anode current IA by external means to a value less than the holding current Ih, at which
the internal regenerative action is not effective. The second way to turn it off is by means of a pulse
on the gate, and this is the most recommended method because it provides better control. As the
GTO has a unidirectional current conduction, and can be turned off at any time, it is applied in
chopper circuits (dc-dc conversions) and inverter circuits (dc-ac conversions) at power levels in
which the MOSFET's, TBJ's and IGBT's cannot be used. At low power levels fast switching
semiconductors are preferable. In AC - DC conversion, GTO's are useful because the switching
strategies they have can be used to regulate power, such as power factor.

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a semiconductor device that is generally applied as a
controlled switch in power electronics circuits.

This device possesses the gate signal characteristics of field effect transistors with the high current
and low saturation voltage capability of the bipolar transistor, combining an isolated FET gate for
the control input and a bipolar transistor as a switch into one. device. The driving circuit of the IGBT
is like that of the MOSFET, while the driving characteristics are like that of the BJT.

IGBT transistors have allowed developments that had not been viable until then, particularly in
frequency converters as well as in applications in electrical machines and power converters that
accompany us every day and everywhere, without us being particularly aware of it. : car, train,
subway, bus, plane, boat, elevator, appliance, television, home automation, Uninterruptible Power
Supply or UPS (UPS), etc.

CHARACTERISTIC

The IGBT is suitable for switching speeds up to 20 kHz and has replaced the BJT in many
applications. It is used in high and medium energy applications as a switching power supply,
traction control in motors and induction cookers. Large IGBT modules consist of many devices
placed in parallel that can handle high currents on the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking
voltages of 6,000 volts.

The IGBT can be thought of as a hybrid Darlington transistor. It has the current handling capacity of
a bipolar but does not require base current to remain conductive. However the base switching
transient currents can be equally high. In power electronics applications it is intermediate between
thyristors and mosfets. It handles more power than the latter, being slower than them and the
opposite with respect to the former.
 Equivalent circuit of an IGBT.

This is a device for switching in high voltage systems. The gate control voltage is about 15 V. This
offers the advantage of controlling power systems by applying a very weak input electrical signal at
the gate.