Materials Manual - Oct 2014

MATERIALS
MANUAL
1ST EDITION
OCTOBER 2014
This document has been prepared for the Roads Authority of Namibia for the exclusive use of the Roads Authority and
Consultants employed by the Roads Authority.
Published by the Roads Authority
The Chief Executive Officer

Private Bag 12030
Windhoek
Namibia
www.ra.org.na
First Edition October 2014
Copyright
Copyright of this manual vests in the Roads Authority of Namibia and its successors in title, where relevant. In terms of the
Copyright Act, no part of this manual may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, scanning or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing by the publisher. Fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study, or criticism or review as
permitted under the Copyright Act, as well as such copying as is necessary to comply with the requirements of this manual
are however permitted.
PREAMBLE SUMMARY OF CONTENTS
PREAMBLE
Summary of Contents
Preamble
1 Introduction
2 Standard specifications and other documents
3 Materials in road pavements
4 Materials investigation for roadworks
5 Structural design of pavements
6 Materials Standards
7 Materials design guidelines
8 Laboratory procedures
9 Control
MATERIALS MANUAL I
PREFACE PREAMBLE
Preface
The Roads Authority of Namibia is a statutory body established in terms of the Roads Authority Act, Act 17 of 1999.
Section 3 of the Act sets out the object of the Authority as follows:
“Subject to this Act and the Road Fund Administration Act, the object of the Authority is to manage the national roads
network in accordance with section 16 with a view to obtaining a safe and efficient road sector.”
It is important to understand that “efficient” includes economic and financial efficiency as well as the common
understanding of the word.
Key clauses of the Roads Authority Act that are of particular relevance to operational issues are Section 15 wherein the
Roads Authority’s functions are set out; and Section 16, which elaborates on one of these functions that being the
management of the national road network including inter alia:
 The planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads;

 The quality control of materials required for the construction and maintenance of roads;
 The supervision of work contracted out; and
 The prescribing of minimum standards to achieve a safe road system and cause the least possible disruption to the
environment.
These four aspects of the Roads Authority’s mandate are complex and wide ranging. In order to assist it to comply with
these obligations, the Roads Authority commissioned a suite of manuals applicable to road work and related matters. It
consists of the following interlinked units:
Procedures Manual
Economic
Construction Drainage Environmental
Evaluation
Manual Manual Manual
Manual
Geometrics Materials Structures Survey

Manual Manual Manual Manual
The Geometrics Manual is supported by the Standard Drawings and the Traffic Signs Policy.
Additional manuals, such as a Maintenance Manual, may in future be required.
The Procedures Manual

The Procedures Manual is the controlling document of the suite of manuals depicted above. It describes the duties and
responsibilities of consultants contracted to the Roads Authority for the preparation of designs, tenders for, and supervision
of construction of roads by contract. It is also relevant to other projects such as feasibility studies and other investigations
and studies carried out on behalf of the Roads Authority. In short, it is relevant to all projects carried out by external service
providers for the Roads Authority.
Roads Authority personnel carrying out similar functions are also subject to the requirements of the Procedures Manual.
II MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE THE MANUALS IN GENERAL
The manuals in general

The purpose of the suite of manuals is three‐fold:
 To provide a basis for the attainment of uniformity of action of all persons carrying out design and related work for
the Roads Authority, whether these be in‐house personnel or external consultants;
 To promote the attainment of uniformity between in‐house personnel and external consultants in the handling of
construction projects.
 To set out the minimum standards and requirements of the Roads Authority, either directly in a specific manual or
through its linkages with the other manuals in the suite.
These manuals are to be seen as books of reference and instructions to be used in the planning, design and administration
of projects.
Both relevant in‐house personnel and all consultants are therefore expected to make themselves thoroughly familiar with
the contents of the Procedures Manual and such other manuals as may be relevant to a project, so that each project can
pass through the different stages of planning, design, tendering and construction satisfactorily and that the submission of
reports, records, drawings, documents, etc. is according to requirements.
Consultants must supply copies of relevant manuals to each designer and Engineer’s Representative employed on
construction contracts for the Roads Authority, which latter copies shall be kept at each Site Office.
Should any portion of this manual appear to be contradictory, either internally or in relation to any other manual; or
insufficiently detailed, the Project Control Engineer must be contacted for a ruling.
Constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement of any of the manuals would be appreciated and should be
addressed to:
The Chief Executive Officer, Roads Authority, Private Bag 12030, Windhoek, Namibia
with a copy to the Project Control Engineer.
Access to the manuals

The manuals can be downloaded from the RA website at: www.ra.org.na The RA will only upload the current amendment of
the manuals on the site. It however remains the responsibility of the Consulting Engineer, upon his appointment, to confirm
with the Project Control Engineer that the manuals on the website are the versions required for his specific appointment.
MATERIALS MANUAL III

DEFINITIONS PREAMBLE
Definitions
The following definitions are relevant to all manuals:
Agreement is the completed Agreement between the Roads Authority and the Consulting Engineer. Such
Agreements may have different titles, depending on the source of funding.
Chief Executive Officer is the person appointed under Section 14 of the Roads Authority Act to serve as Chief
Executive Officer of the Roads Authority.
Date of Agreement is the date on which it was signed by the last person signing.
Engineer is the Consulting Engineer appointed by the Roads Authority to prepare a project or contract
documents, or to supervise the execution of a contract.
Ministry The Ministry of Works and Transport of the Government of Namibia
Permanent Secretary is the official appointed to the post of Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Works and
Transport
Project Control Engineer is the official appointed by the Chief Executive Officer to coordinate the execution of a specific
project and to act as a link between the RA and the Consulting Engineer.
Roads Authority is the Roads Authority constituted in terms of the Roads Authority Act, Act 17 of 1999
Guidelines for users of the manuals

The following icons are used throughout this edition of the Manuals:
CAUTION – This icon, usually accompanied by highlighted text, indicates that the user must be aware and
use caution when following certain procedures or deviating from standard design methods.
YIELD – This icon indicates that the Roads Authority must be informed of an issue. This might be a deviation
from the Terms of Reference; a deviation from design standards; or the achievement of milestones. Work
may however continue.
STOP – Unlike for the yield icon, the stop icon indicates that the Roads Authority’s written approval must be
obtained before commencing with any further design or other tasks related to the issue for which approval
is to be obtained.
NO ENTRY – This icon indicates no‐go areas for practitioners. These could be set values for certain variables,
or certain processes that may not be followed.
WORK IN PROGRESS – The “men at work” icon is used where sections can and should be extended or where
work is pending. Due to funding or time constraints these parts or sections are not yet included in the
manual.
Copyright of work done by the Consulting Engineer

All field books, data, calculations, plans, reports and tender documents produced in consequence of an appointment by the
Roads Authority to carry out work in terms of these Manuals, become and remain the property of the RA upon submission
of these items to the Roads Authority.
IV MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Full copyright in respect of the abovementioned field books, data, calculations, plans, reports and tender documents rests
with the Roads Authority. No part of these items shall be stored, copied or transmitted by any means whatsoever without
prior written agreement of the Roads Authority having been obtained. This restriction does not apply to retention of
records as may be required in law or to satisfy good engineering practice.
Acknowledgement
In preparation of this and the other manuals comprising this suite of manuals applicable to road works, considerable use,
including direct application, has been made of similar work done previously by the predecessor in title of the Roads
Authority and by other authorities, notably the manuals, directives and memoranda of the Western Cape Provincial
Administration (South Africa), the Department of Transport (South Africa) and the South African National Roads Agency Ltd
(SANRAL). These sources were used with due permission. The Roads Authority acknowledges with thanks the valuable
content from these non‐Namibian sources used in the Manuals, as well as that from Namibian sources such as the
Meteorological Services, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism and others. It goes without saying that the Roads
Authority also acknowledges with thanks all individual authors who contributed to the source documents from which
content has been taken for use in these manuals.
In respect of materials and pavements, permission to use the South African Pavement Engineering Manual (SAPEM) was
provided by SANRAL. This Manual was however not available until completion of this suite of Procedures Manuals of the
Roads Authority. The reader is nevertheless referred to this comprehensive Manual for further reading. With constant
developments towards more sophistication in testing methods ‐ including advances in computerised testing equipment –
and the introduction of new design and construction technologies in the Southern African Roads Industry, the Roads
Authority will study the implications of deviations included in the SAPEM Manual and will inform the industry in Namibia
when adjustments to this Construction Manual will become necessary.
Particularly the current revision of TMH1 into SANS 3001 standards, the introduction of SANS 4001 and the re‐writing of the
Standard COLTO Specifications (1998 edition) will have a direct impact on materials testing, planning, design and
construction in Namibia. A table which indicates the corresponding SANS 3001 standards already prepared are included in
Annexure E of this Manual. Guidelines on the application of these new standards in Namibia will be notified by the Roads
Authority in due course.
MATERIALS MANUAL V
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
Contents
Preamble .......................................................................................................................................................................... i
Summary of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................... i
Preface ......................................................................................................................................................................................... ii
The Procedures Manual................................................................................................................................................................ ii

The manuals in general ............................................................................................................................................................... iii
Access to the manuals ................................................................................................................................................................. iii
Definitions ................................................................................................................................................................................... iv
Guidelines for users of the manuals ............................................................................................................................................ iv
Copyright of work done by the Consulting Engineer ................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgement........................................................................................................................................................................ v
Contents ..................................................................................................................................................................................... vii

Tables .................................................................................................................................................................................... xiii
Figures ................................................................................................................................................................................... xiv
Annexures ............................................................................................................................................................................. xiv
Glossary of terms ...................................................................................................................................................................... xiv
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................................ xiv
1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1

1.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................................ 1‐1
1.1.2 Variations ............................................................................................................................................................. 1‐1
1.1.3 Special Cases and Innovative Solutions ................................................................................................................ 1‐1
1.1.4 Entry onto Land .................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.1.5 Liability ................................................................................................................................................................. 1‐1
1.1.6 Roads Authority Officials ...................................................................................................................................... 1‐1
1.2 Safety............................................................................................................................................................................ 1‐2
1.2.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 1‐2
1.2.2 Traffic regulation .................................................................................................................................................. 1‐2
1.2.3 Holes dug for sampling ......................................................................................................................................... 1‐2
1.2.4 Safety devices ....................................................................................................................................................... 1‐2
2 Standard specifications and other documents ........................................................................................................ 2‐3

2.1 General ......................................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.2 Source................................................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.1.3 Upgrading ............................................................................................................................................................. 2‐3
2.1.4 Sampling and Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 2‐3
2.2 Standard specifications ................................................................................................................................................ 2‐3
2.3 TRH documents ............................................................................................................................................................ 2‐3
2.4 TMH documents ........................................................................................................................................................... 2‐4
MATERIALS MANUAL VII

CONTENTS PREAMBLE
2.5 UTG documents ............................................................................................................................................................ 2‐4
2.6 Other design guidelines ................................................................................................................................................ 2‐5

2.6.1 Asphalt Academy (AsAc) technical guidelines ...................................................................................................... 2‐5
2.6.2 South African Bitumen Association (SABITA) manuals ......................................................................................... 2‐5
3 Materials in road pavements ................................................................................................................................. 3‐6
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 3‐6

3.2 Gravels and soils ........................................................................................................................................................... 3‐6
3.3 Pavement behaviour .................................................................................................................................................... 3‐7

3.3.1 Traffic ................................................................................................................................................................... 3‐7
3.3.2 Climate ................................................................................................................................................................. 3‐7
3.4 Pavement balance ........................................................................................................................................................ 3‐7
3.5 Testing of materials ...................................................................................................................................................... 3‐8
3.6 Structure of manual...................................................................................................................................................... 3‐8
4 Materials investigation for roadworks ................................................................................................................... 4‐9
4.1 Centreline materials survey .......................................................................................................................................... 4‐9

4.1.1 General ................................................................................................................................................................. 4‐9
4.1.2 On new routes where the profile has not been finally fixed prior to survey ....................................................... 4‐9
4.1.3 On routes where the finished road level has been fixed prior to the centreline materials survey ..................... 4‐9
4.1.4 On Existing Roads ............................................................................................................................................... 4‐10
4.1.5 Partly on Existing Road and Partly on Natural Ground ...................................................................................... 4‐10
4.2 General requirements for borrowpits ......................................................................................................................... 4‐11
4.3 Fill and Selected borrowpits ....................................................................................................................................... 4‐12

4.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.3.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.3.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐12
4.4 Subbase and shoulder borrowpits .............................................................................................................................. 4‐12

4.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐12
4.4.4 Mechanical stabilisation ..................................................................................................................................... 4‐12
4.4.5 Chemical stabilisation......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.4.6 Testing for salt .................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5 Base borrowpits/quarries ........................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.2 Test holes ........................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.3 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐13
4.5.4 Mechanical stabilisation ..................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.5 Chemical stabilisation......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.6 Bitumen stabilisation.......................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.5.7 Testing for salt .................................................................................................................................................... 4‐13
4.6 Binder and stabiliser sources ...................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
VIII MATERIALS MANUAL

PREAMBLE CONTENTS
4.6.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.7 Aggregate for bituminous surfacing .......................................................................................................................... 4‐14

4.7.1 Surface treatment .............................................................................................................................................. 4‐14
4.7.2 Asphalt surfacing ................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.7.3 Check testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.8 Aggregate for concrete .............................................................................................................................................. 4‐14
4.8.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.8.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14
4.8.3 Check testing ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.9 Duplicate samples ...................................................................................................................................................... 4‐14
4.10 Recording of test results of materials investigation ................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.11 Structural design and materials usage ....................................................................................................................... 4‐15

4.12 Reports on materials investigation............................................................................................................................. 4‐15
4.12.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.12.2 Minimum Requirements for Materials Report ................................................................................................... 4‐15
4.12.3 Draft Materials Report ....................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.12.4 Final Materials Report ........................................................................................................................................ 4‐16
4.12.5 Tender Materials Report .................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.13 Inspection of quarries and borrowpits ....................................................................................................................... 4‐16

4.13.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.13.2 Arrangements ..................................................................................................................................................... 4‐16
4.14 Water Investigations .................................................................................................................................................. 4‐17
5 Structural design of pavements ........................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18

5.1.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18
5.1.2 Achievement of objective................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1.3 Types of pavements ........................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.1.4 Design Approach ................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18
5.2 Design of flexible pavements...................................................................................................................................... 5‐18

5.2.1 Roads Authority's design policy.......................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.2.2 Design process.................................................................................................................................................... 5‐18
5.2.3 Gathering of inputs ............................................................................................................................................ 5‐19
5.2.4 Structural analysis .............................................................................................................................................. 5‐19
5.3 Design of rigid pavements .......................................................................................................................................... 5‐20
6 Materials Standards ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐21

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.2 Fill, Roadbed and Selected Layer ................................................................................................................................ 6‐21

6.2.1 Definitions .......................................................................................................................................................... 6‐21
6.2.2 Standards : Fill and Roadbed .............................................................................................................................. 6‐21
6.2.3 Standards : Selected Layers ................................................................................................................................ 6‐21
6.3 Subbase ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 6‐22
MATERIALS MANUAL IX
CONTENTS PREAMBLE
6.3.2 Untreated materials ........................................................................................................................................... 6‐22

6.3.3 Treated material ................................................................................................................................................. 6‐22
6.4 Shoulders .................................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.4.2 Durability Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.5 Base ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6‐22
6.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐22
6.5.2 Untreated Natural Base (G4 Type) ..................................................................................................................... 6‐23
6.5.3 Treated Base....................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6 Wearing Course Gravel............................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.2 Requirements ..................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.3 Properties ........................................................................................................................................................... 6‐24
6.6.4 Compaction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6‐25
6.6.5 Guidelines for a Salt‐Gravel Wearing Course ..................................................................................................... 6‐25
6.7 AGGREGATE FOR SEALS AND ASPHALT ...................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.7.1 Sand for Sand Seals ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐26
6.7.2 Coarse Aggregate for Seals ................................................................................................................................. 6‐26
6.7.3 Aggregate for Slurry Seal .................................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.7.4 Aggregate for Asphalt Surfacing ......................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.8 Bituminous binders for seals, asphalt surfacing and crack sealing ............................................................................ 6‐26
6.8.1 Bituminous Binders Normally Used.................................................................................................................... 6‐26
6.8.2 Selection of Binder ............................................................................................................................................. 6‐27
6.9 Aggregates for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐28

6.9.1 Fine and Coarse Aggregate................................................................................................................................. 6‐28
6.9.2 Cement ............................................................................................................................................................... 6‐29
7 Materials design guidelines ................................................................................................................................. 7‐30
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 7‐30
7.2 Bituminous Surfacing ‐ General .................................................................................................................................. 7‐30

7.2.1 Type of Surfacing ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐30
7.2.2 Volatiles and Thermal Expansion Factors ........................................................................................................... 7‐31
7.3 Sand seal .................................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.2 Bituminous binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐32
7.3.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.3.4 Application rates ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐32
7.4 Single application, single coat seal using 6mm aggregate ........................................................................................ 7‐32
7.4.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.4.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐32
7.4.4 Application Rates................................................................................................................................................ 7‐32
7.5 Split application, two coats seal with sand blinding................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
X MATERIALS MANUAL
PREAMBLE CONTENTS
7.5.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33

7.5.4 Spray rates.......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.5.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33
7.6 13/6mm Double Seal .................................................................................................................................................. 7‐34

7.6.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.4 Spray Rates ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐34
7.6.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7 19/9 or 19/6 Double Seal ........................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.4 Spray rates.......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.7.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8 Cape Seal .................................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐35
7.8.2 Bituminous Binder .............................................................................................................................................. 7‐36
7.8.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐36
7.8.4 Spray rates.......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐36
7.8.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐37
7.8.6 Slurry mixture ..................................................................................................................................................... 7‐37
7.9 Modified Cape Seal ..................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38

7.9.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.4 Spray rates.......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.5 Spread rates ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38
7.9.6 Composition of hot‐mix seal .............................................................................................................................. 7‐38
7.9.7 Construction ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐39
7.9.8 Opening to traffic ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐39
7.10 Asphalt Mixtures for Pavement and Surfacing Layers................................................................................................ 7‐39
7.10.2 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.3 Mineral filler ....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.4 Design Criteria .................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.5 Mix approval....................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.10.6 Changes in materials .......................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.11 Asphalt mixtures for bridge decks .............................................................................................................................. 7‐40
7.11.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐40
7.11.2 Bituminous Binder for Open‐Graded Asphalt and Slurry Seal............................................................................ 7‐40
7.11.3 Aggregate for Open‐Graded Asphalt and Slurry Seal ......................................................................................... 7‐41
7.11.4 Composition of the Open‐Graded Asphalt ......................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.11.5 Composition of the slurry seal............................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.11.6 Application rates ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.12 Asphalt mixtures for sidewalks ................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
MATERIALS MANUAL XI
CONTENTS PREAMBLE
7.12.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41

7.12.2 Bitumen Binder .................................................................................................................................................. 7‐41
7.12.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.12.4 Composition of the Asphalt ................................................................................................................................ 7‐41
7.13 Asphalt for Patching Bituminous Surfaces ................................................................................................................. 7‐41
7.13.1 Description ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐41
7.13.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.4 Composition of the Mix ...................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.5 Mixing ................................................................................................................................................................. 7‐42
7.13.6 Preparation......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.13.7 Placing ................................................................................................................................................................ 7‐42
7.14 Soil Stabilisation ......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.14.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................................ 7‐42
7.14.2 Stabilisation Processes ....................................................................................................................................... 7‐42
7.14.3 Objectives of Stabilisation .................................................................................................................................. 7‐43
7.14.4 Improvement of sub‐standard materials ........................................................................................................... 7‐43
7.15 Concrete mixes ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐45

7.15.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.2 Aggregates and cement...................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.3 Water for concrete ............................................................................................................................................. 7‐45
7.15.4 Admixtures for concrete .................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.5 Design Guidelines ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐45
7.15.6 Mix Design Procedure ........................................................................................................................................ 7‐46
7.15.7 Masses per batch ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
7.15.8 Trial mixes .......................................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
7.15.9 Adjustment of Trial Mixes .................................................................................................................................. 7‐47
7.16 Guidelines for Design of Deviations ............................................................................................................................ 7‐48

7.16.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 7‐48
7.16.2 Gravel deviations ................................................................................................................................................ 7‐48
7.16.3 Bitumen surfaced deviations .............................................................................................................................. 7‐49
8 Laboratory procedures ........................................................................................................................................ 8‐50

8.1 Field laboratory .......................................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.1.2 Minimum Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 8‐50
8.2 Testing and Sampling Methods .................................................................................................................................. 8‐51

8.3 Duplicate testing ........................................................................................................................................................ 8‐51
8.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐51
8.3.2 Frequency of duplicate testing ........................................................................................................................... 8‐51
8.3.3 Preparation of samples ...................................................................................................................................... 8‐52
8.3.4 Duplicate testing between two laboratories ...................................................................................................... 8‐52
8.3.5 Comparison of Duplicate Samples...................................................................................................................... 8‐53
8.4 Laboratory equipment ................................................................................................................................................ 8‐54
8.4.1 Non‐nuclear equipment ..................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.4.2 Nuclear Apparatus .............................................................................................................................................. 8‐54
XII MATERIALS MANUAL

PREAMBLE CONTENTS
8.4.3 Maintenance ...................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5 Laboratory Personnel ................................................................................................................................................. 8‐54

8.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5.2 Evaluation ........................................................................................................................................................... 8‐54
8.5.3 Minimum training level ...................................................................................................................................... 8‐55
8.5.4 Standard evaluation forms ................................................................................................................................. 8‐55
8.6 Inspecting and Reporting ........................................................................................................................................... 8‐56

8.6.1 Inspections ......................................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.6.2 Reporting ............................................................................................................................................................ 8‐56
8.7 Administrative procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.7.1 Filing system ....................................................................................................................................................... 8‐56
8.7.2 Reporting ............................................................................................................................................................ 8‐56
8.8 Laboratory Stationary ................................................................................................................................................ 8‐57
8.8.1 General ............................................................................................................................................................... 8‐57
8.8.2 Retention of forms ............................................................................................................................................. 8‐57
8.8.3 List of Standard Roads Authority Forms ............................................................................................................. 8‐57
9 Control ................................................................................................................................................................ 9‐58

9.1 General ....................................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
9.1.1 Specifications...................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
9.1.2 Inspection ........................................................................................................................................................... 9‐58
Tables
Table 4‐1 : Minimum test holes for fill land selected pits ...................................................................................................... 4‐12
Table 6‐1 : Natural Base grading requirements ..................................................................................................................... 6‐23
Table 6‐2 : Salt‐gravel property guidelines ............................................................................................................................ 6‐25
Table 6‐3 : Rapid evaluation of salt‐gravel ............................................................................................................................. 6‐25
Table 6‐4 : Bitumen spray and mix temperatures .................................................................................................................. 6‐27
Table 6‐5 : Bitumen ‐ aggregate combinations ...................................................................................................................... 6‐28
Table 6‐6 : Concrete aggregate properties ............................................................................................................................ 6‐28
Table 6‐7 : Basic concrete stone requirements ...................................................................................................................... 6‐28
Table 7‐1 : Acceptable surface treatments ............................................................................................................................ 7‐31
Table 7‐2 : Bitumen conversion factors ................................................................................................................................. 7‐31
Table 7‐3 : Resealing applications: typical emulsion spray rates .......................................................................................... 7‐33
Table 7‐4 : Stone spread rate ................................................................................................................................................. 7‐34
Table 7‐5 : P‐values for 13/6mm binder application.............................................................................................................. 7‐34
Table 7‐6 : Application rates of precoating fluid .................................................................................................................... 7‐35
Table 7‐7 : "P"‐ values for CS binder application.................................................................................................................... 7‐36
Table 7‐8 : Grading for crusher sand for asphalt mix ............................................................................................................. 7‐38
Table 7‐9 : Marshall criteria for hot‐mix asphalt .................................................................................................................... 7‐40
Table 7‐10 : Standards for stablisation material .................................................................................................................... 7‐45
Table 7‐11 : Maximum water/cement ratios ......................................................................................................................... 7‐46
Table 7‐12 : Maximum size of coarse aggregate .................................................................................................................... 7‐46
Table 7‐13 : Workability of concrete mixes............................................................................................................................ 7‐47
Table 7‐14 : Relative densities ............................................................................................................................................... 7‐48
Table 7‐15 : Bitumen deviation pavement design ................................................................................................................. 7‐49
Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical analysis ............................................................................................................................. 8‐53
MATERIALS MANUAL XIII

GLOSSARY OF TERMS PREAMBLE
Table 8‐2 : Maximum statistical error .................................................................................................................................... 8‐53

Table 8‐3 : Training value "V" ................................................................................................................................................. 8‐55
Figures
Figure 7‐1 : Stone content ...................................................................................................................................................... 7‐47
Figure 8‐1 : Typical field laboratory layout ............................................................................................................................ 8‐50
Annexures
Annexure A Saline Materials Guide
Annexure B Laboratory Staff Training Evaluation Forms
Annexure C List of Standard Forms
Annexure D Control Test References
Annexure E SANS 3001 Standards developed in South Africa
Glossary of terms
The reader is referred to Section 1100 of the COLTO Standard Specifications for definitions of the various terms used in the
Manual.
General Conditions of Contract Conditions of Contract for Construction for Building and Engineering Works Designed by
the Employer, published by FIDIC
Particular Conditions of Contract Project‐specific Conditions prepared to explain, amplify or replace clauses of the
General Conditions of Contract
Project Specifications Project‐related Specifications in which clauses of the Standard Specifications are
explained, amplified, or replaced
Standard Specifications Standard Specifications for Road and Bridge Works for State Road Authorities prepared
by COLTO and published by SAICE, referred to in short as “COLTO”
Mod AASHTO Modified AASHTO test to determine Maximum Dry Density (MDD)
Abbreviations
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transport Officials
BSM Bitumen Stabilised Material
CBR California Bearing Ratio
FIDIC Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs‐Conseils
COLTO Committee of Land Transport Officials
CS Cape Seal
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DMI Durability Mill Index
ETB Emulsion Treated Base
EVU Equivalent Vehicle Unit
10% FACT 10% Fines Aggregate Crushing Value
G1 to G10 Granular materials classification
GCC General Conditions of Contract
GM Grading Modulus
HS Hot‐mix asphalt Cape Seal (“Koffiemoer” Seal)
XIV MATERIALS MANUAL

PREAMBLE ABBREVIATIONS
ICS Initial Consumption of Stabiliser

ITS Indirect Tensile Strength
LAMBS Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases
MDD Maximum Dry Density
NP Non‐plastic
PI Plasticity Index
PCE Project Control Engineer
RA Roads Authority
RD Relative Density
RE Resident Engineer
S Sand
SANS South African National Standards
SP Slightly Plastic
SSD Sand Surface Dressing
TG Technical Guidelines of Asphalt Academy
TMH Technical Methods for Highways
TRH Technical Recommendations for Highways
SABITA Southern African Bitumen (and Tar) Association
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
MATERIALS MANUAL XV
INTRODUCTION GENERAL
1 INTRODUCTION the use of waste materials, by taking advantage of

Namibia's inherently dry climatic conditions, by selective
use of novel applications and the like. The Consultant is
1.1 General expected to apply his mind to the requirements of each
specific design situation, and where possible to put
1.1.1 Purpose forward technically sound, reasoned motivations for
The purpose of this Materials Manual is to set down the departing from the given materials standards or from
standards and norms of the Roads Authority which must conventional practices, all in an endeavour to provide a
be adhered to by Consultants and engineers of the Roads cost‐effective solution tailored to the specific problem.
Authority in the execution of materials‐related work for
Roads Authority projects. Construction ‐ related matters 1.1.4 Entry onto Land
which may be of use are discussed in the Construction The Consultant will be provided by the Roads Authority
Manual. with a delegation of authority in terms of the Roads
Ordinance No 17 of 1972, to enable him to enter onto
Some or all of the contents of this manual may seem to private property for the purposes of materials
be self‐evident, but it must be borne in mind that the investigations.
manual is intended for use by a large cross‐section of
persons in both private and public sectors, not all of The Consultant must ensure that he, his staff and his
whom are well‐versed in formal roadbuilding Agents, if any, are in possession of copies of the
specifications. delegation of authority at all times while on private
property. The Consultant must notify in writing the
1.1.2 Variations owner or occupier of all private properties which he, his
The manual is not intended to prohibit innovations or the staff and his Agents must enter for the purposes of
use of other methods, techniques or materials since materials investigations, of his intentions before actually
materials in different parts of the country, even in the commencing work upon the property. A copy of the
same borrowpit, could vary significantly from the norm. delegation of authority must accompany every such
The Materials Engineer is open to well‐motivated written notification.
suggestions for departures from the details given herein,
and would welcome feedback as to the performance of 1.1.5 Liability
the Roads Authority's normal materials guidelines, The Roads Authority will accept no liability for any
particularly when adverse but constructive criticism can accident, injury or death to the Consultant, members of
be put forward. his staff, his Agents, any member of the public or any
animals; or any damage to any property whatsoever,
Reference is made to the requirements of the Procedures caused directly or indirectly by the activities required in
Manual in respect of variations from this Manual. terms of this Manual.
Where more sophisticated or alternative test methods 1.1.6 Roads Authority Officials
should be applied or where more accurate results are The titles "Senior Materials Engineer" and "Project
necessary on a project to reduce risk, the Consultant Control Engineer" are used in this manual. Whereas the
must motivate the adoption thereof. former title refers to the Roads Authority official holding
the relevant post, the latter is the individual at the Roads
1.1.3 Special Cases and Innovative Solutions
Authority designated as Project Control Engineer for a
The setting of standards for materials must in no way be
specific project. Both these designations fall under the
seen as precluding the Consultant from adopting
Divisional Manager: Construction and Rehabilitation.
innovative approaches to the problems associated with
the provision of an adequate pavement structure, It is the responsibility of the Consultant to ascertain at
especially where suitable "conventional" materials are the project start‐up meeting which Roads Authority
scarce or expensive, or both. official is current Materials Engineer and who will be
assigned as Project Control Engineer.
Many adequate solutions can be found by careful
application of design methods to specific situations, by
MATERIALS MANUAL 1‐1

SAFETY INTRODUCTION
1.2.3 Holes dug for sampling

1.2 Safety
All holes dug for sampling must be made safe by any
1.2.1 General effective means for animals and the public until
Materials investigations for roadworks usually involve the backfilled. Holes should be sampled as soon as possible
digging of holes for samples, which may in turn involve after excavation and backfilled to original ground level as
labour and machines. In certain cases, blasting for the soon as practicable, preferably on the same day.
proving of quarries, core drilling, seismic or other
Where holes are dug in roads used by the public, they
specialized surveys may be necessary. All of these
shall be backfilled before sundown on the same day. Care
operations contain an element of danger to the public, to
must be taken to separate materials from different
animals and to the persons involved in the investigations.
pavement or profile layers when excavating and to return
The responsibility for complying with statutory and
the material in the appropriate order when backfilling.
common law safety requirements during materials
Shortfall of material must be made up by importing
investigations lies with the Consultant. He must be fully
material suitable for the layer for which it is intended. All
conversant with the requirements of the law and must
backfilling must be done in layers not exceeding 150 mm
indemnify, and by signing the Agreement, does indemnify
in thickness, and the material must be moistened and
the Roads Authority against any claims which may arise
thoroughly mixed. Thorough compaction by means of
from the Consultant's operations during materials
hand stampers is required. The top 150 mm of the
investigations. Some specific points requiring the
backfill material must be finished off flush with the top
Consultant's attention are discussed below, but these are
surface of the road and must be stabilised with 4% by
not by any means a complete list.
mass of ordinary portland cement, or 1.5 to 2% of this
1.2.2 Traffic regulation cement and 4% stable grade bitumen emulsion by mass.
The Consultant must, when working on any road used by It is not normally required that the surfacing, if any, be
the public, ensure that the necessary traffic regulatory reinstated by the Consultant. However the necessity for
measures such as signs, cones, flagmen etc are in place this should be clarified at the project commencement
and finally that the said measures are removed meeting, if the Maintenance Division would not take
immediately after completion of his work. These responsibility for the sealing of the backfill.
measures must be applied in accordance with the
Where the Consultant is instructed by the Roads
provisions of the Road Traffic Ordinance No 30 of 1967,
Authority that holes are to be left open at borrowpits for
the Road Traffic Regulations as amended, the Road
inspection by prospective tenderers, these must be made
Traffic Signs Policy and the Roads Authority's Standard
safe for humans and animals by surrounding each such
Drawings number N3062 and N3063 in respect of typical
hole with a fence at least 1,2 m high and consisting of
sign sequence during construction. If due to some
wooden or steel posts and ten strands of evenly spaced
unforeseen emergency it is not possible to backfill holes
barbed wire commencing 100 mm above ground level. In
in roads used by the public before sundown, then the
other cases samples of the material from each different
said measures must remain in place and flashing amber
material horizon will be left next to the hole and the hole
lights added before nightfall. Consultants are therefore
closed and made safe as specified elsewhere in this
advised to have at least two sets of battery operated
Manual.
flashing amber lights on hand when sampling on public
roads. 1.2.4 Safety devices
The Consultant is required to ensure that his staff
The Consultant is required to liaise with the Traffic Police
engaged in work on roads used by the public, wear safety
whenever he works on public roads, and to request their
vests and that all his vehicles similarly engaged are
assistance with the regulation of traffic if necessary, as
equipped with roof‐mounted amber flashing lights. Such
well as their assistance in ensuring that all signs,
lights must be operating whenever his vehicles are
barricades, cones etc are correctly placed and adequate
parked or moving slowly on the carriageway or shoulders
for the purpose.
of the road.
1‐2 MATERIALS MANUAL

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS GENERAL
2 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS 2.2 Standard specifications

AND OTHER DOCUMENTS The Standard Specification used by the Roads Authority
is:
2.1 General STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD AND BRIDGE
WORKS (1998 Edition)
2.1.1 Background
The Roads Authority's approach to the investigation, A 282‐page addendum containing revisions to this
design and construction control of pavements and document has been published by the South African
materials in general is based on the documents described National Roads Agency Limited (SANRAL) as a Project
in Parts 2 to 5 of this Section of the Materials Manual. Document, Volume 3, Book 1 of 2, and is dated March
Consultants are required to use these documents in their 2011. This document could be downloaded from the
materials and pavement‐related work for the Roads SANRAL website at www.nra.co.za.
Authority.
The Standard Specifications (COLTO in short) are, for the
2.1.2 Source purposes of this Manual, deemed to include all other
The COLTO Standard Specifications described or referred relevant specifications referred to therein.
to in this Manual are published by the South African
Institution of Civil Engineers (SAICE) and are obtainable The Standard Specifications are clarified, amplified or
from: replaced where necessary by project‐specific
specifications in the Project Specifications.
Postnet Suite
Private Bag X65 In case there is conflict between any requirement of this
HALFWAY HOUSE 1685 Manual and the COLTO Standard Specifications it must be
Republic of South Africa borne in mind that road construction works shall at all
times comply with the COLTO Standard Specifications
Other documents described or referred to in this Manual unless adjusted in the Project Specifications.
are published by the CSIR in Pretoria and are obtainable
from the CSIR or from the South African National Roads
2.3 TRH documents
Agency Limited (SANRAL) website.
The full listing of TRH (Technical Recommendations for
2.1.3 Upgrading Highways) documents is given below for the sake of
Some of the documents listed below are still in draft convenience, although some are not relevant to
form, and will be subject to several year's usage before materials or pavements, and two are currently only
being finalised. All the documents are subject to revision available in Afrikaans.
from time to time, which revisions may be incorporated
into a new version, or may be published by means of a TRH 1 PRIME COATS AND BITUMINOUS CURING
loose addendum to a particular document. MEMBRANES 1986. Draft.
TRH 2 GEOTEGNIESE EN GRONDINGENIEURSWESE‐
The Consultant must ensure that he is in possession of KARTERING VIR PAAIE EN DIE BEWARING VAN
and uses the latest published version and addendum, MATERIAALDATA 1987.
where applicable, of each document. TRH 3 SURFACING SEALS FOR RURAL AND URBAN
ROADS AND COMPENDIUM OF DESIGN
2.1.4 Sampling and Testing
METHODS FOR SURFACING SEALS USED IN
While not detracting from the generality of §2.1.1 above,
THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA 1986. Draft.
the Consultant must sample and test materials in
TRH 4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF INTER‐URBAN AND
conformity with the requirements of TMH 5 and TMH 1
RURAL ROAD PAVEMENTS 1985.
respectively.
TRH 5 STATISTICAL CONCEPTS OF QUALITY CONTROL
AND THEIR APPLICATION IN ROAD
CONSTRUCTION 1987.

TMH DOCUMENTS STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS
TRH 6 NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS FOR 1979.

DESCRIBING THE CONDITION OF ASPHALT TMH 3 TRAFFIC AXLE LOAD SURVEYS FOR PAVEMENT
PAVEMENTS 1985. DESIGN 1988. Draft.
TRH 7 USE OF BITUMEN EMULSIONS IN THE TMH 4 SUPERSEDED BY TRH 17
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF TMH 5 SAMPLING METHODS FOR ROAD
ROADS 1972. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 1981.
TRH 8 SELECTION AND DESIGN OF HOT‐MIX TMH 6 SPECIAL METHODS FOR TESTING ROADS
ASPHALT SURFACINGS FOR HIGHWAYS 1987. 1984. Draft.
TRH 9 CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS TMH 7 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE DESIGN FOR
1982. HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS IN SA
TRH 10 DESIGN OF ROAD EMBANKMENTS 1987. PARTS 1 AND 2 1981.
Draft. CODE OF PRACTICE FOR THE DESIGN OF
TRH 11 GUIDELINES FOR THE CONVEYANCE OF HIGHWAY BRIDGES AND CULVERTS IN SA
ABNORMAL LOADS (1987). (Out of print. PART 3 1989.
Afrikaans version dated 1992 available from TMH 8 VERKEERSTELLINGSPROSEDURES VIR
the Free State Roads Department). BUITESTEDELIKE PAAIE 1987. Draft.
TRH 12 BITUMINOUS PAVEMENT REHABILITATION TMH 9 PAVEMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS:
DESIGN 1983. Draft. (Reprinted with STANDARD VISUAL ASSESSMENT MANUAL
corrections 1984). 1990. Draft.
TRH 13 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS IN ROAD TMH 10 INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE COMPLETION OF AS‐
CONSTRUCTION 1986. Draft. BUILT MATERIALS DATA SHEETS 1991. Draft.
TRH 14 GUIDELINES FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS 1985. 2.5 UTG documents
TRH 15 SUB‐SURFACE DRAINAGE FOR ROADS 1984.
The full listing of UTG (Urban Transport Guidelines)
Draft.
documents is given below for the sake of convenience,
TRH 16 TRAFFIC LOADING FOR PAVEMENT AND
although not all documents are of direct relevance to this
REHABILITATION DESIGN 1991. Draft.
Manual. Most of the documents are still in draft form.
TRH 17 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS 1988.
Draft. UTG 1 GUIDELINES FOR THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
TRH 18 THE INVESTIGATION, DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION URBAN ARTERIAL ROADS 1987.
AND MAINTENANCE OF ROAD CUTTINGS UTG 2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF SEGMENTAL BLOCK
1987. Draft. PAVEMENTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA 1987.
TRH 19 STANDARD NOMENCLATURE AND METHODS UTG 3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF URBAN ROADS
FOR DESCRIBING THE CONDITION OF JOINTED 1988.
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS 1987. Draft. UTG 4 GUIDELINES FOR URBAN STORMWATER
TRH 20 THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT 1991.
AND MAINTENANCE OF UNPAVED ROADS UTG 5 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF URBAN COLLECTOR
1990. Draft. ROADS 1989.
UTG 6 GUIDELINES ON MAINTENANCE
2.4 TMH documents MANAGEMENT FOR LARGE MUNICIPALITIES
The full listing of TMH (Technical Methods for Highways) 1989.
documents is given below for the sake of convenience, UTG 7 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF URBAN LOCAL
although not all documents are of direct relevance to this RESIDENTIAL STREETS 1989.
Manual, and one is available in Afrikaans only. UTG 8 GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF AN
URBAN TRANSPORT PLAN 1989.
TMH 1 STANDARD METHODS OF TESTING ROAD UTG 9 GUIDELINES FOR THE TRANSPORTATION
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 1986. SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROCESS 1990.
TMH 2 NATIONAL STANDARD FOR THE SPRAYING
PERFORMANCE OF BINDER DISTRIBUTORS

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND OTHER DOCUMENTS OTHER DESIGN GUIDELINES
UTG 10 GUIDELINES FOR THE GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF 18 APPROPRIATE STANDARDS FOR THE USE OF
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LOCAL SAND ASPHALT
STREETS 1990. 19 GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN, MANUFACTURE
UTG 11 GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN AND CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMEN RUBBER
LAND USE/TRANSPORT PLANNING 1990. ASPHALT WEARING COURSES
20 SEALING OF ACTIVE CRACKS IN THE ROAD
2.6 Other design guidelines PAVEMENTS
21 ETBs ‐ THE DESIGN AND USE OF EMULSION‐
2.6.1 Asphalt Academy (AsAc) technical TREATED BASES – 1999
guidelines 22 HOT‐MIX PAVING IN ADVERSE WEATHER
TG 1 THE USE OF MODIFIED BITUMINOUS 23 CODE OF PRACTICE ‐ LOADING BITUMEN AT THE
BINDERS IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION – NOV REFINERIES
2007 24 USER GUIDE FOR THE DESIGN OF HOT MIX
TG 2 BITUMEN STABILISED MATERIALS ‐ MAY ASPHALT
2009 25 QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN THE HANDLING AND
TG 3 ASPHALT REINFORCEMENT FOR ROAD TRANSPORT OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS
CONSTRUCTION 26 INTERIM GUIDELINES FOR PRIMES AND STONE
PRECOATING FLUIDS NOV 2006
2.6.2 South African Bitumen Association 27 GUIDELINE FOR THIN LAYER HOT MIX ASPHALT
(SABITA) manuals WEARING COURSES ON RESIDENTIAL STREETS –
1 CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMEN RUBBER SEALS –
MAY 2008
MAY 1990
28 BEST PRACTICE FOR THE DESIGN AND
2 BITUMINOUS BINDERS FOR ROAD
CONSTRUCTION OF SLURRY SEALS
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
29 GUIDE TO THE SAFE HANDLING OF SOLVENTS IN
3 TEST METHOD FOR BITUMEN‐RUBBER – MARCH
A BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS LABORATORY
1992
30 A GUIDE TO THE SELECTION OF BITUMINOUS
4 [WITHDRAWN]
BINDERS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION
5 GUIDELINES FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND
31 GUIDELINES FOR CALIBRATING A BINDER
CONSTRUCTION OF HOT MIX ASPHALT – MARCH
DISTRIBUTOR AND ENSURING SATISFACTORY
2008
PERFORMANCE
6 [WITHDRAWN]
32 BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINE FOR WARM MIX
7 SUPERSURF ‐ ECONOMIC WARRANTS FOR
ASPHALT
SURFACING ROADS
8 SAFE AND RESPONSIBLE HANDLING OF
BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS
9 BITUMINOUS SURFACINGS FOR TEMPORARY
DEVIATIONS
10 APPROPRIATE STANDARDS FOR BITUMINOUS
SURFACINGS
11 LABOUR ENHANCED CONSTRUCTION FOR
BITUMINOUS SURFACINGS
12 METHODS FOR LABOUR‐INTENSIVE CONSTRUC‐
TION FOR BITUMINOUS SURFACINGS
13 LAMBS ‐ THE DESIGN AND USE OF LARGE
AGGREGATE MIXES FOR BASES
14 [WITHDRAWN]
15 [WITHDRAWN]
16 [WITHDRAWN]
17 THE DESIGN AND USE OF POROUS ASPHALT
MIXES

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
3 MATERIALS IN ROAD 3.2 Gravels and soils

PAVEMENTS A soil consists of rock particles, sand, silt and clay formed
by gradual disintegration or weathering of rocks due to
natural processes. These processes include:
3.1 Introduction
The object of this section is to explain materials planning  disintegration due to expansion and contraction
in the context of the design of the road pavement, which caused by temperature changes;
in essence comprises the road as required by the road  weathering and decomposition due to chemical
user. changes involving reaction with water, oxygen
and carbon dioxide;
The Materials Manual covers the full spectrum of  transportation of rock, gravel and soils by
processes and activities that are required by the Roads gravity, wind, water and ice; and
Authority to investigate, test, select, and apply natural  temperature and rainfall, which cause different
and modified soils, gravels, rock and bituminous or other soils to be formed in different climatic regions.
brand name products, as may be necessary to plan,
design, construct and rehabilitate the national road To distinguish between a soil and a gravel, the following
network of Namibia. basic definitions are included:
In order to fulfil transportation needs roads must comply  Soils may consist of a mixture of materials from
with functional and structural requirements: a variety of origins, with a considerable degree
of weathering and particle size distribution,
 Functional: The primary purpose of a road is to called grading. Materials in which the coarser
provide the road user with a surface of portion is small and where it “floats” in the
acceptable riding quality. The degree to which otherwise fine‐graded matrix of material, are
the road fulfils this need is dependent on called soils.
traction, comfort and road safety under  Gravels on the other hand are materials where
prevailing conditions. These attributes are the coarser particles comprise the dominant
generally referred to as the serviceability of the component with good strength due to particle
road. interlock, with fine‐graded material occurring
 Structural: The road pavement must have between the larger particles.
adequate structural strength to carry the design
traffic on the road. Economic pavements The bearing capacity of gravels and soils depends inter
generally consist of a number of layers, including alia on inherent material strength, grading, density,
the surfacing. Material characteristics, the moisture content and resistance to deformation, which is
composition and the behaviour of the materials directly affected by cohesion or clay content. Whereas
in the composite layered structure under traffic the bearing capacity of cohesionless materials is not very
loading determine the structural capacity of the moisture‐sensitive, the opposite is true in the case of
pavement. clayey materials where wet clay acts as a lubricant which
reduces particle interlock and hence the bearing capacity.
Materials planning and pavement design in the Materials Therefore the most important properties of soils and
Manual consequently involves the effective utilisation of gravels in respect of road construction purposes, which
available natural or modified soils, gravels and rock, to can all be determined by materials testing, are the
create a combination of pavement layers able to following:
withstand the traffic loading anticipated during the
design life of the road pavement structure, while at the  Compaction of the material to the specified
same time providing a reasonable riding comfort. density to comply with minimum strength
requirements must be achieved;
 The clay content and related properties must be
within acceptable limits;

MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR
 The individual granular particles should not Solar radiation mainly influences bituminous products,
weather significantly and must not disintegrate where oxidation and hardening of the binder affect long‐
under traffic loading. term performance of the seal or asphalt surfacing.
The distribution of stresses in the pavement was studied

3.3 Pavement behaviour
inter alia by Boussinesq (1885), Westergaard (1925) and
The behaviour of a pavement under traffic axle loading is Burmeister (1943), which eventually led to the modern
dependent on the characteristics of the individual as well linear elastic layer theory used today in pavement design.
as the combined strength of all the layers of the Several other approaches to pavement design and
pavement, and is affected mainly by the traffic and materials specifications were developed, and it became
climatic factors described below: clear that plasticity, grading, shrinkage, swell,
permeability, and moisture sensitivity must be controlled
3.3.1 Traffic to enable satisfactory pavement performance. OJ Porter
Normal and shear stresses, as well as tangential forces (1930) developed the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
result from moving tyres. The magnitude thereof to provide an indication of relative strength of fine‐
depends on vehicle mass, tyre pressure and dynamic grained materials under soaked conditions. This in turn
loading caused by road roughness and the response of resulted in the development of CBR cover curves and
the suspension of the vehicle. later more sophisticated pavement design and evaluation
methods.
Tyre pressure determines the size of the contact area
(footprint) of the tyre over which the vehicle load is Structural capacity of a pavement depends on the ability
spread, and has a significant effect in the upper region of of the different layers to spread loads, and this depends
the pavement. on the inherent engineering properties of the materials
in each individual pavement layer. In some cases the
The distribution of the wheel loads within and between
engineering properties can be modified by means of
lanes, as well as the configuration of axle loads per heavy
mechanical and chemical stabilisation to improve the
vehicle, are difficult to predict accurately and weigh‐
load spreading ability of a layer.
bridge data must be used for this purpose. These are
expressed in equivalent 80kN axle loads (E80s) for
pavement design purposes. 3.4 Pavement balance
The basic pavement design philosophy remains the
3.3.2 Climate
creation of adequate cover over the underlying roadbed
Three environmental components which have the
and road prism, which is able to absorb the traffic and
greatest effect on the performance of a pavement are
environmental stresses over the design life of the road
water, temperature and ultra‐violet radiation from the
pavement and which prevents over‐stressing of the
sun.
layers, soils or gravels supporting the road pavement
Water has the most significant influence on pavement structure.
structural capacity and it is important that the pavement
A balanced pavement structure is one in which the
be kept sealed against water ingress throughout its life.
design loading is carried by all the layers, each in relation
Temperature mainly affects bituminous materials in that to their strength contribution in the pavement. A shallow
higher temperatures initially softens but eventually pavement structure is one in which the upper layers are
hardens bitumen, which affects its stiffness, and requires used primarily to protect the weaker layers below, and in
that materials selection and pavement design consider a deep structure relatively more stresses are transferred
the likely temperature range which the pavement would to the lower layers. A deep structure would be less
be subject to. Temperature also affects moisture sensitive to overloading than in the case of a shallow
movement, shrinkage and expansion which must be structure.
considered.
The stresses in a pavement are very sensitive to layer
thickness. Therefore the specified composition of the
layers and thickness thereof must not be changed in any

TESTING OF MATERIALS MATERIALS IN ROAD PAVEMENTS
way during construction without an understanding of the respect of the planning and design stages. The Sections
original objectives of the designed pavement structure. hereinafter include the procedures to be followed during
these stages, under the following main headings:
3.5 Testing of materials
 Materials investigation
The ability of a pavement to spread traffic‐induced loads  Pavement structural design
is mainly affected by its shear modulus and stiffness  Materials standards
modulus. Since granular materials in a pavement tend to  Materials design
fail in shear, resistance to shear is generally regarded as
the most important parameter. In the case of cemented It must be noted that it is inevitable that some overlap
materials the load‐spreading ability of a pavement will occur in respect of the procedures that must be
depends mainly on the stiffness modulus and flexural followed during the planning, design and construction
strength of the material. These moduli could be stages, which may require cross‐referencing between the
measured using sophisticated testing equipment, but Materials and the Construction Manuals.
simpler laboratory tests are normally used to measure
other material properties from which the load‐spreading
ability can be estimated.
Shear and stiffness characteristics of materials will vary

significantly depending on the ruling moisture condition,
density, temperature, stress magnitude and state, and
speed of load application. In order to consider as many of
these influences as possible, a range of tests and test
results is necessary to model pavement behaviour. The
primary purpose of the various laboratory tests carried
out is consequently to identify and select the best
available natural materials, to plan the optimal use
thereof and ultimately to ensure compliance with the
requirements specified for the road pavement structure.
Attention is drawn to Clause 8102 of the Standard

Specifications regarding testing methods.
The material investigation, planning and design, as well

as the laboratory tests required in the process, are
described hereafter. The procedures for pavement design
and the required material standards are also covered in
the Manual.
Test methods which have not been included but which

must be considered where appropriate such as during
rehabilitation planning, are functional pavement tests
such as riding quality, rut depth measurements and skid
resistance, and structural pavement tests such as
deflection and ground penetration radar (PDR).
3.6 Structure of manual

The Materials Manual is structured to cover the
materials‐related procedures of the Roads Authority in

MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS CENTRELINE MATERIALS SURVEY
4 MATERIALS INVESTIGATION  Indicator tests must be performed on each

sample (i.e. screen analysis, % passing the 0,075
FOR ROADWORKS mm sieve and Atterberg constants).
 A minimum of 5 CBR tests shall be carried out on
4.1 Centreline materials survey samples representative of each material type
selected for a specific use, in order to make a
4.1.1 General meaningful evaluation of its strength.
The purpose of the centreline materials survey is to  Irrespective of the foregoing stipulation, a
establish the strength of the materials in the roadbed minimum of 5 CBR tests shall be carried out per
available for the construction of the fill or lower 2 km.
pavement layers; to determine materials usage; and to  In the case of cuts where depth and/or nature of
identify problems related to fills and cuts. Three types of materials is such as to preclude sampling to a
centreline materials survey can be identified: depth of 1 m below final road level, the material
should be visually inspected to such depths as
 where the finished profile has not been fixed by will give a reasonable forecast of the type of
the time the centreline survey commences material which may be encountered in
(generally applicable to new routes); excavations. In such cases it may be necessary
 where the finished profile has been fixed before to carry out seismic surveys and/or core drilling
the centreline survey commences (sometimes to establish the material types and depths and
applicable to new routes); to determine classification and usage of
 on existing roads. materials.
 In the case of fills in excess of 1 m, the roadbed
Whatever the case may be the centreline materials
material shall be inspected at approximately 200
survey shall only be carried out once the route has at
m intervals, and if considered necessary,
least been flagged and a preliminary profile is available.
suitably sampled.
4.1.2 On new routes where the profile has not
If compressibility or instability of the material
been finally fixed prior to survey
The following procedure shall be followed: encountered is such that the Consultant considers
further exploration to be necessary he must discuss this
 Pits shall be dug at intervals of approximately with the Senior Materials Engineer and carry out
200 m as close to the centreline as possible. whatever programme of further exploration and testing
These pits shall extend to at least 1,0 m below may be agreed upon in writing by the Senior Materials
final road level with a minimum of 300 mm Engineer.
below the original ground level, unless solid rock
is encountered before this depth.  If after the vertical and horizontal alignments
 A description of the horizons encountered shall have been finally fixed, it is found that the 1 m
be recorded. depth of inspection hole was inadequate or the
 At least half of the pits shall be sampled for hole was located so far from the final centreline
testing. as to be unrepresentative of the material on
 The pits to be sampled are to be selected where centreline, then the depth of the pit shall be
inspection indicates that the most information increased or a new pit dug as the case may be,
concerning the various material types and if significantly different materials are
encountered will be obtained, including at or encountered, re‐sampling and retesting as
near the prick of a cut where this is known. above shall be carried out.
 A sample shall be taken of each separate layer of
material encountered in each pit selected for 4.1.3 On routes where the finished road level
sampling. has been fixed prior to the centreline
materials survey
The following procedure will be applicable:

CENTRELINE MATERIALS SURVEY MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
 From the longitudinal sections select only those pits, sampling and testing will accordingly be
places where the ground profile protrudes into determined by the homogeneity of the existing
the design depth or is above the finished road pavement layers and by the condition and
level, and make trial pits at 200 m intervals with relative performance of different pavement
a minimum of two holes per section of road so sections of the road.
identified. The depth of holes is to be 1 m
below final road level. Sampling and testing shall Sampling and Testing
be carried out as described in §4.1.2 above. A sample shall be taken of each layer identified and
indicator tests as described in §4.1.2 above shall be
 The procedure outlined in 4.1.2 above for deep
carried out. In addition, a minimum of one CBR test per
cuts and fills greater than 1 m high shall be
layer per km shall be carried out on samples
followed as well.
representative of each of the various material types
4.1.4 On Existing Roads encountered, or as otherwise dictated by the selected
homogenous sections in the case of full rehabilitation of
Depth of Sampling existing bitumen roads with available Materials
Where the final grade line is known, the existing Completion Data, as described above in the last bullet
pavement shall be sampled to a depth of 750 mm below point.
the proposed finished road level.
At each CBR sampling point, the in‐situ density of the
Where the final grade line is not known, the existing specific layer shall be determined. However it is not
pavement layers shall be sampled to 600 mm below the required that in‐situ densities be determined of layers
existing road level. more than 300 mm below existing road level. Layers less
than 90 mm thick need not be tested for density, and no
Spacing of Sampling Points
density test shall cover a depth greater than 150 mm.
Where the new road encroaches on existing surfaced
Where the layer encountered is significantly greater than
width and unsurfaced shoulders, the following procedure
150 mm, more than one density test will be required, e.g.
shall apply:
0 ‐ 150 mm, 150 to 300 mm.
 where only one shoulder is involved, the
Density tests, where applicable and appropriate, must be
sampling locations shall be equally distributed
carried out before sampling, and the following additional
between existing surfaced width and shoulder at
procedures will apply:
200 m intervals;
 where both shoulders are involved, sampling  Density tests must also be carried out on lower
locations shall be spaced such that there will be layers and fills below the depths given above
two test holes per kilometre for each of the under “Depth of Sampling” where the
shoulders and for the surfaced width; compaction is suspect.
 where the existing road is reconstructed to the  Dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) tests must in
same cross‐section and level standards, ie the addition be carried out at intervals determined
base does not require widening or new levels, as set out above under ”Spacing of Sampling
sampling of the base shall be approximately at Points” but staggered longitudinally with the
500m intervals, mainly in the outer wheel path sampling points. The total depth of the DCP
but preferably where distress of the pavement tests is to be 800 mm below existing road level.
can be identified visually. In this case the
shoulders shall be sampled at 1 kilometre 4.1.5 Partly on Existing Road and Partly on
intervals, staggered between the two shoulders. Natural Ground
 For full rehabilitation of an existing road with Where the road is to be constructed partly on an existing
Materials Completion Data available, and where road and partly on natural ground, whether
the cross‐section and road levels will change, longitudinally or transversely, a combination of the
the materials inspection on existing bitumen procedures outlined in §4.1.2, §4.1.3 and §4.1.4 above is
road pavements shall follow the guidelines to be followed.
contained in TRH12. The frequency of inspection

MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BORROWPITS
closed and made safe after sampling of the

4.2 General requirements for borrowpits
materials. A whitewashed termite treated
The following requirements are relevant to prospecting wooden, steel or concrete post, or a stone cairn
for all borrowpits: marker not less than 1 m high, shall be erected
at the test hole from where the distance to the
1 All landowners must be notified in terms of the
road centreline was measured. If the borrowpit
Roads Ordinance No 17 of 1972 before entry
will be used within the next 12 months, no
onto private property.
marker at the borrowpit will be necessary but
2 The specified number of deposits of suitable
the number of the borrowpit shall be clearly
gravels must be located by conventional means,
marked with paint on a steel or hardboard sign
i.e. probing and trial pits (or inspection holes)
securely attached to the road reserve fence
with use also being made of aerial photographs
from where the distance to the borrowpit was
and satellite imagery where appropriate.
measured. Where no fence exists, the sign shall
3 Proposed borrowpits must be proved to their
be securely attached to a tree, or steel or
full extent by means of trial pits and relevant
wooden peg 30 m from the centreline of the
testing. The final spacing of borrowpits will
road not less than 1 m high.
depend upon the size and haul distance of
7 Other than in the case of cuttings used as a
available materials, the volume of material
source of material for fill and layerworks, no
required, the cost to construct haul roads and
borrowpits may be established within the road
environmental considerations. The locality of all
reserve or within 50 m of the road reserve
trial pits, drilling or probing made during
boundaries, with a screen of vegetation left
prospection for materials, existing borrowpits
uncleared between the road reserve and the
and any other relevant information including
borrowpit. Borrowing material for fill by
hand‐held GPS co‐ordinates shall be shown on a
continuous excavation along or outside the
plan to an appropriate scale as a record of the
reserve is not acceptable. Borrowpits must be in
work done. Each trial pit with material likely to
the form of defined, localised sources. Where
be suitable shall be sampled and tested. The
otherwise required due to aesthetics or by an
results shall be properly documented and cross‐
environmental impact assessment of the borrow
referenced with the trial pits shown on the plan.
area, and if adequate quantities of the specified
The plan and test results shall be available
quality material is available in the area, the
during the inspection of borrowpits by the
borrowpit may have to be opened further away
Roads Authority and shall also be included in the
from the road if so agreed by the Roads
Materials Report.
Authority.
4 Overburden must be tested for possible use
8 Notwithstanding the generalised spacing
except where the thickness of overburden is less
requirements for borrowpits contained in this
than 200 mm, in which case the topsoil and
manual, the spacing of borrowpits must ensure
vegetation will be removed during the
the economic usage of materials with due
construction stage.
consideration being given to land use and
5 An accurate compass, tache or hand‐held GPS
ecology. Spacings other than those indicated in
survey must be made of each borrowpit and the
the various sections may thus be justified in
details, including the position of each test hole
certain circumstances.
within the borrow area must be shown on the
9 Existing tracks must as far as possible be used
borrow pit sketch plan to an appropriate scale,
for haul roads to the road during construction.
with the distance between the road and Hole No
Where no track road exists, the haul road must
1, which should generally be the hole closest to
be curved towards the road to make the
the road, also indicated.
borrowpit less visible to road users.
6 During the opening of test holes, enough
material from each material horizon shall be left
in sequence next to the hole for inspection of
the available material, and the hole shall be

FILL AND SELECTED BORROWPITS MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
Any deviations from maximum spacings, number of test In certain uniform types of materials such as Kalahari
pits and tests, and the type of tests shall be cleared with sands, the Senior Materials Engineer may agree in writing
the Roads Authority as early as possible to a reduction in the minimum number of test holes
specified above.
4.3 Fill and Selected borrowpits 4.3.3 Testing

Indicator samples shall be taken of each soil type
4.3.1 General encountered in every test hole. A CBR sample shall be
Sufficient Fill and Selected borrowpits are to be located taken of each soil type encountered but with a minimum
as near as practicable to the points on the road where of 1 CBR sample per material horizon for every 3 test
material will be required to make up deficiencies in holes dug. CBR tests shall be carried out on samples
material available from cuts. representative of each material type selected for a
specific use, with a minimum as indicated in the table
The lead from fill borrowpits to point of proposed use above in §4.3.2.
should where possible not exceed 500 m, the free‐haul
distance for Fill material. The minimum testing frequency in respect of CBR for Fill
shall in addition be 1 per 3 000 m3.
Where required due to environmental sensitivity,
approval must be obtained from the Roads Authority 4.4 Subbase, shoulder and wearing course
before specifying in the tender documents an increase in
borrowpits
the standard maximum restricted overhaul (“short haul”)
distance from 500m to 1000m. 4.4.1 General
Basically the same procedure as for fill and Selected layer
If it is evident from laboratory tests carried out during borrowpits shall apply. The spacing of subbase, shoulder
the materials prospection that materials in the area and gravel wearing course borrowpits should where
within the required free haul distance generally comply possible not exceed 5 kilometres, reduced where
with the requirements for Fill, no dedicated Fill possible to 3km in the case of gravel wearing course.
borrowpits have to be identified during the design stage.
4.4.2 Test holes
Borrowpits tested which do not meet the quality
All test holes shall be excavated through the proposed
requirements of the pavement layers should be indicated
gravel layer. The minimum number of test holes shall be
as potential Fill borrowpits provided that the
12 per borrowpit.
specifications are met. Fill borrowpits shall during
construction be tested before placing the material on the 4.4.3 Testing
road as indicated below. Indicator and CBR samples shall be taken as specified for
Selected material in §4.3.3.
4.3.2 Test holes
Test holes shall be excavated at intervals not exceeding If it is evident from visual inspection that material
50 m. overlying or underlying the proposed gravel layer could
be used for other parts of the road prism, the requisite
Selected borrowpits shall be spaced not further than 3
number and type of tests for the layer concerned shall be
kilometres apart and these shall be properly tested as
carried out.
specified hereunder.
The Consultant shall nevertheless in respect of each
The minimum number of test holes and CBR tests per
borrowpit, test a minimum of 10 CBR samples from the
borrowpit for Fill and Selected shall be as follows:
gravel recommended to be used.
FILL SELECTED
4.4.4 Mechanical stabilisation
Test holes 5 9 In instances where the addition of a binder for
CBR tests 4 4 mechanical stabilisation is proposed, the suitability of the
Table 4‐1 : Minimum test holes for fill land selected pits binder and the proposed mix proportion shall be

MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS BASE BORROWPITS/QUARRIES
determined by means of indicator tests as described in of the suggested process. In the case of solid rock
§4.3.3 on both the material and proposed binder; and quarries, 1 out of every 3 cores drilled shall be crushed,
CBR and indicator tests on the mixture. In compliance screened and tested as indicated hereafter.
with §4.6 hereof, sufficient testing shall be carried out to
make a confident recommendation in respect of the The hardness and durability of the aggregate and base
mechanical stabilisation solution. material in all sources proposed for use in base shall be
proved by means of the 10% FACT (Fine Aggregate
4.4.5 Chemical stabilisation Crushing Test) and/or the Durability Mill Index (Texas Ball
In cases where chemical stabilisation (cement or lime) is Mill) test. These are specified in COLTO and include wet
proposed, additional tests such as ICS, ITS, UCS or others and dry testing for durability.
as may be required shall be carried out in order to
establish the type and quantity of stabilising agent. The testing requirements in the Clauses hereafter shall in
addition be followed where stabilisation of the Base
4.4.6 Testing for salt material is necessary, and to test for deleterious salt.
Tests shall be carried out on at least 4 holes to determine
the presence of deleterious salts in all borrow material to 4.5.4 Mechanical stabilisation
be used for Subbase. The provisions of §4.4.4 will apply to Base as well.
Where road shoulders are to be surfaced, this 4.5.5 Chemical stabilisation

requirement shall also be applicable to Shoulder The procedures described in §4.4.5 must also be followed
material. in the case of Base.
Mixing time that can be allowed and the effect thereof

4.5 Base borrowpits/quarries on post‐construction strength shall be analysed and
included in the construction specifications.
4.5.1 General
Suitable Base sources are to be located and proved by The long‐term suitability of the stabilisation process
core‐drilling in the case of solid materials, or as for recommended shall be determined in respect of the
subbase borrowpits in the case of natural deposits. effects and risks of minimum stabiliser demand,
carbonation, shrinkage cracking and recurring plasticity.
All likely Base sources are to be tested and proved except
This includes the durability of the chemically stabilised
that the spacing of quarry sites for crushed solid rock
base material using the wet/dry brush test.
need not be closer than 20 km, and borrowpit sites for
natural material ‐ whether processed or not ‐ shall not 4.5.6 Bitumen stabilisation
exceed a spacing of 10 km, unless no suitable sources are Where bitumen stabilisation is proposed, the normal
available within this range. tests for granular material such as Indicators, Mod
AASHTO maximum density, and CBR will be required in
4.5.2 Test holes
addition to tests relevant to stabilisation such as ICS, ITS,
For sources other than solid rock, all test holes shall be
UCS and others as may be necessary to determine the
excavated through the proposed gravel layer. The
most appropriate method of bitumen stabilisation, and
minimum number of holes shall be 12 per borrowpit. In
the type and quantity of the stabilising agent and
the case of solid rock quarries, core drilling shall be
additive.
carried out on a 50 m grid or as may be decided in
discussion with the Senior Materials Engineer. Durability tests shall, as for chemical stabilisation, include
the minimum stabiliser and additive demand, as well as
4.5.3 Testing
effects and risks of carbonation, shrinkage cracking, etc
For sources other than solid rock, the procedure and
on the mixture recommended.
tests shall be as set out for subbase in §4.4.3. If the
available material in a borrowpit requires crushing and 4.5.7 Testing for salt
screening, samples must be made up to simulate the Tests shall be carried out on at least 1 hole per borrowpit
anticipated end product. Sufficient CBR and indicator to determine the presence of deleterious salts in all
tests must be carried out on these to prove the feasibility borrow material to be used for natural Base. Where

BINDER AND STABILISER SOURCES MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
deleterious salts are identified in a borrowpit, at least 4 appropriate for the specific project and cannot be used in
holes must be tested for salt in that borrowpit. Electrical lieu of an asphalt layer.
conductivity and pH tests are required for this purpose.
The suitability of proposed mixes shall be proved by
Recommendations on the use of materials with a high means of the Marshall design method as currently
salt content must be based on the Roads Authority’s employed by the Roads Authority. Proposed mix designs
guidelines in this regard in the Annexure to this Manual. shall be submitted to the Roads Authority for approval.
4.7.3 Check testing

4.6 Binder and stabiliser sources
Samples consisting of 30 kg of each aggregate fraction, 4
4.6.1 General litres of the proposed bituminous binder and 10 kg of the
Where it is likely that the base or subbase material will filler shall be supplied to the Roads Authority.
require the addition of soil binders and/or stabilisers,
sufficient sources of such materials are to be located, 4.8 Aggregate for concrete
tested and proved as for subbase borrowpits, except that
the minimum number of test holes per source shall be 5. 4.8.1 General
Sufficient sources of stone and sand for concrete shall be
4.6.2 Testing located and the quantity and uniformity of suitable
Refer to Clauses 4.4.4 and 4.4.5 for the tests required to coarse and fine aggregate shall be established by drilling
confirm the suitability of any recommended mix. or by trial pits. Test holes shall be opened as for Selected
material and tested as indicated hereafter.
Testing for salt is also required (See §4.5.7).
4.8.2 Testing
4.7 Aggregate for bituminous surfacing Samples of the proposed coarse and fine aggregates shall
be tested for compliance with the materials standards set
4.7.1 Surface treatment out in Section 6 of this Manual.
Unless an acceptable commercial quarry is located within
a range of 100km from the boundaries of the site, or such 4.8.3 Check testing
shorter distance as may be specified by the Roads At least one sample per source of both coarse and fine
Authority for a specific project, at least one source is to aggregate shall be submitted to the Roads Authority's
be located. The quantity and uniformity of the available control laboratory in Windhoek for additional testing.
material are to be established by drilling or by trial pits. Samples consisting of 50 kg of coarse aggregate and 50
Prepared samples of these materials shall be tested for kg of fine aggregate shall be submitted.
compliance with the materials standards set out in
Comments on suitability of the materials will be
Section 6 of this Manual. Where no usable surfacing
forwarded to the Consultant.
material is available within the specified range, approval
must be obtained in writing from the Senior Materials
Engineer for the use of sources outside this range.
4.9 Duplicate samples
One duplicate of every 25 samples tested during the
In cases where the rock from a specific quarry does not
materials investigations shall be submitted to the control
comply with specified strength or durability
laboratory of the Roads Authority in Windhoek for check
requirements, then the Consultant shall prepare a well‐
testing.
motivated risk‐cost analysis for his recommendation on
the possible use of any substandard rock type. The test However, at least one duplicate sample must be
results must be discussed with the Roads Authority and submitted for each type of material proposed for use
acceptance or rejection thereof obtained in writing from from every potential borrowpit, even if the number of
the Senior Materials Engineer. samples tested is less than 25. At least one duplicate
sample must also be submitted for each type of special
4.7.2 Asphalt surfacing
test which is not often performed and which would
Where asphalt surfacing is proposed, the Consultant shall
otherwise not be picked up by the normal distribution of
specifically motivate why a less costly surfacing seal is not
duplicate samples.

MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS RECORDING OF TEST RESULTS OF MATERIALS INVESTIGATION
Where additional duplicate samples are required by the materials encountered in the centreline
Roads Authority, the cost to prepare and submit these, if materials survey.
any, is to be negotiated and agreed with the Roads 2 A detailed description of the materials
Authority. prospecting phase from which the borrowpit
locations were developed.
More details of the requirements are given in Section 8 3 The trial pits and other relevant information
Part 3 of this Manual. shall be shown on a map of suitable scale and
accompanied by brief descriptions of the
4.10 Recording of test results of materials materials, test results, depths etc. The locality in
investigation terms of GPS‐based co‐ordinates of all trial pits
opened and not sampled due to poor quality on
All the test results obtained as a result of the
visual inspection shall be submitted separately
investigations into centreline materials, quarries and
in the report.
borrowpits shall be recorded on the Roads Authority's
4 A statement of the proposed sources of
standard materials survey and borrowpit sheets.
materials together with their proposed usage
It is required that the data be filled in on the sheets in and including relevant details such as expected
black ink, either by typing or by computer, clearly and quantities and depths of overburden.
consistently. The data on these sheets shall form the 5 The aspect of proposed usage of materials shall
basis of the pavement design. Completed master copies be covered in addition by Mass Haul Diagrams,
shall be submitted in draft format to the Roads Authority Material Distribution Tables and Materials Haul
as part of the Materials Report. Diagrams.
6 A detail overview of the materials sampled from
4.11 Structural design and materials usage test pits opened in existing pavement layers,
including in‐situ density, DCP and laboratory test
The structural design of the road pavement (see Section results of the natural and modified materials as
5) and proposed material usage based on the data may be appropriate, to support the
recorded on the materials survey and borrowpit sheets recommended re‐use thereof in the new road
shall be finalised in consultation with the Senior pavement.
Materials Engineer. 7 Details of possible commercial sources of supply
are to be included.
4.12 Reports on materials investigation 8 Major sources of water supply.
4.12.1 General Structural Problems

Prior to finalisation of the Project Specifications, a draft 1 Existence of heaving clays and collapsing sands
and final report on the materials investigation shall be and as well as proposals for countermeasures
submitted to the Roads Authority. This report shall where necessary.
contain all centreline materials survey and borrowpit 2 The stability of the roadbed and of cut and fill
diagram sheets as well as a small‐scale locality plan slopes, as well as proposals for countermeasures
indicating proposed borrowpits. Details concerning where necessary.
materials usage must also be included. 3 Existence of adverse ground water conditions, as
well as proposals for countermeasures where
4.12.2 Minimum Requirements for Materials necessary.
Report
The report shall cover at least the following: Deleterious Material
1 The existence of deleterious concentrations of
Geology and Materials soluble salts in the materials proposed for the
1 A brief description of the geological
road pavement (particularly in Subbase, Base
characteristics of the terrain traversed by the
and soil binders for both), in water proposed for
road together with a general overview of the
compaction and concrete and in water which
may adversely affect concrete structures.

INSPECTION OF QUARRIES AND BORROWPITS MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS
Measures to deal with these problems must be  comments received thereon from the Senior
stated. Materials Engineer;
2 The existence of deleterious minerals in all  discussions during the joint materials inspection;
aggregates. If present, measures to deal with  and to include the results of any additional
the problem must be proposed. testing or investigation which may be required
3 Deviations and Innovations of the Consultant.
4 Any deviation from the standards for materials
contained in this Manual which has been If no draft report is required by the Terms of Reference
approved in writing by the Senior Materials for a specific consultancy contract, only a final report will
Engineer, shall be reported on. be submitted.
5 Any suggestions for innovative approaches to
This modified version will constitute the final Materials
the solution of materials‐related problems shall
Report and three copies must be submitted to the Senior
be set out, even if such approaches have not, or
Materials Engineer at least 4 weeks before the tender
not yet, been approved in writing by the Senior
documentation is due to be finalised. The Final Materials
Materials Engineer.
Report will form part of the Design Report.
Environmental Aspects
4.12.5 Tender Materials Report
Environmental issues relating to materials shall be
A materials report for tender purposes must be prepared
reported on. Relevant information extracted from the
by the Consultant from the approved Final Materials
Environmental Impact Assessment shall be included and
Report. This version must be completely factual and
discussed. Further information in this regard can be
must therefore exclude discussions, opinions and
found in the Roads Authority's Environmental Manual.
contentious issues where these would be confusing or
Major Structures misleading or potentially so to the Contractor. Care must
Testing and investigations carried out in accordance with however be taken to ensure that all information which
the Procedures Manual for the foundations of bridges may be relevant to the Tender is disclosed for contractual
and other major structures shall be reported on. reasons.
The foundation conditions at each bridge and other A copy of the Tender Materials Report must be made
major structures, and the design philosophy proposed for available to all Tenderers.
the foundations of such structures must be given.
4.13 Inspection of quarries and borrowpits
4.12.3 Draft Materials Report
Five copies of a preliminary, or draft, materials report 4.13.1 General
covering at least the aspects detailed in 4.12.2 above, After the preliminary, or draft, materials report has been
plus the proposed pavement design, must be submitted submitted to the Senior Materials Engineer the
to the Senior Materials Engineer. The required time of Consultant must arrange with the former for a joint
submission of this draft report, which must include all inspection of borrowpits and quarries proposed for
borrowpit and soil survey sheets, drilling logs, and all construction, as well as areas along the route where
other pertinent information, in a fully completed form, specific geotechnical problems are expected to be
will vary from project to project and must be agreed encountered.
upon between the Roads Authority and the Consultant at
the project handover meeting. This inspection should be carried out at the earliest
possible date to allow time for any additional
The aim in setting this date is to allow sufficient time for investigation or testing which the Senior Materials
the Roads Authority to study the report prior to the Engineer may require to be carried out.
materials inspection.
4.13.2 Arrangements
4.12.4 Final Materials Report The Consultant must draw up a suitable programme for
The preliminary, or draft, materials report must be the inspection and submit this to the Senior Materials
modified in the light of

MATERIALS INVESTIGATION FOR ROADWORKS WATER INVESTIGATIONS
Engineer approximately one week before the inspection

takes place.
The Senior Materials Engineer and his staff will make

their own arrangements to travel to and from a mutually
acceptable and agreed point on the route. The
Consultant will be responsible to provide transport along
the route of a nature suitable to fulfil the programme. In
addition to himself and any member of his staff, the
Consultant must allow for a maximum of three Roads
Authority officials to attend this inspection.
The Consultant must ensure that all items on the

programme can be quickly located by him, including all
holes sampled.
4.14 Water Investigations

The duties of the Consultant in respect of water
investigations are stated in the Procedures Manual.
In cases where water for construction and domestic use

is not readily available in the vicinity of a road project the
Consultant shall motivate the justification for and likely
financial implications of involving specialists such as a
hydrogeologist, drill contractor or other specialists as
may be necessary to provide enough information on
which contractors could base their tenders.

INTRODUCTION STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF It is however, recognised that there are other ways to

carry out the structural design of pavements. Special
PAVEMENTS circumstances or specific solutions to specific problems
may require the use of design philosophies other than
5.1 Introduction that specified.
In such cases, and bearing in mind the objective of

5.1.1 Objective
providing an adequate pavement at least cost, the Roads
The objective of pavement design is the provision of an
Authority will consider a well‐motivated submission
economically justifiable pavement structure to withstand
aimed at an alternative design approach
the expected traffic loading over the design life of the
pavement.
5.2 Design of flexible pavements
5.1.2 Achievement of objective
The objective is achieved by providing successive layers 5.2.1 Roads Authority's design policy
of granular materials, either natural or treated, which The Roads Authority requires that pavement design
have sufficient strength to resist the imposed stresses. follows the approach set out in the document "Structural
Often the uppermost layer of the pavement is a thin Design of Interurban and Rural Road Pavements" TRH 4 :
surface treatment which does not significantly contribute 1985, published by the National Institute for Transport
to the cover or pavement strength. Its purpose is merely and Road Research, CSIR, P O Box 395, Pretoria.
to seal off the pavement against the ingress of water and
For pavement rehabilitation investigation and design, the
to provide a safe and dust‐free contact between the
guidelines and approach followed in draft TRH12:
wheel and the pavement. Such a layer therefore does
“Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Investigation and
not enter into the structural analysis but certainly does
Design” 1997 shall be followed.
enter into cost considerations.
In the case of the design of bitumen‐stabilised materials
5.1.3 Types of pavements
the guidelines of TG2: “Bitumen Stabilised Materials”
Pavements can be divided at the outset into flexible and
May 2009 shall be followed. This is available from the
rigid types. The latter would normally be considered only
Asphalt Academy in South Africa, c/o CSIR Built
for very high traffic counts or loads or for special
Environment, PO Box 395, Pretoria, 0001.
applications, for instance very steep grades such as may
be encountered in township development. 5.2.2 Design process
Only the TRH4 approach is covered hereafter. Where
Severe traffic conditions such as may warrant the use of a
mechanistic or other designs are specified in the Terms of
rigid pavement do not as yet occur in Namibia. The
Reference, the Consultant shall motivate the design
construction of township or other local roads where
procedures that he will follow and the computer
grades are so steep as to justify the consideration of a
software he envisages making use of.
rigid pavement is outside the scope of this manual.
Therefore at this stage, only flexible pavements are Rehabilitation and bitumen stabilisation design
considered. However, attention is drawn to 5.1.4 hereof. procedures still have to be added in future.
Should an occasion arise where the designer considers a
rigid pavement to be a viable solution, then he must
discuss the matter with the Senior Materials Engineer There are three phases to the design process, being:
and, where appropriate, obtain the Roads Authority's
 gathering of inputs;
policy on the matter.
 structural analysis;
5.1.4 Design Approach  economic analysis of the road design options.
The Roads Authority's policy for structural design of
However, in order to obtain the most suitable design
pavements is given in the following section of this
both technically and economically, an iterative procedure
manual.
may be necessary.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
5.2.3 Gathering of inputs Traffic

The inputs to the design consist of the following: The Roads Authority assesses traffic volumes and axle
wheel loading on proclaimed roads at regular intervals by
 road category; various methods, including permanent and periodically
 environment; manned weighbridges, sophisticated axle weight
 traffic; analysers and automatic counters at a large number of
 design strategy. permanent and ad hoc national traffic counting stations.
Road category Available traffic data on the Traffic Surveillance System

The designer must confer with the Senior Materials (TSS) includes hourly and daily counts per lane, classified
Engineer to arrive at an agreed category of road in terms into light and heavy vehicles. This information appears in
of Paragraph 1 of TRH 4. the Road Management System. Truck and bus axle
loading data are available from a weighbridge
Environment
management system maintained by the Roads Authority,
The principal environmental factors having an effect on
including daily statistics on average axle loading per type
the design are:
of truck and for the full heavy vehicle component of the
 climate; traffic on a specific road served by the weighbridge.
 subgrade quality;
Historical growth patterns, traffic levels and axle loads to
 materials availability; determine the equivalent single axle loading over the
 drainage. pavement design period may thus be available for the
road in question.
Climate: The basic climatic regime over large areas of
Namibia is characterised by high temperatures and
The designer is required to discuss the various aspects of
evaporation rates, and low precipitation. These factors
traffic and axle load determination for any particular
must be borne in mind during the design process, as
project with the Senior Materials Engineer and to reach
must the relatively high level of ultra‐violet radiation.
agreement on the approach to be used, growth rates,
These climatic factors present an opportunity in certain etc, before commencing with any detailed studies of
cases to make use, with the approval of the Roads traffic‐related matters.
Authority, of non‐standard approaches including the
possible use of materials of marginal quality. In any case, the Consultant will be instructed in the
Terms of Reference of the consultancy contract whether
Subgrade Quality: No expansion on the exposition in TRH
or not he must carry out additional short‐term traffic
4 is necessary.
counts or related traffic surveys, as may be necessary for
Materials Availability: In large areas of Namibia, the the purpose of the design process.
availability of roadbuilding gravels is limited. Pedogenic
Design strategy
materials, particularly calcrete, are common. Rock
The analysis period and structural design period must be
suitable for crushing for use in bituminous surfacing is
discussed and agreed upon with the Senior Materials
non‐existent or extremely limited in many areas. All
Engineer before proceeding with the pavement design.
these factors open the way for innovative solutions to
the twin problems of technical adequacy and cost
effectiveness. The design period will normally be 20 years, but there
may be sound reasons to depart from this norm.
Drainage: Even in the light of the dry conditions existing
over most of Namibia, drainage of the pavement layers Stage construction is an option which must receive
remains an important factor which cannot be consideration in the design phase.
overlooked. The requirements of the Drainage Manual
5.2.4 Structural analysis
shall be followed.
The approach set out in TRH 4 is based on a catalogue of
design solutions which have been checked by a

DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
mechanistic design method, and should be followed

unless otherwise agreed to or instructed by the Roads
Authority in the Terms of Reference issued for the
consultancy services.
5.3 Design of rigid pavements

This subsection of the Manual has been omitted at this
stage of the development of Namibia, for reasons set out
in §5.1.3.
Should a need for a rigid pavement arise, the Roads

Authority should be approached for guidance as to
official policy.

MATERIALS STANDARDS INTRODUCTION
6 MATERIALS STANDARDS The matter must be discussed with the Senior Materials
Engineer in cases where the strength of the in situ
material in the roadbed or that of the material available
6.1 Introduction for Fill approaches the lower limit.
This section of the Materials Manual sets out the normal
requirements of the Roads Authority for the various Other Standards
materials comprising the pavement layers in the road. Standards relating to compaction and maximum stone
These materials standards presuppose that material size are summarised in COLTO Table 3402/1.
complying with the requirements can be found within
economic haul distances, if at all. Additional Compaction Requirements
In the case of road widening where new work is
Where a road is to be constructed in accordance with the constructed next to the existing road prism, differential
COLTO Standard Specifications and any standard in this settlement may occur between the old and new work
Manual differs from that specified in COLTO, then the and provision shall be made for the Fill to be compacted
standard to be applied to a specific road must be cleared to 93% Mod AASHTO density instead of the specified 90%
with the Senior Materials Engineer at tender in Table 3402/1.
documentation stage and specified in the Project
6.2.3 Standards : Selected Layers
Specifications of the Works Contract
General
The standards for selected layers in respect of
6.2 Fill, Roadbed and Selected Layer
compaction, strength (CBR), swell, Atterberg Constants
and grading shall comply with the requirements in the
6.2.1 Definitions
The reader is referred specifically to Section 1100 of COLTO Table 3402/2.
COLTO, but also subsequent Sections where appropriate,
Grading
for definitions of the various terms used in the Manual. COLTO Table 3402/1 allows an adjustment to the
specified Plasticity Index (PI) according to the Grading
6.2.2 Standards : Fill and Roadbed
Modulus (GM) of the material.
California Bearing Ratio
No material with a CBR of less than three percent (3%) at The Grading Modulus is determined as follows:
specified or in‐situ density shall be permitted within one 300 2,00 0,425 0,075
metre of the final road level, or within the Material
100
Depth, whichever is the biggest. The Material Depth is
based on Road Category must be based on the where
recommendations of TRH 4. This depth approximates the
P2,00 = % passing the 2,00 mm sieve
pavement cover necessary for a relatively poor soil of 1
to 2% soaked CBR strength.
Material within the material depth shall have a CBR at
Additional Compaction Requirements
least equal to the value of the design CBR, when
Refer to § 6‐2.2.3. In the case of road widening the
compacted to 90% MAASHTO density in the case of Fill
Selected layers shall be compacted to 95% Mod AASHTO
material, or when at the natural density in the case of in‐
density instead of the specified 93% in Table 3402/2 of
situ material (or 100% MAASHTO density in the case of
COLTO.
the material being a sand).
Durability requirements
The design CBR value (at the relevant density) is a
Except where mudrock is used as Selected material, there
minimum value which shall be met in not less than 90%
is no durability requirement. The requirements in COLTO
of cases, with the remaining 10% of cases CBRs of no less
Table 3402/2 shall be complied with.
than two percent (2%).

SUBBASE MATERIALS STANDARDS
Adequate precautions shall be adopted where the

6.3 Subbase
Subbase material is susceptible to carbonation. (Refer to
6.3.1 Introduction Section 7.14 of this Manual).
Material for the Subbase shall normally consist of
Where stabilisation is necessary, properties of the
unprocessed natural gravels, or stabilised subbase at high
untreated and treated material for use in Subbase shall
traffic volumes. If no complying suitable natural gravel is
be those given COLTO Table 3402/5.
available, processing thereof by screening or crushing
and screening may be considered, substandard material
may be stabilised, or as a rare alternative crushed rock 6.4 Shoulders
can be used.
6.4.1 General
Most Subbase sources are suitable for Shoulders since
The cost of these alternatives would be high and must be
the required properties are the same as those for
considered, motivated to the Senior Materials Engineer
Subbase, with exceptions in respect of strength (CBR) and
and his acceptance thereof must be obtained.
plasticity (PI). However, due to material requirements
when a road is to be widened in the future, the
6.3.2 Untreated materials Consultant must endeavour to always use material
The material standards for untreated subbase are complying with a G5 material standard.
included in COLTO Table 3402/1. There are durability
requirements on Subbase material when mudrock is The merits for surfacing of the Shoulders must be
used. discussed with the Senior Materials Engineer.
Where material meeting the Grading Modulus 6.4.2 Durability Requirements

requirement is not available within economic haul Except where mudrock is used as Shoulder material,
distances, the Senior Materials Engineer should be there is no durability requirement. The requirements in
consulted before material is imported over longer COLTO Table 3402/1 shall be complied with.
distances.
6.5 Base
6.3.3 Treated material 6.5.1 General
Where the material for the subbase is to be stabilised for
All requirements for the various types of Base material
one of the following reasons, the stabilisation design
are listed in COLTO Tables 3402/1 to 5, and 3602/1 to 3,
shall be approached in accordance with Section 7.14
including certain relaxed standards in respect of
(Stabilisation) of this Manual:
pedogenic materials such as calcrete.
 to improve substandard material;
Further relaxed material standards may be considered by
 when a cementitious subbase is required over a
the Senior Materials Engineer provided adequate
weak subgrade; or
motivation is submitted and agreed.
 when a cementitious subbase is required to
support a bitumen treated Base, waterbound
macadam, crushed stone Base or asphalt layer Crushing and Screening
on the Base. Crushed stone for G1 Base shall consist totally of
products derived from crushing of solid unweathered
Unless required by the pavement design, stabilisation of rock of adequate strength. The smaller sizes or crusher
material for subbase must however be seen as an option fines may have to be removed by screening and added
to be adopted in exceptional circumstances only. back in controlled quantities where such treatment is
Stabilisation of Subbase shall be considered before necessary to consistently produce the desired grading.
stabilisation of the Base.
Where boulders, cobbles and coarse gravel are crushed,
pre‐screening will be required to remove the natural
fines.

MATERIALS STANDARDS BASE
In the case of G2 and G3 Base, the crushed stone will be Where a natural pedogenic source is used for G4 Base,
derived from a source with adequate strength and the material must comply with the grading requirements
yielding insufficient fines (either due to hardness of marked ** (after compaction).
aggregate or inadequacy of the crusher set‐up) to which
a binder may be added in order to achieve the desired Where a natural source of pedogenic material for use in a
grading. G4 Base does not comply with the grading requirements
marked ** (after compaction), and the pavement design
The source may, however, also be naturally occurring justifies the use of a material at “Relaxed” standards, the
gravel which will require processing by means of crushing grading shall comply with grading in the table marked
in order to obtain a satisfactory product. It will usually be ***.
necessary to pre‐screen the material before crushing and
discarded or added back in strictly controlled quantities, % PASSING
SIEVE G4* G4** G4***
as may be relevant. For the fines to be usable in the G3 SIZE (NON‐PEDOGENIC, (PEDOGENIC, PEDOGENIC,
Base, it should be of suitable uniformity and quality, and (MM) UNCRUSHED) UNCRUSHED) UNCRUSHED)
the quantity must not be excessive. 53,0 100 100 100
37,5 85 ‐ 100 85 ‐ 100
If the available material source does not meet the criteria 26,5 ‐ 72 ‐ 95
for crushing strength, the Senior Materials Engineer shall 19,0 60 ‐ 90 60 ‐ 90
be consulted to obtain approval for the use of a reduced 13,2 ‐ 52 ‐ 83 max 95
standard where sources of better material either do not 4,75 30 ‐ 65 30 ‐ 65 max 80
exist or are uneconomic to import. The Consultant shall 2,00 20 ‐ 50 20 ‐ 50 max 65
inter alia evaluate and motivate the risk of crushing of 0,475 10 ‐ 30 10 ‐ 35 max 40
the material under traffic. 0,075 5 ‐ 15 5 ‐ 15 max 20
* COLTO Standard Specifications; ** RA Specifications for Pedogenic
Materials; *** RA Relaxed Standard
Deleterious Minerals Table 6‐1 : Natural Base grading requirements
Sulphide Minerals: Crushed rock containing sulphide
minerals shall be investigated for deleterious effects. In all cases where the use of a Relaxed standard G4
pedogenic Base is proposed, for whatever reason, the
Mica: Base material containing easily visible mica,
matter must first be discussed with the Materials
especially in the form of muscovite, should be
Engineer and his approval obtained. Permission to use
investigated for compaction problems before use and, if
such material will normally only be granted where traffic
possible, should be avoided.
is very low, and sources of better material either do not
Soluble Salts: The occurrence of soluble salts in the exist or are uneconomic to import.
material shall be governed by the electrical conductivity
of the material, which shall not exceed 0,15 Sm‐1 Atterberg constants
The Maximum Plasticity Index for the RA Relaxed
If this limit is exceeded, then special measures must be standard for pedogenic materials is 10 (refer to previous
adopted consistent with the requirements of COLTO sub‐clause).
clause 3602, and the Materials Engineer must be
consulted in this regard. Deleterious Minerals
The provisions of §6.5.2 on Deleterious Minerals will
apply.
6.5.2 Untreated Natural Base (G4 Type)
Durability
Grading
A G4 Base material shall comply with the durability
Two additional grading standards of the Roads Authority
requirements of COLTO Table 3402/3, ie the Durability
are included in the table below in respect of uncrushed
Mill Index (DMI).
pedogenic Base material, marked ** and ***. The latter
is called the “Relaxed” grading specification.

WEARING COURSE GRAVEL MATERIALS STANDARDS
Ethylene Glycol soak tests may be necessary where Basic stabilisation shall be as for G4 pedogenic (relaxed
Crystalline rock occur in the base material, generally in standard) and G4 (non‐pedogenic) respectively given in
combination with wet and dry 10% FACT tests. Table 6‐1. Where material from Basic Crystalline rock is
used, the plasticity in the material must be reduced to
In the case of calcrete the minimum Dry 10% FACT shall non‐plastic using lime stabilisation/modification.
be 80*.
Material for stabilisation as Base material must comply
* If this lower strength requirement is motivated and the requirements set out in Table 7‐10 of this manual.
acceptable to the Roads Authority for a specific road Accelerated wet/dry carbonation tests will be required to
project, then the requirements in the COLTO Standard indicate the risk of carbonation. All other requirements
Specification will have to be adjusted accordingly in the are generally as for non‐treated material as set out in §
Project Specifications. 6.5.2.
The requirements for bitumen stabilised materials (BSM)

6.5.3 Treated Base
shall comply with the recommendations of Manual TG2
General of the Asphalt Academy.
It is highly unlikely that treated G1, G2 and G3 Bases will
Side Slopes
be used in new road construction at the present stage of
For reasons related to road safety the road side slopes
the development of the Namibian road system. The
outside the shoulder breakpoints are considered part of
treatment of a G4 Base material on the other hand
the vehicle recovery area, and require a compacted
should only be considered as a last resort, in cases where
surface. Consultants must specify that side slopes shall be
material suitable for untreated Base is either
trimmed by cutting into approved compacted layerworks
unobtainable or is uneconomical to import.
to specified cross‐section dimensions.
The use of foam and emulsion‐treated Base has a place in
the rehabilitation of existing roads, in which case the 6.6 Wearing Course Gravel
Senior Materials Engineer shall be consulted to ascertain
the Roads Authority's current policy in respect of any 6.6.1 General
These standards apply to gravel for use as a wearing
preference.
course on unsurfaced roads. Generally any material
which is readily available and has been found to be
satisfactory by experience may be used. These standards
The requirements for bitumen‐stabilised base (BSM) should therefore be regarded only as a guide to the
must still be formalised. selection of suitable material.
The recommendations of TRH 20 shall generally be

Requirements
followed.
The requirement for CBR for treated G4 Base is 120
(minimum) at specified compaction, but this test is only 6.6.2 Requirements
for indicative purposes. The minimum UCS and ITS values The material will generally be a natural gravel but may
for chemical stabilisation of Base must comply with the require to be broken down by rolling or hand knapping.
requirements of Table 7‐10 of this Manual. The minimum It may also require the admixture of a suitable soil binder
stabiliser content of the stabilised material must comply or the mixing with another gravel. The thickness of the
with the Initial Consumption of Stabiliser from the soil layer should normally be between 100 and 150 mm.
(ICS) test, plus one percent (1%). The recommendations Material having the characteristics discussed hereunder
of TRH 4, TRH5 and TRH 14 shall otherwise be followed. should generally produce a satisfactory gravel wearing
course.
The Plasticity Index may not exceed 12 or 15 before
stabilisation for non‐pedogenic and pedogenic materials 6.6.3 Properties
respectively, 6 after stabilisation. The grading of Experience has shown that a great variety of gradings of
pedogenic and non‐pedogenic treated G4 Bases after natural gravel have performed well in practice and no

MATERIALS STANDARDS WEARING COURSE GRAVEL
fixed grading envelope can be given as essential for good Fresh gravels after laboratory processing and mixing with
performance. brine should meet the criteria in the table below:
The wearing course shall preferably be continuously QUALITY INDICATOR SPECIFIED LIMIT
graded so that it compacts to a hard, dense surface Gravel Quality:
which will not pothole or corrugate excessively under the Plasticity Index Min 4% if soluble salt >2.0%
normal climatic conditions in the particular area. Min 10% if soluble salt <2,0%
% passing 0,075 mm sieve min 15%
The maximum size of the material after compaction shall Soluble Salt Content %
wherever possible not exceed 37,5 mm. In gravel Min 1,5%
In brine:
The wearing course material shall consist of natural For top 50 mm Min 18%
gravel and shall, after the processing and/or mechanical For lower 100 mm Min 8%
stabilisation thereof, comply with the recommendations Gypsum Content Min 10%
Grading and Compaction:
of Table 1 in Draft TRH 20.
Maximum size 26,5 mm
For the calculation of the grading coefficient and the GM 1.0 to 2.2 (Ideal below 1.5)
shrinkage product the results of the grading analysis, Density minimum: 93% Mod AASHTO
aim : 95% Mod AASHTO
calculated as a percentage of the component passing
Table 6‐2 : Salt‐gravel property guidelines
the 37,5 mm sieve shall be used.
Rapid evaluation of road samples may be carried out on
The CBR shall be determined in accordance with Method
site to predict performance or possible maintenance
A8 of TMH1 subject to the following amendment:
problems. Two elementary tests are carried out on the
 the CBR‐value shall be determined on ‐37,5 mm fines of the sampled material as follows :
material only, and
 Determine the resistance value (R) by means of
 any material coarser than 37,5 mm shall be
a conductivity meter
excluded from the test.
 Knead a handful of wetted fines and attempt to
6.6.4 Compaction roll a thread of this material. Record the ease
The material shall be compacted in a moist condition to with which this is possible. If a thread can be
at least 95% of Mod AASHTO density. rolled easily it is a sign of plasticity so record a
“+” sign. If it is not possible to roll thread at all
6.6.5 Guidelines for a Salt-Gravel Wearing record a “‐” sign. If some doubt exists record
Course “0”.
The following guidelines based on practical experience
should prove of assistance when considering salt‐gravel The recorded R values and PI indications for each sample
roads. gives a preliminary assessment of what to expect of the
wearing course, by reference to Table 6‐3 below:
The most important material properties to ensure a
stable riding surface seem to be the soluble salt content R VALUE PI EXPECTED PERFORMANCE
and plasticity or a combination of the two. Gypsum is ‐ 30 + Excellent. May be slippery when misty.
certainly not detrimental but its role is not predictable.
‐ 30 0 Very good. Expect some stripping.
Bearing in mind that brine is normally used as the
‐ 30 ‐ Reasonable. Large aggregate will strip.
compaction water, it follows that any testing of fresh
gravels from borrowpits should first be laboratory + 30 + Good.
compacted at optimum using brine from the nearest
source. This of course is not necessary when testing road + 30 0 Mediocre if fine. Poor if coarse.
samples. Poor. Expect severe corrugations and
+ 30 ‐
rutting
Table 6‐3 : Rapid evaluation of salt‐gravel

AGGREGATE FOR SEALS AND ASPHALT MATERIALS STANDARDS
6.7.4 Aggregate for Asphalt Surfacing

6.7 AGGREGATE FOR SEALS AND
ASPHALT General
The aggregate for the various types of asphalt surfacings
6.7.1 Sand for Sand Seals
shall conform to the requirements of the tables included
This must consist of a coarse sand, free of dust,
under COLTO Section 4200.
containing no particles greater than 6,7 mm. The grading
of the sand should preferably lie on the coarse side of the Compatibility of Aggregate with Various Types of Binders
envelope in COLTO Table 4903/1.
See paragraph 6.8.2 of this Manual.
Sand consisting of soft weathered particles is not
acceptable. The sand equivalent must be at least 35. 6.8 Bituminous binders for seals, asphalt
surfacing and crack sealing
6.7.2 Coarse Aggregate for Seals
General 6.8.1 Bituminous Binders Normally Used

Coarse aggregate must comply with the requirements for Modified binders have been classified under a code
Grade S stone in SANS 1083, subsection 3.3.2, adjusted consisting of three elements:
consistent with the requirements of Grade 2 aggregate in
 application: For use in surfacing seals (cold and
COLTO Table 4302/8.
hot; S‐ and SC‐), asphalt (A‐), crack sealing (cold
Compatibility of Aggregate with Various Types of Binders and hot; C‐ and CC‐), and under
 type of modification: The predominant modifier
See paragraph 6.8.2 of this Manual. group [polymer (elastomer and plastomer types;
‐E and ‐P), and crumbed rubber (‐R), with a
6.7.3 Aggregate for Slurry Seal  numerical no: Related to product properties or
This must conform to the requirements of SANS 1083
requirements, which classification must be
subsection 3.2.3. The grading shall comply with COLTO
applied to identify the type of bitumen selected
Table 4302/11 for the type of slurry specified by the
or specified for a project. The controlling
designer.
specifications with spraying or mixing
In addition, to ensure adequate hardness for good temperature ranges of the most used bitumen
durability the aggregate shall be derived from an binders are listed in Table 6‐4.
approved surfacing stone or base material quarry. In
Note: The binder codes above are not used in this
order to improve the grading or augment supplies of
Manual, but are included as reference when compared
crusher dust, up to 25% of the total aggregate may
with TG1 requirements.
consist of natural sand having sufficiently hard particles.
The use of such sands on their own may also be
considered provided that this would result in a
considerable cost saving and adhesion to the bitumen
emulsion must be acceptable, otherwise not.
In all cases where the use of such a sand is proposed,

samples thereof shall be submitted to the Roads
Authority's Central Laboratory in Windhoek for approval,
together with a cost analysis of the alternatives.
The use of friable sands will not be permitted.

MATERIALS STANDARDS BITUMINOUS BINDERS FOR SEALS, ASPHALT SURFACING AND CRACK SEALING
SPRAY 6.8.2 Selection of Binder

PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
TEMP
General
Primers: The binder for a specific seal must be selected on the
MC30 grade cutback bitumen SANS 308 45 ‐ 65°C basis of recommendations in TRH3 as well as the
MC70 grade cutback bitumen SANS 308 60 ‐ 80°C
Inverted bitumen emulsion SANS 1260 60 ‐ 80°C
experience of the Consultant and the Materials Engineer.
Selected information on the selection and use of binders
Spray grades: and binder‐aggregate combinations are included here.
Conventional binders:
80/100 pen grade bitumen SANS 307 165 ‐ 190°C For higher traffic conditions in excess of 1000 vpd it is
150/200 pen grade bitumen SANS 307 150 ‐ 175°C
advisable to use a bitumen with a higher viscosity and
MC3000 grade cutback bitumen SANS 38 135 ‐ 155°C
Spray grade (60) anionic ‐ softening point, which may be a modified binder.
SANS 309 40 ‐ 60°C
bitumen emulsion Modified binders will require a higher application rate
Spray grade (65) cationic ‐ than conventional penetration grade bitumen.
SANS 548 60 ‐ 80°C
bitumen emulsion
Modified homogeneous binders: In the case of the sand seal specification, experience has
SBR polymer modified AsAc TG1 190 ‐ 210°C
SBS polymer modified AsAc TG1 175 ‐ 185°C
shown that an MC 3000 cutback bitumen and sand with
Polymer modified emulsion AsAc TG1 50 ‐ 80°C high silica content perform satisfactorily, especially in
Modified non‐homogenous binders: drier regions.
(Base:60/70 ‐ 150/200) SANS 307 ‐
Rubber modified SABITA Manual 6 195 ‐ 210°C Water for surfacing
Water that is fit for drinking is usually suitable for the
Asphalt (premix grades): dilution of cationic (spray grade and stable grade)
Conventional binders: emulsion and for anionic stable grade (mix) emulsion.
Compatibility of the water to be used to dilute emulsions
80/100 pen grade bitumen SANS 307 135 ‐ 155°C must nevertheless be checked. In all cases the water shall
Spray grade (60) anionic ‐
SANS 309
ambient be added gradually to the emulsion and not vice versa.
bitumen emulsion temperature
Spray grade (65) cationic ‐ ambient
bitumen emulsion
SANS 548
temperature
Anionic spray grade emulsion must never be diluted.
Modified homogeneous binders:
Elastomer modified: SBR AsAc TG1 175 ‐ 190°C Binder/aggregate compatibility
SBS AsAc TG1 170 ‐ 180°C Basic (non‐siliceous) aggregates such as dolerite,
Plastomer modified AsAc TG1 150 ‐ 170°C dolomite, basalt, diabase and andesite perform
Hydrocarbon modified (microsur) ‐ 145 ‐ 165°C
Modified non‐homogeneous binders:
satisfactorily with penetration bitumen, cutback bitumen,
(Base:60/70 ‐ 150/200) SANS 307 ‐ tar and anionic or cationic bitumen emulsions. In view of
Rubber modified AsAc TG1 ambient the minimal difference in cost between cationic and
anionic spray and premix grade bitumen emulsions, as
Stable grade emulsion:
well as for practical consideration, the former shall
Spray grade (60) anionic ‐ ambient
SANS 309
bitumen emulsion temperature normally be used. However, in the case of stable grade
Spray grade (65) cationic ‐ ambient emulsions, anionic emulsion is likely to be more cost‐
SANS 548
bitumen emulsion temperature
Crack sealing grades: effective and is to be used.
Modified homogeneous binders:
Elastomer modified (hot) AsAc TG1 160 ‐ 180°C Table 6‐5 indicates which binder/aggregate combinations
Elastomer modified (cold) AsAc TG1 Ambient would likely be compatible.
Modified non‐homogeneous binders:
(Base: 60/70 ‐ 80/100) SANS 307 ‐
Rubber modified AsAc TG1 180 ‐ 190°C
Enrichment emulsions:
MSP3 Inverted bitumen emulsion Colas Notes 65°C
Table 6‐4 : Bitumen spray and mix temperatures

AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE MATERIALS STANDARDS
AGGREGATE It shall comply with the requirements of section 3.3.1 of

BINDER TYPE NON‐ SANS 1083. The requirements are given in Table 6‐7.
SILICEOUS
SILICEOUS
Penetration grade bitumen No Yes GRADING
MC3000 cutback bitumen No* Yes
sieve
Cationic bitumen emulsion nominal size of stone (mm)
Spray Yes Yes 75,0 53,0 37,5 26,5 19,0 13,2 9,5 6,7
Premix Yes Yes
75,0 100 100
Stable Yes No
Anionic bitumen emulsion 85‐
Spray No Yes** 53,0 0‐50 100
100
Premix No Yes** 85‐
Stable Yes Yes 37,5 0‐25 0‐50 100
100
* For sand surface dressing specifications MC 3000 cutback may
85‐
be used with silica sands 26,5 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
** For practical considerations, cationic spray and premium 100
emulsions are used instead of anionic emulsions. 85‐
19,0 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
Table 6‐5 : Bitumen ‐ aggregate combinations 100
85‐
13,2 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50 100
100
85‐
6.9 Aggregates for Concrete 9,5 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50
100
100
85‐
6,7 0‐5 0‐25 0‐50
6.9.1 Fine and Coarse Aggregate 100
The fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand or crusher 4,75 0‐10 0‐10 0‐10
dust and shall comply with the requirements of section
DUST CONTENT (0,075mm) ‐ MAX 1,5
3.2.1 of SANS 1083. Those requirements are given below
in Table 6‐6. AGGREGATE CRUSHING VALUE ‐ MAX 29
10% FACT (‐13,2 +9,5mm fraction, dry)
SAND DERIVED SAND DERIVED Stone subject to surface abrasion 110
FROM NATURAL FROM CRUSHING
Stone not subject to surface abrasion 70
DISINTEGRATION OR MILLING OF
OF ROCK ROCK Table 6‐7 : Basic concrete stone requirements
Grading: % of material
passing the following sieves (mm)
4,750 90 ‐ 100 90 ‐ 100 In addition the drying‐shrinkage characteristics in
0,150 0 ‐ 15 0 ‐ 20 accordance with SANS Method 836 of both aggregates
Dust content shall be such that:
5 10
(<0,075 mm) max
Fineness Modulus 1,6 ‐ 3,5  concrete for prestressed concrete and slender
Chloride content elements shall not exceed 130% of the shrinkage
Sand for concrete for prestressing: 0,01
expressed as
Sand for other classes of concrete: 0,03 of the reference aggregate;
Cl % (m/m) max
The colour of the liquid above the sand  for other reinforced concrete the shrinkage of
shall not be darker than the colour of the the fine aggregate shall not exceed 175%, and
Organic Impurities reference solution, except if the sand
complies with the requirements for
for the coarse aggregate not 150%, of the
soluble deleterious impurities. shrinkage of the reference aggregate;
To be free from sugar unless the sand  for mass and unreinforced concrete the
Presence of sugar complies with the requirement for
soluble deleterious impurities. shrinkage of both aggregates shall not exceed
The strength of the mortar made with the 200% of that of the reference aggregate;
Soluble deleterious sand shall not be less than 85% of that of  concrete made with these aggregates shall
impurities mortar made with the same sand after it
has been washed. exhibit shrinkage less than 0.04% (SANS Method
Table 6‐6 : Concrete aggregate properties 1085);
The coarse aggregate shall consist of clean crushed or The flakiness Index shall not exceed 35 (TMH1 Method
processed rock or clean natural gravel, suitably screened. B3), aggregates shall not contain any deleterious
amounts of organic materials such as grass and timber,

MATERIALS STANDARDS AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE
and aggregate shall be tested for potential alkali‐

aggregate reaction.
6.9.2 Cement
The cement used shall comply with following
specifications.
 Normal Portland Cement, Rapid‐Hardening

Portland Cement or Sulphate‐Resisting Cement :
the latest amendment of SABS Specification No
471 (ie SANS 50197‐1);
 Portland Blast Furnace Cement: the latest
amendment of SABS Specification No 626;
 Where any potentially alkali‐reactive rock is
used for concrete, a low alkali cement shall be
used, i.e. a cement with a total alkali content,
expressed as % Na20 equivalent, of less than
0,6%. In addition the total alkali content per
cubic metre of concrete shall not exceed 2,10
kg/m3.

INTRODUCTION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7 MATERIALS DESIGN In no case do these guidelines absolve a Consulting

Engineer from his responsibility to produce a technically
GUIDELINES sound and economical design.
In this Section reference to 19, 13, 9 and 6 mm

7.1 Introduction aggregate, seals or parts of seals shall be construed to
This section of the Manual sets out guidelines for certain mean 19,0 mm; 13,2 mm; 9,5 mm and 6,7mm nominal
elements of the roadbuilding process, mainly in respect size aggregate or seals based on this aggregate.
of seals and asphalt surfacing, but including some
discussion on stabilisation, concrete mixes and bypasses. 7.2 Bituminous Surfacing - General
The purpose of this section of the Manual is to provide 7.2.1 Type of Surfacing
some practical, basic background for use during materials Dense graded premix (continuous or gap graded) would
design and tender documentation by personnel who may normally only be considered in the following
at times be out of contact with their technical support circumstances :
structures. It is not intended to be a definitive exposition
on the subjects touched upon, nor a substitute for proper  on major works where initial traffic exceeds 400
design and sound engineering judgement related to the heavy vehicles in both directions per day i.e. an
specific circumstances. AADT of about 4000 EVU's;
 in urban areas for practical reasons related to
Aspects that are covered in the COLTO Standard surfacing between kerbs and channels, for
Specifications and in the Construction Manual are not minimising disruption to traffic or to resist
repeated. horizontal shear forces at roundabouts or
approaches to robot controlled intersections of
Although some guidance is provided under this Section in
main arterials; or
respect of bitumen and stone application rates, these
 in rehabilitation projects, in order to provide a
must be considered only as basic guidelines, for example
levelling course or additional strength.
for planning and budget purposes. All final seal designs
must however be carried out in accordance with the The choice of a surface treatment, on the other hand, is
guidelines of TRH 3. The reason for this is that there are influenced by the following factors :
just too many variables to allow for from the texture,
fattiness and porosity of the surface to be sealed,  traffic;
embedment to allow for in the design, temperature, the  climate;
ALD, flakiness, porosity and application rate of the stone,  turning actions;
to the more important traffic and heavy component  gradient;
thereof, amount of construction traffic, steep grades with  cost;
slow speeds or areas with severe deceleration, etc.  logistics.
Spread rates must generally be such that a shoulder‐to‐ However, there are other considerations affecting the
shoulder aggregate layer with no double chipping is seal type to be adopted, and the matter must be
achieved. In certain cases the stone application may be discussed with the Senior Materials Engineer before the
opened up slightly to allow adequate space for choice is finalised.
subsequent stone or seal layer(s), if considered necessary
by the designer. Bitumen spray rate guidelines given in
The following table, which is based on traffic and climatic
this Section are based on cold penetration grade bitumen
considerations, serves as a starting point for the selection
and need to be adjusted when other types of bitumen
of a surface treatment.
are specified. Gross spray rates must always be adjusted
in accordance with actual materials and road conditions.

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES BITUMINOUS SURFACING ‐ GENERAL
INITIAL ADT ‐ EVUs other factors such as breaking and turning actions,
> 1 000 400 ‐ 1 000 200 ‐ 4 00 gradient, cost and logistics. The guidelines provided in
Approximate annual rainfall: <450mm
TRH3 must be consulted, but costs such as in the
19mm CS 19mm CS 13 + 7mm
following examples must inter alia be considered:
19mm HS 19mm HS 13mm CS
19 + 9/6mm 13 + 6mm 13mm + S  A 19 mm CS would normally be cheaper than a
13 + 6mm 13mm CS 9mm + S* 19 mm HS in Central and possibly Southern
SSD Namibia, but in Northern Namibia, the 19 mm
Approximate annual rainfall: <450mm
HS is generally cheaper and in addition more
19mm CS 13 + 6mm 13mm CS
labour‐intensive, but environmentally less
13mm + S
friendly.
9mm + S
 From a practical perspective, emulsions should
6mm
generally be avoided on steep grades (6 – 8%),
SSD
Key to table and allowance may have to be made for
19/13 mm CS Cape seal consisting of single or split application construction and opening to traffic of seals in
19.0 or 13.2mm single coat followed by 2 layers
both winter and summer time (where adhesion
of slurry.
19 mm HS As above, except that the two layers of slurry are and bleeding problems are likely).
replaced by a single layer of fine‐graded hot mix
asphalt. Alternative rates should generally be requested in
13 + 6 mm Split application with two bitumen coats using
13.2 mm aggregate followed by 6.7 mm tenders for specific situations. Long‐term economic
aggregate. considerations will of course play a dominant role in the
19 + 9/6 mm Split application with two bitumen coats using
19.2 mm aggregate followed by 9.5 or 6.7 mm final selection process.
aggregate.
13 or 9 mm Split application with a single coat of bitumen 7.2.2 Volatiles and Thermal Expansion Factors
+S using 13.2 mm or 9.5 mm aggregate followed by
a crusher or natural sand blinding*.
The binders given in this Manual have the approximate
* As above except that the sand should be of such volatile contents (according to the relevant SANS
quality as to permit it to be spread before the specifications) and thermal expansions indicated in Table
emulsion has broken.
6 mm Single application, single bitumen coat, using 6.7 7‐2:
mm aggregate.
SSD Sand surface dressing. THERMAL CONVERSION
Table 7‐1 : Acceptable surface treatments BINDER VOLATILES
EXPANSION FACTOR
Pen grade
1,000 1,086 1,09
In the case of the 19mm + 9mm; 19mm + 6mm; 13 mm + bitumen
6 mm; 13 mm + S; 9 mm + S and 6 mm “open” seals, a MC 30 cutback
1,111 1,079 1,20
bitumen
cover or fog spray consisting of equal parts of emulsion
Anionic 60%
and water may have to be included to ensure stone 1,667 1,011 1,69
emulsion
retention. To determine the spray rate required for the Cationic 65%
1,57
tack and penetration sprays (at the preferred fog spray emulsion
S‐E1 polymer
rate of 1,0 ℓ/m² diluted emulsion), 0,5 ℓ/m² of undiluted 1,08
modified
emulsion must be deducted from the total calculated S‐E2 polymer
1,06
spray rate. modified
Bitumen‐
1,07
Penetration grade bitumen or bitumen emulsion binders rubber
could be replaced by homogenous modified binders or Table 7‐2 : Bitumen conversion factors
non‐homogenous binders as appropriate. For resealing
The conversion factor (f) is used to convert cold nett
an enrichment spray such as MSP 3 or diluted emulsion
spray rates to hot gross spray rates. Binders from
could also be considered. The reseal can be applied only
different sources have different temperature conversion
after all volatiles in the enrichment spray have
factors and the user is referred to the manufacturer to
evaporated.
confirm the correct factor for a specific bitumen.
The choice between the various acceptable surface
treatment types given in the table above will depend on

SAND SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.3 Sand seal 7.4 Single application, single coat seal using
6mm aggregate
7.3.1 Description
This specification consists of a spray of binder followed 7.4.1 Description
by the application of a coarse, clean sand. It is a This specification consists of a spray of emulsion covered
surfacing specification normally used for new with 6 mm aggregate. It is commonly used for resealing
construction but can also be used for resealing or for existing surfaced roads. It is occasionally also used for
temporary by‐passes. Usually two layers are specified for surfacing very lightly trafficked roads and for temporary
new construction, but good durability can be expected by‐passes.
from one layer. The second layer can always be applied
at a later stage when this is found to be necessary ‐ this 7.4.2 Bituminous binder
could be several years later. The binder will normally consist of a spray grade
emulsion, either cationic 65% or anionic 60%, complying
7.3.2 Bituminous binder with SANS 548 or SANS 309 respectively. Cationic
The binder will normally be MC 3000 cutback bitumen or emulsion should be used with aggregates with a high
cationic 65% spray grade emulsion, complying with SANS silica content because of its better adhesion properties.
308 or SANS 548 respectively, although penetration Under favourable conditions the use of anionic emulsion,
grade bitumens have also been used effectively. MC 3000 in conjunction with basic aggregate types such as
is normally preferred on account of cost and also its dolerite, could well be advantageous.
resistance to flow on steep grades and superelevations.
On the other hand, consideration should be given to the Modified binders have been used successfully where
use of emulsion as this would result in a reduction in higher temperatures occur or where more flexibility in
petroleum volatiles. Cationic emulsion is to be used with the completed seal is required. Penetration grade
aggregates with high silica content because of its better bitumen could be used successfully with precoated
adhesion properties, but precoating could also be aggregate. All modified binders require precoating of the
considered. aggregate. The procedures hereinafter refer only to
emulsion as binder, but could also be applied to other
7.3.3 Aggregate binders as appropriate.
This has been described in Section 6.7.
7.4.3 Aggregate
7.3.4 Application rates The aggregate must comply with the requirements for 6
Hot spray rates for the binder will typically be the mm stone set out in Section 6.7 hereof.
following :
7.4.4 Application Rates
 MC 3000 cutback bitumen 1,20 ℓ/m² The ALD of 6 mm aggregate does not normally exceed 3,5
 Cationic 65% spray 1,60 ℓ/m² mm. If it does, an increased spray rate must be used.
 Pen Bitumen and precoated sand 0,80 ℓ/m² Spray rates must be designed in accordance with TRH 3.
Typical spray rates for two categories of ALD and for
various applications of this seal type are given below:
Note: The design of all seals shall follow the guidelines
provided in TRH3. The lateral overlap between
distributor nozzle and bar sprays must be determined in
accordance with calibrated spray bar settings and nozzle
distribution.
The approximate spread rate of sand 180 m²/m³

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES SPLIT APPLICATION, TWO COATS SEAL WITH SAND BLINDING
TYPICAL EMULSION SPRAY RATES (ℓ/m²) 7.5.3 Aggregate

SURFACE TEXTURE ALD < 3,5 mm ALD > 3,5mm The aggregate must comply with the requirements for 13
Smooth and dry 0,90 1,10 (or 9) mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Manual.
Medium and dry 1,00 1,20
Open and dry 1,20 1,40 The sand for blinding must comply with Table 4302/9 in
Lightly trafficked roads and temporary bypasses the COLTO Standard Specifications.
1,20 1,40 7.5.4 Spray rates

Table 7‐3 : Resealing applications: typical The total hot gross spray rate is to be 0,172 x ALD x f
emulsion spray rates
NOTE: where f is the volatile / thermal expansion factor for the
1 The spray rates are applicable to both anionic and type of emulsion used. The latter can be found in Table
cationic emulsions. 7‐2 of this Manual.
2 No priming of the base is necessary on temporary
bypasses. The total hot gross rate is to be calculated using the
above formula and then divided into two equal rates
which, when rounded off to the nearest 0,01 constitute
the emulsion spray rates in ℓ/m² required for each of the
7.5 Split application, two coats seal with sand first and second sprays.
blinding
In some instances it may be desirable for the cover spray
7.5.1 Description to consist of equal parts of emulsion and water. On any
This type of seal consists of a spray of emulsion, followed particular project, spray rates need only be corrected if a
by 13mm (or 9mm) aggregate spread in a single layer change in ALD results in a variation in excess of 0,05 ℓ/m²
shoulder to shoulder in the wet emulsion followed in nett cold binder.
turn by a second spray of emulsion. After this emulsion
has broken it is blinded lightly with crusher or natural 7.5.5 Spread rates
sand. Cost‐effectiveness will determine which of the two
types of sand is to be used. This seal can be used for new Stone
construction of a low traffic volume road or for resealing The stone spread rate curve given in Figure 7‐1 hereafter
an existing surface. is to be used to determine the approximate spread rate
of stone. This curve, which relates spread rate of stone
7.5.2 Bituminous binder to ALD, is only meant as a guide. The criterion is that the
This shall consist of cationic 65% or anionic 60% spray aggregate be spread in a single layer shoulder to
grade emulsion complying with SANS 548 or 309 shoulder. The spread rates determined from the graph
respectively. An emulsion is specified as the minimum are to be rounded off to the nearest 5 m² / m³.
sprays required for good distribution preclude the use of
other types of binder in a split application for this type a Sand
seal. Cationic emulsion is to be used with aggregates The purpose of the sand blinding is solely to prevent pick‐
with a high silica content because of its better adhesion up of the 13mm (or 9,5 mm) chips by passing traffic and
properties. Under favourable weather conditions the use it is thus to be only lightly spread. The designer must be
of anionic emulsion in conjunction with basic aggregate aware of the risks of bleeding with high application rates
types such as dolerite, could well be advantageous. of binder and sand, since sand may close up the available
voids.
This type of seal could also be applied with penetration
grade binder if the sand is precoated, this must be The light sand blinding is to be applied after as long a
applied with care to ensure a good bond between the period as possible but in any case not before the second
bitumen and the sand. Temperature and moisture emulsion spray has broken thoroughly. Opening to traffic
conditions must be considered and adequate rolling is is possible immediately after application of the blinding
essential. sand.

13/6MM DOUBLE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
 Second spray 1,00 ℓ/m²

200
190
180 If these minimum nett bitumen spray rates cannot be
170 met, then the use of emulsion is mandatory.
SPREAD RATE (m²/m³)
160
150 Sufficient time must elapse prior to applying the second
140
spray to ensure that volatiles contained in the binder
130
120 used for the first spray have escaped and are not trapped
110 by the second spray as this could result in richness or
100 bleeding of the surfacing.
90
80 Precoated stone must be used where penetration grade
70 bitumen or modified bitumen is used as binder.
60
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 7.6.3 Aggregate
ALD OF STONE (mm) The aggregate must comply with the requirements for 13
and 6 mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Manual.
Table 7‐4 : Stone spread rate
7.6.4 Spray Rates
The seal design shall follow the recommendations of TRH
7.6 13/6mm Double Seal 3, but the following method could be used for a quick
estimate of the bitumen spray rate required:
7.6.1 Description
This type of seal consists of a spray of binder, followed by Total Application
13mm aggregate spread in a single layer shoulder‐to‐ As an indication, the total nett cold rate must be:
shoulder; then a second spray of binder covered with 6
mm aggregate generally followed by a fogspray of diluted 13 6
emulsion. It is primarily used for new construction and
sometimes for resealing where warranted by higher Where the ALDs are expressed in millimetres and “P” is
traffic and risk of bleeding when compared to a Cape selected from Table 7‐5 below:
Seal.
HEAVY VEHICLES PER DAY
(IN BOTH DIRECTIONS) P
7.6.2 Bituminous binder
Up to 200 0,17
Usually, the binder for this specification consists of two
sprays of either cationic 65% or anionic 60% spray grade Above 200 0,15
emulsion complying with SANS 548 or 309 respectively Table 7‐5 : P‐values for 13/6mm binder application
and a fogspray of diluted emulsion. Cationic emulsion is Adjustment for a fog spray and ALD must be made in
to be used with aggregates with a high silica content accordance with the following paragraphs:
because of its better adhesion properties. Under
favourable weather conditions the use of anionic Adjustment for fog spray
emulsion in conjunction with basic aggregate types such The spray rate obtained using the above formula includes
as dolerite, could well be advantageous. the bitumen content in the fog spray to follow. To allow
for that, 0,33 ℓ/m² nett bitumen is to be deducted for the
However, the use of other binders may be considered fog spray when cationic emulsion is used and 0,30 ℓ/m²
such as penetration grade or modified bitumen in the when anionic emulsion is used (i.e. 0,5 ℓ/m² emulsion is
tack coat and penetration grade bitumen in the second deducted). The remainder is then split into two equal
or penetration coat. applications for the tack and penetration sprays. To
convert these sprays from cold nett to hot gross emulsion
The minimum hot gross spray rates which must be
the applicable volatile/thermal expansion factor is to be
achieved to ensure good adhesion and coverage are :
selected from Table 7‐2 in this Manual.
 First spray 0,65 ℓ/m²

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES 19/9 OR 19/6 DOUBLE SEAL
The resultant sprays must then be rounded off to the Typical application rates of the precoating fluid are
nearest 0,01 ℓ/m². included in Table 7‐6 below:
Adjustment of spray rates Stone size (mm) 19,0 13,2 9,5 6,7
Spray rates must be adjusted for significant changes in
ALD. This adjustment should not be based on the test Application Rate (ℓ/m²) 10‐15 11‐16 12‐17 12‐18
results of a single sample. Table 7‐6 : Application rates of precoating fluid
7.6.5 Spread rates

7.7.4 Spray rates
13mm Aggregate The seal design shall follow the recommendations of
The stone spread rate derived from Figure 7‐1 is to be TRH3, including all recommended adjustments that may
used to determine the approximate spread rate of 13mm be relevant to the project.
stone. This curve, which relates spread rate of stone to
7.7.5 Spread rates
ALD, is only meant as a guide and the criterion is that the
The stone spread rate derived from Figure 7‐1 can be
aggregate be spread in a single layer shoulder to
used to determine the approximate spread rate of 19mm
shoulder. As a rough guide spread rates between 100
stone. This curve is only meant as a guide and the
and 120 m²/m³ are often used for materials with average
criterion is that the aggregate should be spread in a
flakiness and medium grading. The recommended spread
single layer shoulder to shoulder which is normally
rate determined from the curve should be rounded off to
achieved with spread rates between 75 and 90 m²/m³,
the nearest 5 m²/m³.
when using an average aggregate flakiness and grading
6mm Aggregate envelope. The recommended spread rate determined
The 6 mm aggregate is to be spread in a single layer. It is from the curve should be rounded off to the nearest 5
essential that the 6 mm aggregate is not over‐applied. m²/m³.
The spread rate of the 6 mm stone will normally be found The 9 or 6mm aggregate is to be spread in a single layer.
to be in the range of 180 ‐ 200 m²/m³. It is essential that the aggregate is not over‐applied.
While the spread rate of the 9mm stone will normally be

7.7 19/9 or 19/6 Double Seal found to be in the range of 140 ‐ 165 m²/m³, that of the
6mm stone will likely lie in the range of 170 ‐ 200 m²/m³.
7.7.1 Description
This seal specification consists of a spray of binder,
followed by 19 mm aggregate spread in a single layer 7.8 Cape Seal
shoulder‐to‐shoulder; then a second spray of binder
7.8.1 Description
covered with 9 or 6 mm aggregate followed by a fogspray
This type of seal consists of a split application of binder
of diluted emulsion. It is primarily used for new
with 19 (or 13)mm aggregate followed by two
construction and sometimes for resealing where
applications of slurry. The aggregate is spread onto the
warranted by circumstances.
first application of binder.
7.7.2 Bituminous binder
The requirements of Section 7.6.2 are equally applicable The Senior Materials Engineer may in certain
here. circumstances authorise the use of 13 mm chips followed
by a single application of slurry instead of the standard
7.7.3 Aggregate 19 mm Specification.
The aggregate must comply with the requirements for
19, 13 and 6 mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Whereas the 19mm Cape Seal is only used for new
Manual. construction, the 13mm Cape Seal can also be used for
resealing of existing bitumen roads.
Precoated stone must be used where penetration grade
bitumen or modified bitumen is used as binder.

CAPE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.8.2 Bituminous Binder durable surface is the one containing the most
Any one or a combination of the binders listed below bituminous binder, the aim is to spray as much binder as
may be used, subject to compatibility with the aggregate possible without producing a bleeding surface. For this
(and water) to be used. Economics as well as the type of reason the spray rate in the calculation below is varied
aggregate to be used must always be considered. A according to the number of heavy vehicles making use of
further consideration is the minimum spray application the road in both directions per day. Heavy vehicles are
required for good transverse distribution which in the defined for this purpose as trucks and trailers of 3 ton
case of a 13 mm aggregate specification virtually always carrying capacity and over. Passenger cars, caravans and
necessitates the use of an emulsion in the penetration vans are to be disregarded in arriving at the number of
spray, or even in both sprays: heavy vehicles.
 Penetration grade – 80/100; 150/200 The number of heavy vehicles upon which the spray rate
 MC 3000 cutback bitumen below is to be determined is to be decided upon in
 Modified bitumen (mostly tack only): conjunction with the Senior Materials Engineer.
o Polymer hot : S‐E1 or S‐E2
o Polymer cold : SC‐E1 or SC‐E2
The final spray rate will be based on the
o Rubber : S‐R1
recommendations of TRH3, but the calculation method
 Anionic (60%) emulsion below must also be considered.
 Cationic (65%) emulsion
Total Spray
Only the stable grade version of both emulsions can be The total cold nett binder application rate in terms of
used in the manufacturing of slurry. ℓ/m² is obtained by multiplying the Spray Factor “P”
obtained from the table below by the ALD value of the
7.8.3 Aggregate
aggregate in millimetres:
All aggregate must comply with the requirements for
crusher fines, 19 and 13mm stone set out in Section 6.7 / "P"
of this Manual. Unless otherwise specified by the Roads
Authority, a Medium Grade Fine slurry shall be used to HEAVY VEHICLES PER DAY
manufacture slurry for a Cape Seal. (BOTH DIRECTIONS) SPRAY FACTOR “P”
Up to 50 0,145
7.8.4 Spray rates 51 ‐ 100 0,140
101 ‐ 150 0,135
General
151 ‐ 200 0,130
The spray rates are determined mainly by traffic, but also
stone characteristics, climate, season and traffic speed 201 ‐ 250 0,125
(grades, stop/yield conditions, channelisation). The 251 ‐ 300 0,120

existing texture of the road does not play as big a role in >300 0,115
the bitumen spray rate as in the case of single seals with Table 7‐7 : "P"‐ values for CS binder application
a big void content, since all “excess” bitumen in the slurry
will migrate to the surface similar to asphalt when the Reduction in spray rates
voids are closed in the bitumen/stone matrix. Existing Special circumstances may warrant a reduction in the
texture will however determine the application rate of spray rates calculated using the above formula.
the slurry.
These circumstances and the applicable percentage by
Absorption of bitumen by the stone or the underlying which the sprays may be reduced are as follows :
layer is allowed for in the indicative spray rates under the
next paragraph.  Heavy construction traffic (loaded) 5%
 Heavy grades ( > 5%) 5%
Considering the entire traffic spectrum, experience has  Stone which, although not meeting the
shown that it is the heavy vehicles which contribute most hardness criteria, has been accepted by
the Senior Materials Engineer 5%
to bleeding of the road surface. Because the most

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CAPE SEAL
However, in no case may the spray reduction exceed a  Penetration spray : Shall consist of a mixture of
total of 10%. equal parts of emulsion and water applied at a
rate of 1,0 ℓ/m² (See notes below).
The impact of heavy construction traffic must be
evaluated by considering the ratio of construction to NOTES:
design traffic, the prevailing ambient temperature and
the age of the seal when subjected to the effects of 1 For compatibility and dilution of emulsion refer
construction traffic. to Sections 6.8.2 and 7.2.1 respectively.
2 Stable mix grade emulsion for use in the slurry
As a guideline, a reduction in the case of construction seal can also be used for the cover spray. If
traffic will only be warranted where the total of heavy available this may be the most feasible.
construction traffic and normal heavy traffic, at the time, 3 Where emulsion is used for the tack coat, it is
exceeds the design traffic of the next or any higher possible that the calculated spray rate will
category within the first 3 weeks of the completion of the exceed the maximum permissible spray rate of
surfacing. 1,75 ℓ/m² (1.5 ℓ/m² for emulsion) if the
penetration spray remains at 1,0 ℓ/m² using 1
Increase in Spray Rates part emulsion to 1 part water, but such a
Where for any reason the prime coat has been omitted in situation should rather be avoided. If no other
the case of a new seal, the cold nett binder of the first option exists, the tack coat shall be limited to
spray only shall be increased by 0,15 ℓ/m². 1,75 ℓ/m² (1.5 ℓ/m² for emulsion) and the rest
of the binder shall be sprayed in the penetration
Unless approval has been obtained from the Senior
coat in the ratio 2 parts emulsion to 1 part
materials Engineer to the contrary, prime will always be
water.
applied to the Base layer.
4 Modified bitumen must only be used in the tack
coat and will require higher spray rates than will
Application Limits penetration bitumen (refer to TRH3).
For the tack coat the permissible maximum hot gross
spray rate to avoid run‐off of the binder, especially on Where, in exceptional cases, diluted emulsion cannot be
steep grades or high superelevations, is 1,75 ℓ/m², but a used for the penetration spray, undiluted emulsion may
lower application of around 1.50 ℓ/m² will be the be used provided prior authority is obtained from the
maximum in the case of an emulsion. Senior Materials Engineer.
In order to ensure proper coverage the minimum hot

gross penetration spray rate for emulsion is 0,55 ℓ/m² 7.8.5 Spread rates
The spread rates for 19 mm and (where applicable) 13
and 0,65 ℓ/m² for other binders.
mm stone chips must be determined in the same manner
Viscosity as described for 13 mm aggregate in Section 7.7.5 hereof.
The remarks concerning viscosity contained in Section As a guide, 19mm stone is typically spread at rates
6.8.2 of this Manual are equally applicable to Cape Seal. between 0.010 and 0.012 m3/m2, and 13mm stone at
0.0085 to 0.0095 m3/m2. These will be affected by the
Splitting the Total Application flakiness and grading, and consequently by the ALD of
The binder shall be split as follows : the stone used.
 Tack Coat : Shall consist of hot binder (i.e. 7.8.6 Slurry mixture
bitumen) or emulsion. Hot binder is preferred The nett bitumen content of the stable grade emulsion
as this will normally be the most economical. (60%) in the slurry mix shall be determined by a Marshall
Where modified bitumen is used for the tack mix design, or thin slurry briquettes prepared and
coat the minimum spray rate will be related to compacted at comparative road temperatures to
the type of product selected. evaluate the bitumen content where bleeding is likely to
occur.

MODIFIED CAPE SEAL MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
Nett bitumen contents generally between 8% and 10% by Fine aggregate for the hot‐mix seal must comply with the
mass, but up to 12%, will likely produce the best results requirements set out in Table 7‐8.
for slurry aggregate from rock with a specific gravity
around 2600 kg/m3, which ratio must be reduced PERCENTAGE PASSING
SIEVE SIZE SIEVE BY MASS (%)
proportionally for heavier rock irrespective of traffic
4,75 100
density. Only in exceptional circumstances must
2,36 80 ‐ 100
consideration be given to a reduction in the emulsion
1,18 50 ‐ 80
content.
0,600 25 ‐ 65
Weigh batching rather than volume batching should be 0,300 15 ‐ 48
used when the moisture content in the crusher fines 0,150 7 ‐ 30
cannot be controlled or determined accurately for each 0,075 2‐7
mix operation. Table 7‐8 : Grading for crusher sand for asphalt mix
7.9 Modified Cape Seal 7.9.4 Spray rates

The provisions of Section 7.8.4 apply equally to Modified
7.9.1 Description
Cape Seal, except for :
This specification is similar to the Cape Seal described in
Section 7.8 hereof, except that the slurry seal is replaced 1 all references to emulsions (unless the use of
by a single layer of fine‐grained hot‐mix asphalt. Details emulsion has been approved); and
that follow hereunder discuss only the points of 2 “Splitting of the Total Application”, which is
difference between the Cape Seal and Modified Cape replaced by the following :
Seal.
The binder shall be split as follows :
In spreading the aggregate, the aim should be an
application rate slightly more open than shoulder to ‐ Penetration Spray: Shall consist of half the
shoulder, because the hot mix does not penetrate the total spray but not more than 0.75 ℓ/m²
interstices as easily as does slurry. when hot gross penetration bitumen is
used;
Modified Cape Seal is only used for new construction, as ‐ Tack Coat: Shall consist of the total spray
it is less suitable for use with 13 mm aggregate. less the penetration spray.
7.9.2 Bituminous Binder 7.9.5 Spread rates

The bituminous binders normally used are : The spread rate for 19 mm aggregate must be
determined in the same manner as described in Section
 Penetration Grade bitumen (80/100 and
7.7.5 hereof.
150/200) for tack and penetration sprays; and
 Penetration Grade bitumen (150/200) for the 7.9.6 Composition of hot-mix seal
hot‐mix seal. The composition of the asphalt shall be based on the
following proportions by mass:
Where considered justified, based inter alia on risk of
bleeding, compatibility with the aggregate to be used and Penetration Grade bitumen (150/200) 7,50%
financial considerations, the use of modified bitumen in Solvent 1,25%
the tack coat and a diluted emulsion in the penetration Aggregate 91,25%
spray could be motivated for consideration by the Senior
The solvent used shall be power paraffin or a mixture of
Materials Engineer.
diesel fuel and power paraffin. The ratio of solvents will
7.9.3 Aggregate depend inter alia on weather conditions and must be
The aggregate must comply with the requirements for determined during construction.
19,0 mm stone set out in Section 6.7 of this Manual.

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR PAVEMENT AND SURFACING LAYERS
7.9.7 Construction The rate of application of asphalt to be aimed for is

This type of seal is not specified in the COLTO Standard between 11,0 and 12,0 kg/m².
Specifications and construction aspects are included
here. No traffic shall be allowed over the seal before
completion of the final rolling.
Hot-mix Asphalt
While the mix is still hot it is to be distributed from the Rolling of the Seal
mixer to the road using wheelbarrows, and evenly spread As soon as possible, but not before the final trimming of
over the road surface using wooden squeegees. Under no the asphalt, the seal is to be rolled with a pneumatic‐tyre
circumstances may the mix be stored in heaps. No roller, with particular attention being given to the
vehicle, wheelbarrow or person shall traverse the spread triangular fillet outside the surfacing. Rolling shall
asphalt seal prior to rolling. continue until all the gaps between the chips have been
filled with the asphalt. The material must not be
The mix shall be worked from side to side and criss‐cross displaced in a longitudinal or transverse direction
with the aid of the squeegees so as to fill all gaps until a especially when changing gears or stopping or starting of
uniform surface is obtained, approximately 5 mm proud the roller. If necessary, fresh asphalt seal shall be added
of the general road surface before rolling. to lean spots. Rolling shall continue until the hot‐mix has
been thoroughly pressed into the interstices between the
It may be necessary to avoid applying the hot mix seal aggregate and the surface is dense and smooth, with no
during hot weather because the aggregate may be lean spots visible. It is important to note that the
dislodged to an excessive degree during hot weather. objective is to roll the asphalt seal while it is still hot, and
therefore the spreading and finishing of the material
The mix shall be applied over the full width of the road
must proceed expeditiously. Short, completed sections
surface and not in partial widths. The road edges shall be
must be rolled to avoid excessive cooling of the seal.
trimmed neatly in a straight line and parallel to the road
centreline. The asphalt mix shall also be placed to form a 7.9.8 Opening to traffic
triangular fillet outside the edge of the surfacing stone. As soon as the viscosity of the bituminous binder is such
The thickness of this fillet shall be equal to that of the as to allow the traffic to pass over the road without
finished surfacing after compaction at the edge of the picking up or otherwise damaging the surfacing, the road
surfacing and shall diminish to zero on a line 50 mm shall, where practicable, be opened to traffic.
outside the edges of the surfacing. Care shall be taken to
achieve a straight finish to this fillet, by using a suitable Areas, for example at intersections, where traffic will
edge guide. have to turn on the completed surfacing, should not be
opened to traffic for as long a period as practically
After applying the mix evenly over the full width of the possible, since the freshly‐sealed surfacing is very tender
road surface, it shall be finished by using a steel channel and susceptible to damage.
with a length of at least four metres (4 m). The channel
shall be dragged in the longitudinal direction of the road
7.10 Asphalt Mixtures for Pavement and
until the mix is spread evenly over the full width of the
Surfacing Layers
road surface and finished off approximately 5 mm above
the general surface of the top of the surfacing stone. The Asphalt layers in the pavement, such as asphalt base, and
channel shall be heavy enough to remove all humps in for use in surfacing, will normally only be used in
the asphalt and leave a smooth surface. To prevent the circumstances of heavy traffic as discussed in Section 7.2
removal of too much asphalt from the road surface, skids of this Manual.
must be welded to the underside of the channel. The
thickness of these skids shall be determined by the 7.10.1 Bituminous binder
required rate of application of the asphalt. All The binder shall consist of penetration grade bitumen
irregularities caused by the channel shall be filled and conforming to SANS 307.
finished with the aid of the squeegees.

ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR BRIDGE DECKS MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.10.2 Aggregate o when applying the bitumen content

The stone shall comply with Table 6‐7 and the mentioned determined as above, the following
SANS requirements set out in Section 6.9 of this manual. Marshall criteria must be satisfied :
The grading and maximum size may be varied in certain CONTINUOUS

PROPERTY CRITERIA GAP‐GRADED
circumstances provided that the agreement of the Senior GRADED
Materials Engineer is obtained. Stability (kN) 4 ‐ 12,5 3 ‐ 12,5

Flow (mm) 2,0 ‐ 4,0 2,0 ‐ 6,0
In the case of siliceous aggregates such as quartzite, Stability/flow ratio 2,0 ‐ 3,5 2,0 min
granite etc, which show poor adhesion with bitumen, 1,5 % Voids filled with bitumen 70 ‐ 80 70 ‐ 80
parts by mass of lime or limestone dust per 100 parts of % Voids in the mix at 100%
3‐5 2‐8
aggregate must be added to promote adhesion. of 75 blow marshall density
Immersion index (minimum) 75% 75%
No other adhesive agent may be added without prior
Filler/bitumen ratio ‐ 1,0 ‐ 1,5
approval by the Senior Materials Engineer.
Table 7‐9 : Marshall criteria for hot‐mix asphalt
7.10.3 Mineral filler If these criteria cannot be met, it will be necessary to

Mineral filler shall consist of one or more of the alter the aggregate grading and redesign the mix.
following:
7.10.5 Mix approval
 Portland cement conforming to SABS 471; The proposed mix design must be submitted to the
 milled granulated blast furnace slag conforming Senior Materials Engineer for approval together with
to SABS 626; samples of all components of the mix, representative of
 lime conforming to SABS 824; the materials which will actually be used during
production. If required by the Senior Materials Engineer
 rock flour.
after carrying out check designs, the mix design shall be
7.10.4 Design Criteria altered before production commences
The following design criteria should be met :
7.10.6 Changes in materials
 Dense ‐ (continuous and gap) graded asphalt Should any material in the mix change in any way after
mixtures shall be designed by the Marshall the mix has been designed and approved, it will be
method. necessary to redesign the mix.
 Open‐graded mixtures shall be constituted of
aggregate complying with a specified grading. 7.11 Asphalt mixtures for bridge decks
 The binder content shall be such that there will
be adequate coating of the aggregate particles 7.11.1 Description
while complying with the requirements below. The asphalt carpet on bridge decks shall consist of a
For continuously‐graded mixes, the binder dense graded premix, designed in compliance with
content should be based on the average of the Section 7.10 above.
binder contents for :
Where this is not a viable proposition, the carpet may, by
o maximum Marshall density;
agreement with the Senior Materials Engineer, consist of
o maximum Marshall stability;
an open‐graded asphalt (composed of various stone sizes
o the percentage air voids in the mix
and crusher dust), sealed with a slurry seal as described
required by the Senior Materials
below.
Engineer for the project (normally in
the range of 4% ‐ 5%);
o to fill 75% of the voids in the mineral 7.11.2 Bituminous Binder for Open-Graded
aggregate; Asphalt and Slurry Seal
The binder shall consist of a stable grade anionic or
cationic bitumen emulsion complying with SANS 309 or

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES ASPHALT MIXTURES FOR SIDEWALKS
548 respectively. The type of binder to be used will asphalt in one or more layers, and finishing with a single
depend on its compatibility with the crusher dust used in layer over the entire deck surface.
the mix.
In general, layers of asphalt should after compaction be
The tack coat shall consist of a mixture of 2 parts stable not less than 20 mm nor more than 50 mm in thickness.
grade emulsion and 1 part water.
7.12 Asphalt mixtures for sidewalks
7.11.3 Aggregate for Open-Graded Asphalt and
Slurry Seal 7.12.1 Description
The stone shall comply with the requirements set out in The asphalt carpet for sidewalks will be a dense‐graded
Table 6‐7 of this Manual. Fine aggregate for slurry shall or continuous‐graded hot asphalt of nominal thickness of
comply with the requirements set out in Section 6.7.3. 20 mm.
7.11.4 Composition of the Open-Graded Asphalt 7.12.2 Bitumen Binder

Various stone sizes and crusher dust shall be mixed in the This will consist of Penetration Grade bitumen (80/100)
following proportions by mass: conforming to SANS 307.
Nominal 19mm chips 15 % Where facilities for a hot mix are not available, a stable
Nominal 13mm chips 50 % grade anionic or cationic emulsion conforming to SANS
Nominal 6mm chips 20 %
309 or SANS 548 respectively should be used. The choice
Crusher dust 15 %
100 % between these two binders will be governed by the
compatibility of the binder with the aggregate used in the
The nett bitumen content shall be between 4,5 and 5,5% mix.
by mass of the dry aggregate. The most effective
7.12.3 Aggregate
proportions are to be established by making up
The stone must comply with the requirements set out in
laboratory trial mixes.
Table 6‐7 of this Manual. The crusher dust must comply
7.11.5 Composition of the slurry seal with the requirements set out in Section 6.7.2.
Slurry seal shall comply with the requirements of Section
7.12.4 Composition of the Asphalt
7.8.6 of this Manual.
The asphalt shall be composed of 6 mm stone chips and
7.11.6 Application rates crusher dust mixed in equal parts by mass, plus binder at
a nett bitumen content of 6% by mass of the dry
Tack coat aggregate.
An emulsion tack coat shall be applied at a diluted
emulsion rate of 0,6 ℓ/m², and construction of the 7.13 Asphalt for Patching Bituminous Surfaces
asphalt is to proceed after it has broken.
7.13.1 Description
Slurry seal An asphalt design suitable for use in patching bituminous
This is to be applied at a rate of approximately 7 kg of
surfaces is given hereunder.
fine aggregate/m² as soon as possible after the open‐
graded asphalt has been placed and compacted. 7.13.2 Bituminous Binder
The binder may be any one of the following :
Layer thicknesses
Bridge decks may be found to have been constructed out  Cationic stable grade emulsion (SANS 548)
of tolerance insofar as levels are concerned. This will  Anionic stable grade emulsion (SANS 309)
necessitate asphalt carpets to be laid at variable
thicknesses. The binder chosen must be compatible with the
aggregates used in the mix, with the fine aggregate the
In order to avoid differential compaction, slacks in the more important of the two aggregate components.
deck must be taken out first by laying and compacting

SOIL STABILISATION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
7.13.3 Aggregate Where edge breakage is being repaired, the shoulder

The stone and fine aggregate (crusher dust) shall comply edge of the patch must be suitably supported during
with the requirements set out in Table 6‐7 of this compaction to avoid lateral displacement of the material.
Manual. Shoulder material should be brought in and compacted
to make up level differences between the blacktop and
7.13.4 Composition of the Mix the shoulder.
Various stone sizes and crusher dust are to be mixed
together in the following proportions by mass :
7.14 Soil Stabilisation
13 mm 25
6 mm 25 7.14.1 Introduction
Fine Aggregate 50 For the purposes of this discussion, stabilisation is
100 defined as the process of improving the engineering
properties of a material generally by means of the
Binder: Emulsion at 9,0% addition of one of the following :
(Approximately 5,0 parts nett bitumen).
 Calcium, magnesium or dolomitic lime
Should this mix prove to be unsatisfactory for some conforming to SABS 824
reason, e.g. permeability or fattiness, the proportions  Type Cem II ( generally Class 32.5N) cement
may be adjusted with the approval of the Senior conforming to SABS 471 (now SANS 50197‐1)
Materials Engineer.  A mixture in equal mass proportions of Cem I
(Class 42.5N or Portland) cement and milled
granulated blast furnace slag
7.13.5 Mixing  A mixture of Portland cement and bitumen, the
The aggregate and binder can be mixed at air
latter as foamed bitumen or emulsion.
temperature but during cold weather it may be desirable
to heat the binder. 7.14.2 Stabilisation Processes
The processes whereby stabilisation is achieved, by using
When using emulsion, the aggregate must be moistened
either lime, cement, cement/slag, other pozzolanic
prior to mixing in order to facilitate the mixing. The
material, bitumen or another granular material source,
amount of water to give the required workability will
are briefly discussed hereafter.
normally be about one third to one half of the quantity of
emulsion used. Crusher dust will normally require more If the stabiliser requirement is very high stabilisation may
water than natural sand. not be a cost‐effective option, in which case alternative
sources of material will have to be found. The latter will
7.13.6 Preparation also be applicable if the material is very variable, since it
Potholes and other depressions must be prepared by
may be difficult to produce a layer that is consistently
chopping the periphery of the hole to give an
complying with specifications.
approximately vertical face for at least 25 mm from the
final road surface downwards in order to combat Cementation
ravelling of the patch. The surface to receive the patch When using cement, cement/slag mixtures or other
must be cleaned and tacked with emulsion diluted with 2 pozzolanic materials cementation occurs due to the
parts of water by volume to 1 part of emulsion. This tack formation of strongly cementitious hydrates which bond
coat must be allowed to break before the patch is soil particles together. The hydration proceeds largely
applied. independently of the aggregate and does not rely on
chemical interaction between cement and aggregate for
7.13.7 Placing the development of strength. Some lime is produced
It is most important that the asphalt is well compacted
during the hydration which may react with clay particles
on the road ‐ preferably with vibratory equipment.
present in the manner described below.
When emulsion is used, it should be allowed to "break"
partially before the mix is placed. It may be useful to add
some cement to trigger the breaking of the emulsion.

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES SOIL STABILISATION
Modification complying with the relevant specification. The

When using lime, a change in the state of aggregation of material may remain essentially a granular type
the clay particles occurs as a result of a cation exchange. i.e. its strength is derived largely from inter‐
The physical properties of the material itself are thus granular friction, although an increase in
changed and could result in reduced shrinkage and swell, cohesion will result where cementation takes
and an improvement in workability. This process is place or the bond between the fines improves.
generally termed modification and takes place fairly  The achievement of tensile strength due to an
rapidly. In addition, normally over long periods of time increase in cohesion as a result of cementation.
and under favourable conditions (especially those related This is in accordance with the requirements of
to inherent material properties) soil‐lime pozzolanic Section 6‐3.3 of this Manual where reference is
reactions may take place during which hydrates similar to made to "cementitious" subbase.
those encountered in cement are formed, leading to a  The basic objective with the addition of bitumen
cementing action. is to add strength by adding some cohesion to
non‐plastic materials, or to make cohesive
It should be appreciated that the processes of
material less sensitive to loss of stability at
cementation and modification are not necessarily distinct
higher moisture conditions.
and may occur simultaneously.
 Reduction of plasticity or increase in Grading
Bituminous Stabilisation Modulus (GM) by adding non‐plastic fines or a
coarse fraction material.
Bitumen bonds with the fine‐graded particles and forms
a bitumen‐rich mortar between the coarse particles. 7.14.4 Improvement of sub-standard materials
Together with cement or hydrated lime as active filler,
the bitumen‐stabilised fines improve the retained Design Criteria
strength of the material under saturated conditions. The Since modification is largely relied upon, tests should be
process is more successful with granular materials and performed on uncured material, irrespective of the type
bitumen stabilised materials (BSM) are consequently of stabiliser, although it will most likely be lime. The
used more often for the stabilisation of base than design criteria are dependent on the property the action
subbase materials. is intended to improve. Generally the only material
properties under consideration in this respect are
Plasticity Index and California Bearing Ratio.
Granular Stabilisation
Granular stabilisation includes compaction of the In view of the inherent variability of materials and non‐
material, which is carried out on all pavement layers. uniformity of the mixing process, the target values for
Improvement of the engineering properties by blending materials design should be chosen such that these
different granular materials is generally referred to as variabilities are accounted for. The following guidelines
granular stabilisation. Internal friction can be increased are given :
and the cohesion improved by reducing the clay fraction.
 Target CBR: CBRmin + 25
This type of stabilisation remains the most cost‐effective  Target PI: PImax ‐ 2
way of improving material strength.
7.14.3 Objectives of Stabilisation For reasons of economy, raw materials for stabilisation
Apart from instances where it is desirable to stabilise the shall comply with the specifications for at least a G6
Roadbed or Fill in order to expedite construction material (CBR > 25) unless otherwise authorised in
progress, the objectives of stabilisation of pavement writing by the Senior Materials Engineer.
layers are :
 Reduction of construction costs by improving Since cementation is required to meet the strength
the properties of substandard, readily available objective, tests shall be performed on cured material.
material where such stabilisation is a cheaper The stabiliser will generally be a cement product,
alternative than the procurement of materials although it should be borne in mind that cementation

SOIL STABILISATION MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
may, as described above, be achieved by the addition of contents, e.g. 1, 2 and 3%. The reason for this is the low
lime. However, since the development of tensile Relative Density of Lime which may result in an excessive
strength with respect to time of lime‐soil mixtures volume of lime if 4% by mass were to be used. The
remains somewhat indeterminate, preference is given to laboratory design UCS and ITS values at 7 days and 100%
cement. Mod AASHTO density, as well as 97% Mod AASHTO
density, must be as in Table 7‐10. Accelerated 24‐hour
Design Procedure tests could be carried out at 70 to 75°C, and the results
The objective is to determine the correct content of the calibrated with 28‐day results, to estimate 28‐day results.
appropriate stabiliser for use during construction. Since
it is well‐known that materials react differently to the The maximum UCS value is a guide only and may have to
addition of various types of lime (calcium‐, magnesium ‐ be exceeded where compliance therewith would result in
or dolomitic type) all the options should be investigated impractically low stabiliser content, or where the
in order to optimise costs. requirements for ICS are not met.
Should there be any doubt as to the uniformity of the When the hydration of the stabiliser is likely to start
material from a particular source, then tests should be within the allowed mixing time, the effect thereof must
carried out on at least 3 representative samples from the be determined and allowed for, relative to the likely
source and the mean of the data obtained from these prevailing air temperatures during construction. Mixing
tests should be used for the design. time should generally be limited to 6 hours. The stabiliser
content yielding satisfactory strength of the mixture after
It should be noted that, where lime stabilisation is mixing and compaction is the content specified.
proposed, all types of road lime which are readily and
economically available shall be included in the For material from the basic crystalline rock types, also
investigation to find a suitable mix proportion complying Ethylene Glycol soak tests will be required, for visual
with minimum strength requirements. inspection and in combination with the specified
durability tests in COLTO.
Soil‐stabiliser mixtures should be prepared as described
in paragraph 3.1.1 of Method A9 of TMH 1 and then For durability, accelerated carbonation tests must be
tested in the normal manner as for uncured material. carried out, including the “brush test” in 12 wet/dry
The stabiliser content expressed as a proportion by mass cycles as specified in TMH1, in addition to the tests
of material at specified density yielding satisfactory specified in COLTO. The percentage loss in material under
improvement1 thereof is the content to be specified, the wet/dry brush test, as well as the minimum and
provided it is not less than the following amounts which maximum UCS and the minimum ITS values for the
are considered to be practical minima: different classes of chemical stabilised material shall be
in accordance with the requirements of Table 7‐10.
 Lime: 1,0% (by mass) Where test results are not consistent, compliance with
 Cement: 2,0% (by mass)
the specified ITS values shall govern.
The development of tensile (cohesive) strength is gauged
by means of the cured Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) and Stabilisation will likely become uneconomical at stabiliser
the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) as described contents exceeding 3,5 to 4%.
in Methods A16T and A14 respectively of TMH1. As
stated in the method given for the determination of
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of
stabilised material, when cement is used only one
maximum density test with 4% cement by mass need be
carried out. However, when lime is used a slightly
different procedure should be followed, i.e. moisture
density tests should be carried out at varying stabiliser
1
In the case of cementation where stabilisation is required mainly to
improve strength, the stabiliser content must also comply with the
requirements of the Initial Consumption of Stabiliser (ICS) test.

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CONCRETE MIXES
CLASSIFICATION OF The long‐term suitability of chemical stabilisation in

C1 C2 C3 C4
MATERIAL respect of risk of carbonation, reduction in pH and
Material quality Min Min Min Min
recurring of plasticity must hence be investigated.
before treatment G2 G4 G5 G6
Max PI (after treatment) NP NP 6 6 The accelerated carbonation test is included by
Min UCS (MPa) @ subjecting compacted stabilised samples to an
6 4 1.5 0.75
100% Mod AASHTO environment of 100% carbon dioxide and assessing the
Max UCS (MPa) @ effect thereof on strength and durability, using the above
12 6 3 1. 5
100% Mod AASHTO
Min UCS (MPa) @
test methods. Generally strength and durability of the
4 2 1.0 0.5 carbonated sample should exceed the design values.
97% Mod AASHTO
Max UCS (MPa) @
6 4 2 1. 0
97% Mod AASHTO When sprayed with phenolphthalein any available
ITS2 (kPa) ‐ ‐ 250 200 stabiliser in a stabilised material will turn red in colour,
which could be used to determine the extent of the
Max loss (%) 5 10 20 30 carbonation.
Table 7‐10 : Standards for stabilisation material
7.15 Concrete mixes
Temperature plays an important role in the success of
stabilisation. Too high temperatures can cause “flash‐
7.15.1 General
setting” of cement and too low temperatures will retard
All concrete mixes with a required Works cube strength
the hydration process. No stabilisation should be allowed
at 28 days of 20 MPa and higher must be formally
if rising air temperature is below 3°C and falling
designed.
temperature falls below 7°C.
7.15.2 Aggregates and cement
For the design of a BSM the procedures recommended in Aggregates, both fine and coarse, and cement for use in
the TG 2 Manual must be followed. Appropriate concrete must comply with the requirements set out in
guidelines for Namibia must still be finalised. Section 6.9 of this Manual.
7.15.3 Water for concrete

Carbonation
Water for concrete must be clean and free from oil, acid,
If cement or lime‐stabilised materials are exposed to air,
alkali, organic or vegetable matter. It must not contain
the hydration products may react with carbon dioxide
impurities which cause a change in the time of setting of
which causes a reduction in the strength of the material.
cement of more than 25% nor a reduction in the
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) in lime‐stabilised material, compressive strength of more than 5% when compared
for example, reacts with carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air with the results obtained when using distilled water. It
to form Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3). This means that the shall generally be suitable for use as drinking water
lime reverts to limestone from which it was made and is without further treatment.
no longer available to complete the stabilisation process.
7.15.4 Admixtures for concrete
Carbonation is associated with a decrease in the pH in
the material from approximately 12.4 for cement to Admixtures such as plasticisers and air‐entraining agents
around 8.5 to 9. Surface disintegration follows within should not be used unless prior authorisation has been
weeks. The risk carbonation is reduced by limiting obtained from the Senior Materials Engineer.
exposure to air, such as fast construction techniques.
7.15.5 Design Guidelines
Carbonation in the top of the layer inter alia relates to The following information is relevant to the designing
curing practices. and adjusting of concrete mixes:
 The strength and durability of the concrete is

determined by the water/cement ratio of the
2
Research has shown that the minimum ITS value must be complied mix.
with, even if the maximum UCS value is exceeded, for confidence in the
good performance of the stabilised layer.

CONCRETE MIXES MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
 The amount of stone in the mix depends on the MINIMUM

CHARACTERISTIC MAXIMUM
maximum size of stone, the fineness modulus of STRENGTH OF
STRENGTH OF MIX WATER/CEMENT
WORK CUBES
the sand and the required workability of the (MPa) RATIO
(MPa at 28 Days)
concrete. 20 20 0,66
The larger the maximum size of stone, the lower the 25 25 0,59
water requirement of the mix. 30 30 0,52
35 35 0,47
If the sand is coarse, less stone can be accommodated
and conversely, with a fine sand of low fineness modulus 40 40 0,43
more stone will be needed. 45 45 0,40
Table 7‐11 : Maximum water/cement ratios
A bigger quantity of stone can be used where a lower
workability of the concrete mix is required.
Water content
 The amount of water required per unit volume The amount of water required to produce concrete of the
of concrete for a given consistency and given desired workability with the aggregates to be used, is to
aggregates is substantially constant regardless be estimated. This may be done by visual examination or
of the cement content, w/c ratio or the relative from previous experience of the aggregates concerned.
proportions of aggregate and cement.
 With any specified aggregates the quantity of The following average figures for various aggregate sizes
water required to produce one cubic metre of and using typical medium graded sands are given as a
concrete of the desired workability, is known as guide for trial mix purposes:
the water requirement of the mix. In the
AVERAGE WATER CONTENT
particular case where the nominal size of the MAXIMUM SIZE OF COARSE 3
(ℓ/m ) OF CONCRETE TO
stone is 19 mm and the slump is 35 mm, the AGGREGATE (mm)
PRODUCE 35mm SLUMP
quantity of water required for one cubic metre 9,5 225
of concrete is known as the water demand of
13,2 215
the mix.
19,0 200
 The sum of the absolute volumes of water,
cement, stone and sand making up one cubic 26,5 190
metre of concrete must equal one cubic meter. 37,5 180
This implies that the concrete is fully compacted
75 160
and that there are no air voids in the mass. In
150 140
fact, some entrapped air remains in the mix
after compaction but this usually amounts to Table 7‐12 : Maximum size of coarse aggregate
NOTE:
less than 1% and for practical purposes it may 1 For poorly shaped materials add up to 15 ℓ/m3
3
be ignored. 2 For better shaped materials subtract up to 10 ℓ/m
3
3 For 100 mm slump add up to 15 ℓ/m
7.15.6 Mix Design Procedure
Water/cement Ratio Determination of Water Content

A water/cement ratio related to the desired strength The required cement content is obtained by dividing the
must be chosen. estimated water content in litres by the w/c ratio
previously chosen.
The maximum water/cement ratios to be used for
different concrete strengths are given below in Table Determination of Stone Content
Table 7‐11. However, the cement content for any class of The mass of stone per m³ of concrete to be used in the
concrete shall not exceed 500 kg/m3 of concrete. mix can be read off from Figure 7‐1. The quantities
shown are based on the assumption that the compacted
bulk density (CBD) of the stone is 1 520kg/m³. If the

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES CONCRETE MIXES
stone has a different CBD the mass of stone required The following is a rough indication of the order of slump
must be adjusted as follows : and Vebe seconds for different degrees of workability as
measured by the slump test and the vibro‐consistometer:
7.1 DEGREE OF SLUMP VEBE

/1520 WORKABILITY (mm) (seconds)
Very low 0 ‐ 20 10 ‐ 20
Low 20 ‐ 35 5 ‐ 10
Medium 35 ‐ 70 3‐5
High 70 ‐ 120 1‐3
Table 7‐13 : Workability of concrete mixes
7.15.9 Adjustment of Trial Mixes

The following remarks may be found useful in adjusting
trial mixes :
1 If the concrete appears to be very wet, the

aggregates are of better quality than originally
estimated and another mix should be made up
using a reduced water content. Conversely, if
the concrete is very stiff, the aggregates are of
poorer quality than originally estimated and
another mix using an increased water content
Figure 7‐1 : Stone content must be made up.
2 A graph is then plotted of workability against
Determination of Sand Content water content and the water requirement
This is determined by first calculating the absolute corresponding to the required workability of the
volumes occupied by the water, cement and stone. mix may be read off the graph.
These are added together and subtracted from unit 3 For a given w/c ratio and given aggregates there
volume, i.e. 1 m³. The shortfall must be made up by the is one value of the fine/coarse aggregate ratio
sand. The mass of sand required in the mix is then that gives the highest workability. Conversely,
calculated by multiplying the absolute volume of sand by for a given workability there is one value of
its bulk relative density in kg/m³. fine/coarse aggregate ratio, using given
materials, which needs the lowest water
7.15.7 Masses per batch content.
Once the proportions of the ingredients per cubic metre 4 This ratio can be determined by using the vibro
of concrete have been determined, the masses per batch consistometer and by making further trial mixes
are calculated. with higher and lower stone contents than that
used in the first trial mix.
7.15.8 Trial mixes
5 By plotting a graph of water requirement against
A trial mix is to be made up on the basis of the calculated
Vebe for each stone content and of water
masses per batch and its workability assessed. If the
requirement against % sand for a specific Vebe,
workability is as required, the aggregate has been
the % sand that gives the highest workability can
accurately assessed and the mix may be used.
be determined.
Workability is to be assessed by measuring the slump 6 The amount of water added should be carefully
and/or by using the vibro‐consistometer (Vebe). controlled. The fact that most mixes are
sensitive to changes in water content means
that if the required degree of workability is
reasonably accurately controlled, the variation

GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF DEVIATIONS MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES
in concrete strength due to this factor will be TYPE OF CEMENT RELATIVE DENSITY (RD)
relatively small. Ordinary Portland Cement 3,14
7 The sand controls the consistency of the mix.
High early strength cement 3,14
8 Poorly graded sand contributes to segregation
and bleeding and results in a harsh mix lacking in Slagment 2,90
cohesion. If a well‐graded sand is not available, Portland blast furnace cement 3,02
the use of a blending sand should be considered.
TYPE OF AGGREGATE
The addition of a fine pit sand to a river sand
lacking fines is a common example of blending Felsite 2,65
of concrete sands. Tillite 2,60 ‐ 2,75
9 The stone controls the sandiness of the mix.
Quartzite 2,70
10 Harsh concrete may often be improved by
increasing the ratio of sand to stone, i.e. by Dolomite 2,85
increasing the sand content and/or reducing the Dolerite 2,90 ‐ 3,10
stone content.
Norite 3,00
11 For nominal size aggregates of up to 26,5 mm it
is usually best to use a single‐sized stone. Andesite 2,85
12 When working with stone sizes of 37,5 mm, a Natural (quartz) sand 2,65
blend of approximately 2 parts of the large
depends on RD
stone with one part of single sized 19 mm or 13 Crusher sand
of parent rock
mm stone should be used. Table 7‐14 : Relative densities
13 For concrete to be pumped satisfactorily, the
mix must be more cohesive and plastic than
normally considered desirable for conventional 7.16 Guidelines for Design of Deviations
mixes. In order to achieve this it is important
that the correct type and quantity of sand is 7.16.1 General
used in the mix. The sand must be well‐graded Deviations will under normal conditions be unsurfaced.
with a good particle shape. The sand content Only in exceptional cases will a deviation be given a
will normally be about 3 to 8% higher than for a bituminous surface, and then only after approval has
conventional mix and should be between 38 and been given by the Senior Materials Engineer.
55% by mass of total aggregate.
14 A high degree of workability is required and a 7.16.2 Gravel deviations
slump range of between 60 mm and 90 mm is A single 150 mm thick layer of gravel will normally
regarded as the optimum for piston pumps and suffice. On thick sands, such as those prevailing in the
100 mm to 125 mm for pneumatic pumps. Kavango Region, this should be increased to 200 mm.
15 Approximate Bulk Relative Densities (RD) for the
most commonly used materials are as follows : The necessity for roadbed compaction will depend on the
nature of the material. The roadbed should always be
compacted on sand subgrades.
The gravel used should, where economically feasible,

comply with the standards for gravel wearing course
given in Section 6.6 of this Manual, although a minimum
CBR of 25 at 93% Mod AASHTO compaction should be
aimed at.

MATERIALS DESIGN GUIDELINES GUIDELINES FOR DESIGN OF DEVIATIONS
7.16.3 Bitumen surfaced deviations
Layer works
As stated previously, a bitumen‐surfaced deviation will
not normally be used.
However, the following is given as a guide should such a

facility be required, and is based on the traffic volume
and composition specified in Table 7.16‐1:
ROADBED TRAFFIC AADT

QUALITY HIGH > 1000 EVU’s LOW <1000 EVU’s
Normal 150mm base 100mm base
(CBR > 5) 100mm subbase 100mm subbase
150mm base 100mm base
Poor (e.g. clay)
100mm subbase 100mm subbase
(CBR < 5)
150mm selected 150mm selected
Table 7‐15 : Bitumen deviation pavement design
Minimum Deviation CBR values required are :
 base 45% (i.e. Subbase quality)

 subbase 10% (i.e. Selected layer quality)
 roadbed 5% (imported if not complying)
Surfacing
The optimum utilization of available materials, traffic
composition, environmental conditions expected during
the required life of the deviation and the length of time
the deviation is required to carry traffic will govern the
selection of surface treatment.

FIELD LABORATORY LABORATORY PROCEDURES
8 LABORATORY PROCEDURES 3 m long work bench, 1 m wide (approximately

half to have wooden top and half concrete top);
4 sink and drain board with taps for hot and cold
8.1 Field laboratory water;
5 soaking bath for CBR with minimum inside
8.1.1 General dimensions (3,0 m x 0,6 m x 0,3 m) (L X W X H);
There is no requirement for the layout and size of a field 6 curing trough for concrete cubes with inside
or commercial laboratory during the design phase of a dimensions of 3,1 m x 0,6 m x 0,75 m ‐ (L X W X
project. The onus rests with the Consultant to ensure H);
that laboratory tests are carried out in a facility where 7 air conditioning unit with a cooling capacity of at
the quality of testing complies with specified standards. least 5,0 kW;
8 two heaters each of at least 2,0 kW capacity;
The layout of a construction site laboratory complex
9 four fluorescent light units of 80 watt each;
must be given in the Project Specifications. The proposed
10 x 80 amp single phase power points;
facility must be approved by the Senior Materials
Engineer beforehand.
12 x 15 amp 3‐phase power points;
13 Laboratory stools;
The size and layout of the laboratory will obviously 14 foundation for cube crushing machine.
depend on the type and construction content of the
project, as well as the speed of construction. As a guide, Asphalt Laboratory
a typical layout is given below in Figure 8‐1. Details of 1 concrete floor;
locations of power points, work benches, doors, 4 m long work bench, 0,8 m wide with concrete
windows, furniture and laboratory apparatus must be top;
finalised on site by the Resident Engineer, when the type 2 fluorescent light units of 80 watt each;
of accommodation available is known. 3 1 x 80 amp single phase power point;
3 laboratory stools;
5 air conditioning unit with a cooling capacity of at
least 5,0 kW;
3 heaters each of at least 2,0 kW capacity;
6 1 x fume extractor mounted on outside wall of
capacity of at least 0,3 kW.
Office
1 boarded floor;
2 1 desk with 4 drawers and 3 chairs;
3 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt;
4 2 x 15 amp single phase power point;
5 shelving for files etc (minimum 3 m x 1,5 m x 0,5
Figure 8‐1 : Typical field laboratory layout m);
6 air conditioning unit with 9000 BTU
cooling/heating capacity .
8.1.2 Minimum Requirements
The minimum requirements for the various sections of PI Room
the laboratory complex are as set out below. 1 concrete floor;
2 3,2 m long work bench 0,8 m wide with concrete
Main Laboratory top;
1 concrete floor; 3 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt;
2 10 m length of work bench, 0,8 m wide; 4 1 Anglepoise ‐ type reading lamp;
5 2 x 15 amp single phase power points;

LABORATORY PROCEDURES TESTING AND SAMPLING METHODS
6 sink with drainboard, with hot and cold water

8.3 Duplicate testing
supply.
8.3.1 General
Store Room
The purpose of duplicate testing is to ensure that
1 concrete floor;
adequate control over sampling and testing methods,
2 shelving 2 m high and 0,6 m deep (heavy duty to
laboratory procedures and apparatus is maintained in the
carry bags of samples);
field laboratory.
3 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt;
4 suitable bolts fixed into floor concrete to secure Duplicates of all samples tested in the course of materials
cover box of nuclear gauge(s). control during construction must be stored for duplicate
testing by the Roads Authority, except for CBR samples
Cloak Room
where only one out of every five samples must be kept.
1 boarded floor;
2 1 table and 4 chairs; The Senior Materials Engineer may vary these
3 rack for hanging cloths etc; requirements for specific projects or during the course of
4 wash basin with taps for hot and cold water; any project, which the Consultant must obtain at the
5 1 fluorescent light unit of 80 watt; start each project.
6 1 x 15 amp single phase power point;
7 1 steel cupboard (2 m x 1,5 m x 0,6 m).
8.3.2 Frequency of duplicate testing
Covered Quartering Area
1 concrete floor (100 mm thick); Standard submissions
2 1 x 15 amp single phase power point; The field laboratory must submit a duplicate of the first
3 compaction blocks 0,5 m x 0,5 m x 0,5 m for sample tested on each separate new operation and
mods; thereafter every 25th sample of each operation, with a
4 compaction blocks for mechanical compactors if minimum of five indicators and three CBR samples per
required; month.
5 1 x 15 amp 3 phase power point for crusher.
Duplicate samples must be submitted in accordance with
Movable Equipment the requirements of the Construction Manual for each
Furniture required for the laboratory shall be specified in type of material, and in the case of layerworks for each
the Project Specifications together with the requirements type of material from each controlled layer i.e. Selected,
for the mentioned fixed equipment. Subbase, Base and Shoulders, as well as from Fill and the
Roadbed, even if the number of samples tested is less
than 25. In addition, at least one duplicate sample must
8.2 Testing and Sampling Methods
be submitted for each type of special test which is not
Sampling shall be carried out according to TMH 5 or SABS often performed and which would not otherwise be
827, as applicable. picked up by the normal distribution of duplicate
samples, as well as selected duplicate concrete cubes.
Testing shall be carried out in accordance with TMH 1,
TMH 6 and COLTO requirements, or as specified by the Standard submissions
Senior Materials Engineer, who may require additional On receipt of monthly materials control data sheets
sampling or test methods or modifications to those laid prepared during construction control, the Senior
down in the above‐mentioned publications. Materials Engineer may call for further duplicate samples
to be submitted. If no such request is received by the
field laboratory within 90 days of the submission of the
In such an event and where a contract is involved, the
relevant materials control data sheet, the samples
additions and modifications must be specified in the
covered by such sheet may be discarded.
Project Specification.

DUPLICATE TESTING LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Destination For the sake of simplicity, the mean of the probability

All duplicate samples shall be delivered free of charge distribution is tested:
and without delay to the Roads Authority's Control
Laboratory in Windhoek. ∶ :| |
8.3.3 Preparation of samples ∶ :| |

Normally no preparation of samples for tests such as for
where
grading, Atterberg Constants, etc, is necessary. However,
in the case of duplicate samples for the determination of the population means of samples A
the MDD/OMC‐relationship, CBR, UCS, ACV, 10% FACT, and B respectively, and
etc, where the test specifies that the material must be the maximum systematic error
broken down or screened to a certain maximum size or permissible between the means
single fraction, this must be done by the field laboratory
If the null hypothesis (Ho) is true, then the differences
before the samples are submitted to the Control
between the test results of the two laboratories, A and B,
Laboratory.
are not significant.
After the initial preparation of the sample, the total
If the null hypothesis is not true then the alternative
sample must be quartered in two lots, one half for the
hypothesis (H1) holds which means that the differences
field laboratory and the other half for the Control
are significant.
Laboratory. Samples must be submitted in bags that are
undamaged and made of material that will prevent Since the population means are indeterminate, the
leakage of fine material from the sample. theory of small samples is applied.
On submission of the duplicate samples, the field The statistic ”t” as in the following formula has a
laboratory must also submit the results of testing on its STUDENT distribution,
half of the duplicate sample. Any samples submitted to
the Control Laboratory without the required │ │ √
documentation; or where the bags are unsuitable,
damaged or open, will not be accepted for testing by the
where
Control Laboratory and will be discarded. In the case of
field laboratories controlled by the Consultant, the latter the mean, and
is encouraged to carry out internal control by arranging the standard deviation of the set (A‐B)
duplicate testing between the field laboratory and the of difference with sample size N
Consulting Engineer's own central laboratory. Inter‐
laboratory testing must nevertheless be carried out The levels of significance to be adopted in testing the Ho
regularly between the site laboratory of the Consultant hypothesis are < 1 per cent for "not significant" and > 5
and that of the Contractor. per cent for "highly significant". Intermediate levels of
significance are considered to be "probably significant".
8.3.4 Duplicate testing between two laboratories
The value of E in Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical
Comparison of multiple samples analysis must be used for analysis of comparison test
To ensure that the test results obtained on works that results.
are financed in full or in part by the Roads Authority are
accurate and reliable, the test results obtained by the If the difference between two sets of results is
two laboratories are assessed on a statistical approach, considered to be "highly significant" the effects of such a
based on paired observations. difference must be investigated by the Consulting
Engineer in the case of projects where the field
The minimum number of samples shall not be less than laboratory is controlled by him, and by the Senior
six. Materials Engineer in other cases.

LABORATORY PROCEDURES DUPLICATE TESTING
LAYER PROPERTY E‐VALUE comparison tests should be performed in order to

Asphalt Densification resolve the matter.
Continuous Marshall: Compaction % 2,5
and gap
Density (kg/m3) 5,0
8.3.5 Comparison of Duplicate Samples
graded
Rice: Compaction (%) 1,7 Maximum Dry Density (MDD) Comparison
Density (kg/m )3
3,5 The absolute difference between duplicate MDD value
(kg/m³) should not exceed the following maximum
Grading: 9,5 mm 2,5
systematic error:
(% passing) 2,36 mm 1,5
0,30 mm 1,0 TYPE OF MATERIAL MAXIMUM STATISTICAL
(TRH 14: 1985 classification) ERROR (kg/m3)
0,075 mm 0,5
G1, G2 and G3 20
Binder content (%) 0,15
G4, G5 and G6 25
Voids in mix (%) 0,75
G7 and G8 30
Base Densification Compaction % 2,5
G9 and G10 35
Density (kg/m3) 40 Table 8‐2 : Maximum statistical error
Grading: 26,5 mm 2,5
If the absolute difference is greater than the maximum
(% passing) 19,0 mm 2,5 systematic error, then the test cannot be regarded as a
13,2 mm 2,0 duplicate with respect to MDD.
4,75 2,0
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) Comparison
2,0 2,0 The absolute difference between duplicate OMC values
0,475 mm 1,5 (per cent) should not exceed the following maximum
0,075 mm 1,0 systematic error:
Base & Atterberg: Liquid limit 1,0
Subbase 0,15
Plasticity limit 1,0
Plasticity index 2,0 where: OMC = value obtained by the Control Laboratory
Lin Shrinkage 0,5
Atterberg: If the absolute difference is greater than the maximum
systematic error, then the test cannot be regarded as a
Selected, & Lin shrinkage 1,0
Liquid limit 1,5 duplicate with respect to OMC. In this case the test must
Wearing
course Plasticity index 2,5 be repeated, using the remainder of the sample. The CBR
test cannot, in this case, be carried out.
Table 8‐1 : E‐values for statistical analysis
Firstly, the laboratory procedures and apparatus should California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
be checked in order to ascertain the cause of the The test may be regarded as acceptable with respect to
differing results and the matter rectified. duplicate CBR only if the minimum CBR conforms to the
specification and the absolute difference is less than the
Secondly, the effect on the quality of the material should
maximum systematic error.
be considered. Depending upon the order of magnitude
of the discrepancy, it may in some cases be necessary to 3 /65
re‐assess the quality of previously approved material.
Conversely, a re‐assessment of the material may be Where
necessary where the material has been assessed as "not
2,72
approved".
value obtained by Control Laboratory
If the difference between two sets of results is
considered to be "probably significant", additional
If the minimum CBR does not conform to the
specification, then the test cannot be regarded as

LABORATORY EQUIPMENT LABORATORY PROCEDURES
acceptable because the classification of the quality of the excavations. The correct procedures for the calibration
material is questionable. and use of these instruments must be followed.
Before any operator is allowed to use a nuclear

8.4 Laboratory equipment
apparatus he must prove that he is capable of operating
8.4.1 Non-nuclear equipment the instrument and is acquainted with all safety
All laboratory equipment must be approved by the Senior precautions.
Materials Engineer and be adequate to perform tests in
Records
accordance with TMH 1, or as specified by the Roads
Records must be kept of the monthly standard counts
Authority.
taken on the apparatus reference block.
Equipment such as proving rings, load cells and presses These readings must be taken with the reference block
shall be verified by the South African Bureau of Standards on the same spot every time. This data must be
(SABS). All equipment shall be recalibrated at least once submitted at the end of every month to the Senior
per year, at the site where the equipment is used. Material Engineer.
Calibration certificates shall be available for scrutiny

Daily standard readings prior to (four of four minutes)
during the inspection visits described in Section 8.6 of
and after (one of four minutes) the testing of a
this Manual.
construction test section shall be taken, before moving to
8.4.2 Nuclear Apparatus another test section remote from the first test section.
Registration and Verification The reference block of the apparatus must be placed on
All nuclear apparatus shall be registered by the Ministry the same spot when taking the counts before and after
of Health and Social Services before it is allowed on site. the testing of each test section.
Annual certificates issued by this Ministry which
8.4.3 Maintenance
authorise possession and transportation of nuclear
All laboratory equipment must be maintained so that it
equipment must be available on the site at all times. This
conforms to the specified requirements at all times.
certificate will be issued only if calibration and leak test
certificates had been obtained from an institution Sufficient spare capacity of consumables and items
accredited by SABS to carry out these tests and to issue subject to rapid wear or liable to be easily damaged shall
the related certificates. be kept in storage at the field laboratory so that no
holdup in the flow of testing occurs.
Before any nuclear apparatus is used for testing, it must
first be verified by the Roads Authority at its Control
Laboratory in Windhoek if so instructed by the Project 8.5 Laboratory Personnel
Control Engineer. Thereafter, it shall be calibrated at
8.5.1 General
least once per year as well as after each servicing and
The following system determines the degree of training
each time after it has been repaired.
required for technical personnel that carry out laboratory
and field work. This method of evaluation consists of
A responsible person shall be nominated in writing to the
three levels, ie Level I, Level II and Level III. In order to
Senior Materials Engineer for each construction site, such
qualify for the higher levels, the tester must carry out
person to be responsible for the safety, security, testing
more advanced testing and also be exposed to greater
and operation of all nuclear gauges used on that
responsibilities. To obtain any credit for the higher level
particular site.
the tester must first be successful in the lower levels.
The user of nuclear instruments is made aware that there 8.5.2 Evaluation
are certain limitations to the accuracy of test results The evaluation of each level is a twofold process. The
where nuclear instruments are used to measure moisture first phase evaluates the testers' ability to carry out the
content, density at different depths and density in practical part of a test while the second phase makes

LABORATORY PROCEDURES LABORATORY PERSONNEL
provision for extra credit when the tester can also do the TRAINING
CATEGORY REMARKS
computational part of that test, ie the tester must be VALUE “V”
General worker To qualify as Grade II 1
able to do the calculations, graphs, etc without the help
(labourer)
of a supervisor or computer program. A standard form To qualify as Grade III 2
shall be filled in by the training officer for each level. The Qualified as Grade III 4
explanation of and how to fill in columns is as follows: Technical Semi‐qualified 2
Assistant
Column A: The tester shall have carried out at least Fully qualified 5
the number of tests indicated in this Pupil Technician nd
Start with 2 year training 2
column to qualify for Level I.
rd
Column B: This column shows the values to be Start with 3 year training 5
entered in column C when the tester can
Fully trained 6
perform the test without any supervision.
Materials
No pro‐rata mark awards are allowed. Training sufficient 8
Technician
The numeric value depends on the
Chief Materials Registered, registerable or
complexity of the test. N/A
Technician well experienced
Column D: The value in this column is carried forward Table 8‐3 : Training value "V"
to column E when the tester can also
complete the computational aspect of the On the basis of the above paragraph a Chief Materials
test including graphs (where necessary) Technician should qualify to be registered, or be
without the help of a supervisor or
registered, with the Engineering Council of Namibia as at
computer program. No pro‐rata mark
awards are allowed. least an Engineering Technician, and/or must have
Total: The total equals the sum of the subtotals substantial experience in materials testing and
of columns C and E. This value is not construction supervision in the field of road construction,
transferable to other levels. in the opinion of the Senior Materials Engineer.
Training The training value (V) is based on a scale
Value: from 0 to 10. The V‐value depends on the 8.5.4 Standard evaluation forms
total scored for each level and, in the case Forms suitable for evaluating laboratory staff at various
of Level II or III, on that scored on the training levels are included in Annexure B of this Manual.
previous levels as well.
The symbols “t”, “o”, “d”, “m and “r”, as well as the
The total given minimum for Levels I and II as given is a
evaluation criteria and point system are explained on the
precondition for commencement of training on the next
standard evaluation forms in Annexure B.
level.
8.5.3 Minimum training level

The degree of training is measured on a training value
scale, 0 to 10. The minimum training values are given in
Table 8‐3 for the various staff categories.
If the registration of Materials Technicians is allowed by

the Engineering Council of Namibia, technicians should
be registered professionally with the said Council, or be
registered as in training, or should meet the
requirements of the Council for registration, and/or must
have sufficient materials testing experience in the field of
road construction, in the opinion of the Senior Materials
Engineer.

INSPECTING AND REPORTING LABORATORY PROCEDURES
Testing
8.6 Inspecting and Reporting
 methods
8.6.1 Inspections
 equipment
Field laboratories will, whenever possible, be inspected
 equipment calibration certificates
by the Senior Materials Engineer or his representative at
the beginning of the contract or project and at least once  sample register
per year thereafter. This inspection will cover testing
Quarries and Borrow Pits
facilities, equipment, procedures and personnel.
 roadbed and fills
Where a Consultant is involved in a project, he is
 selected layer
encouraged to be represented at such inspections by a
 subbase
senior staff member from his own central laboratory. In
 base
any event, he is required to conduct a similar inspection
 asphalt and seal aggregates
himself at least once per year, six months after the date
 concrete aggregates
of each inspection or intended inspection by the Senior
Materials Engineer. The Consultant remains responsible Miscellaneous Sources
for the correct and efficient operation of laboratories
under his control, irrespective of any inspections which  water
may be carried out by the Roads Authority's staff; and  cement
must plan the frequency of his inspections accordingly.
Control of Pavement Layers Including Design
8.6.2 Reporting
Following an inspection by the Roads Authority or the  roadbed and fills
Consultant’s staff, the findings of the inspection must be  selected layer
reported to the Resident Engineer and the deficiencies, if  subbase
any, must be corrected, all within 21 days of the  base
inspection.  asphalt and seals
 gravel wearing course
A copy of the inspection report must be sent to the
Senior Materials Engineer and the Resident Engineer Control of Concrete Works Including Design
must notify that official in writing as soon as the required
remedial measures have been completed.  No sub‐divisions
Pavement Special Tests

8.7 Administrative procedures  deflections
 permeabilities
8.7.1 Filing system
An orderly filing system must be created in the field  rut measurements
laboratory for each project. Although the Roads
8.7.2 Reporting
Authority does not lay down a mandatory subdivision
system for filing, the system adopted must be logical and Covering Letters
easily followed. The following suggested set of files has A covering letter relating to the submission of data or
been found to work adequately : duplicate samples must always be submitted and be
addressed to the Control Laboratory for the attention of
Admimistration the Senior Materials Engineer.
 general In the case of data submission, these covering letters
 correspondence shall state whether the results reflected on the sheets
 laboratory inspections comply with the specifications (standard and/or project)
 laboratory personnel or not. Any deviations from the specifications shall be
listed and acceptance of such work shall be motivated. If

LABORATORY PROCEDURES LABORATORY STATIONARY
such work has not been accepted, comments and

8.8 Laboratory Stationary
recommended remedial measures, where possible, shall
be given. 8.8.1 General
Although the use of laboratory forms and stationery
Should there be any doubt as to the appropriate action
bearing the logo and title of the Consultant is not
regarding acceptance, the matter must be referred to the
discouraged, the layout and content of the bench forms
Project Control Engineer, or the Senior Materials
and stationery must be of a similar layout and content
Engineer, as the case may be.
and carry the same Form Number to those used by the
Submission of Design Data Roads Authority.
Design data shall be forwarded to the Senior Materials
Submission forms for materials control data must be
Engineer.
identical to those specified by the Roads Authority, with
Progress Reporting of Control Test Results the logo of the Consultant entered in the space allowed
The results of control tests carried out on all accepted for this purpose. These can be downloaded from the
layers (including roadbed and bituminous surfacing) and website of the Roads Authority.
concrete cubes shall be recorded systematically on the
8.8.2 Retention of forms
Roads Authority's standard reporting sheets. Copies
All bench forms and/or books and a set of the final
progressively reflecting the acceptance control data
materials control data sheets must be retained by the
completed of work since the previous submission shall be
Consultant until one year after the end of the
submitted once a month. Results previously submitted
Maintenance or Defects Notification Period for the
shall be ruled through with a thin line on these copies.
project. Thereafter the Consultant may apply to the
Results of control tests on materials not accepted shall be Materials Engineer for permission to destroy these
reported on separate standardised forms if so instructed records, which shall not be done before the end of the
by the Roads Authority. In such cases appropriate spaces period specified by legislation. On receipt of written
should be left blank on the master‐copies for completion permission, the forms and records may be destroyed if
at a stage when the material is either accepted, suitably the Consultant so wishes.
replaced, or other remedial measures have been applied.
8.8.3 List of Standard Roads Authority Forms
In addition to the reporting of the results of acceptance A list of most of the materials Standard Forms in use by
control tests, the results of check tests carried out for the Roads Authority is included in Annexure C of this
quarries and borrow pits shall be reported on separate Manual.
standardised sheets conforming to the Roads Authority's
Where a form for a specific activity is not included in the
requirements.
list, the Consultant shall obtain this from the PCE if
Submission of master copies of completion data available, or prepare such a form in consultation with the
sheets Senior Materials Engineer, consistent with the format
Master copies of Completion Sheets on all projects shall used for the existing drawings.
be forwarded to the Senior Materials Engineer.
These sheets form part of the "as built" or records data

and must be submitted in draft form before the retention
of the Consultant's post‐construction services payment
relating to such data will be released, and in any event,
within 90 days of the issue of the Completion or Taking‐
Over Certificate to the Contractor.
The final data sheets must be submitted with any

comments received from the Roads Authority included,
within 30 days of the issue of the Handing‐Over
certificate at the end of the Defects Notification Period.

GENERAL CONTROL
9 CONTROL forms as required for the design stage. Remarks have

been added which form part of the procedures.
9.1 General The control test references for design verification and
control of constructed layers are provided in Annexure F
9.1.1 Specifications of the Construction Manual.
Prior to assessing the qualities of constituent materials
and/or structural components, it is imperative that the
qualities described under Materials Standards in Section
6 of this Manual, the Standard Specifications and Project
Specifications where applicable, be thoroughly studied.
Sampling and testing frequency, type of test, design

requirements, mandatory statistical controls, or
statistical controls used to augment engineering
judgement, must be identified.
9.1.2 Inspection
Geotechnical Aspects
Geotechnical aspects which would have been identified
during the initial phases of design or which may be
encountered during construction include:
 stability of cuttings
 stability of fills
 settlement of fills
 poor subgrades:
o collapsing soils
o expansive soils
o settlement of soft or loose materials
 high ground water tables
 subsurface drainage problems.
In order to adequately control, and if necessary revise,

design aspects related to identified geotechnical
problems and to identify new geotechnical problems
which may arise during construction, the Consultant shall
arrange that a suitably qualified and competent person
inspects the site, depending on the problems that may
be encountered.
Control Requirements
In general, sufficient quality control shall be exercised
during the design stage so as to avoid substandard
materials being used during construction. As a guide, the
references for the control tests of various material
components are given in the test data tables in Annexure
D of this Manual. The tables include reference numbers
of test methods, bench sheets, bench books and report

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MATERIALS

Published by the Roads Authority

The Chief Executive Officer

First Edition October 2014

2 Standard specifications and other documents

3 Materials in road pavements

4 Materials investigation for roadworks

5 Structural design of pavements

7 Materials design guidelines

 The planning, design, construction and maintenance of roads;

Geometrics Materials Structures Survey

Additional manuals, such as a Maintenance Manual, may in future be required.

The Procedures Manual

The manuals in general

with a copy to the Project Control Engineer.

Access to the manuals

MATERIALS MANUAL III

Ministry The Ministry of Works and Transport of the Government of Namibia

Guidelines for users of the manuals

Copyright of work done by the Consulting Engineer

The Procedures Manual................................................................................................................................................................ ii

Contents ..................................................................................................................................................................................... vii

Glossary of terms ...................................................................................................................................................................... xiv

Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................................................ xiv

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1‐1

2 Standard specifications and other documents ........................................................................................................ 2‐3

2.4 TMH documents ........................................................................................................................................................... 2‐4

MATERIALS MANUAL VII

2.5 UTG documents ............................................................................................................................................................ 2‐4

2.6 Other design guidelines ................................................................................................................................................ 2‐5

3 Materials in road pavements ................................................................................................................................. 3‐6

3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 3‐6

3.3 Pavement behaviour .................................................................................................................................................... 3‐7

3.6 Structure of manual...................................................................................................................................................... 3‐8

4 Materials investigation for roadworks ................................................................................................................... 4‐9

4.1 Centreline materials survey .......................................................................................................................................... 4‐9

4.2 General requirements for borrowpits ......................................................................................................................... 4‐11

4.3 Fill and Selected borrowpits ....................................................................................................................................... 4‐12

4.4 Subbase and shoulder borrowpits .............................................................................................................................. 4‐12

VIII MATERIALS MANUAL

4.6.2 Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 4‐14

4.7 Aggregate for bituminous surfacing .......................................................................................................................... 4‐14

4.11 Structural design and materials usage ....................................................................................................................... 4‐15

4.13 Inspection of quarries and borrowpits ....................................................................................................................... 4‐16

4.14 Water Investigations .................................................................................................................................................. 4‐17

5 Structural design of pavements ........................................................................................................................... 5‐18

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 5‐18

5.2 Design of flexible pavements...................................................................................................................................... 5‐18

5.3 Design of rigid pavements .......................................................................................................................................... 5‐20

6 Materials Standards ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐21

6.2 Fill, Roadbed and Selected Layer ................................................................................................................................ 6‐21

6.3.2 Untreated materials ........................................................................................................................................... 6‐22

6.9 Aggregates for Concrete ............................................................................................................................................ 6‐28

7 Materials design guidelines ................................................................................................................................. 7‐30

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 7‐30

7.2 Bituminous Surfacing ‐ General .................................................................................................................................. 7‐30

7.5.3 Aggregate ........................................................................................................................................................... 7‐33

7.6 13/6mm Double Seal .................................................................................................................................................. 7‐34

7.9 Modified Cape Seal ..................................................................................................................................................... 7‐38